LANDFORM STUDIES

INTRODUCTION
-Landforms are a result of two kinds of forces;
a) Internal forces- those operating within/inside the earth
- these are folding, faulting and volcanic activities
- these forces causes landforms such as; mountains, plateaus, ridges, valleys, hills, rift
valleys
etc
b) External forces- those operating from outside the earth.
- these are weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition of eroded material.
- the forces do not form but only modify landforms that are so made by the internal forces.

STRUCTURE/LAYERS OF THE EARTH

-the earth is a sphere which is slightly flattened at the poles.
-is made up of different and almost concentric layers namely; CRUST, MANTE & CORE

CRUST [oceanic & continental

crusts] (40km)

MANTLE (2900km)

CORE [inner & outer core] (3400km)

1] Crust (Lithosphere)
- it extends up to about 40km downwards
-made up of 2 layers;
a) continental crust (granitic layer)
-mostly composed of granite rock which is rich in silica and aluminium (SIAL). Forms on
continents
b) oceanic crust (basaltic layer)
-mainly composed of basalt rock.
-rich in silica and magnesium (SIMA) and forms over oceans
-it is located below continental crust as it is heavier due to a larger composition of the
magnesium elements
-oceans form over oceanic crust
-there is a clear break or discontinuity of rock features between oceanic crust and mantle
-the discontinuity is called the Mohorovisic discontinuity
2] Mantle (Mesosphere)
-estimated to be around 2900km thick front h crust extending downwards
-made up of olivine rocks consisting of iron and magnesium (FEMA)
-the mantle is separated from the next layer by a sharp break known as Guternberg
discontinuity

3] Core (Centrosphere/Barysphere)
-is divided into 2 layers and it is approximately 3400km (combined) in depth
-the core comprise of rocks that are rich in nickel & iron (NIFE)
a) Outer core
-is in liquid/molten state
b) Inner core
-it is in semi-solid state.

THEORIES FOR THE PRESENT FORM OF EARTH

-following theories have been put in place to explain the current distribution of the earth’s
continents and oceans
1] Continental drift theory (Alfred Wegner)
-a theory which state that present day continents were once a single landmass known as
Pangea
-the supercontinent later broke into 2 main pieces along a fault line and drifted away from
each other. The spaces were then covered with water form oceans.
-the southern block was called Gondwanaland which consists of present day Africa,
Australia, South America
-the northern block was called Laurasia which comprises of present day North America, Asia,
Europe.

Evidence in support of the theory

1) -There is perfect fitting of the continents if they are to be brought together.
-the jigsaw fit shows that the continents were once joined.
2) -similarity between flora, fauna and geological formation of the studied western parts
of
Africa & eastern parts of South America.
3) - paleomagnetic dating of rocks along the mid-Atlantic ridge. The earth’s magnetic
field
reverses itself between north and south poles therefore the minerals within erupted
magma
align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field. The alignment was found to be
corresponding.

2] Plate Tectonic Theory

- In brief the theory highlights that the earth is made up of rigid plates (oceanic &continental
plates) which moves slowly and associate in various ways. Some collide, some move away
from each other and as such create the present distribution of today’s continents and oceans.

PLATE TECTONICS

Definition
-refers to study of the mobility of the different plates which make up earth’s crust.

Types of Plates
-two types of plates exist namely:
a) Continental plates
- African plate - South American plate
-Eurasian plate - North American plate - Australian plate

b) Oceanic plates
- pacific plate
- Indian plate
- Atlantic plate

World map showing distribution of world Tectonic plates

[Bunnett pg 16 or Geo Today pg 8]

Plate margins/boundaries and associated Landforms

-plates are rigid as such they move above the mantle.
-as they move they may collide, slide past each or diverge thereby forming certain landforms
-following are types of plate margins or boundaries and resultant landforms

1] Divergent/Spreading/Constructive plate margins

- occurs when continental plates moves away from each other or when a continental mass is
broken and pulled apart but

a) divergent between 2 continental plate margins

- as the plates diverge a gap/trench is created and is immediately filled/ occupied by
water to form oceans.
- Molten rock material (magma) from the mantle fills up the gap created. This creates a
ridge at the middle of the ocean.
- Continued spreading of the plates results in widening of the gap between continents.
This results in the formation of the sea floor
- Landforms associated with diverging of two continental plates are; a)mid-oceanic ridge
(Mid –Atlantic ridge between Africa and America) b) seafloor
-
[diagram; bunnett pg 17 fig 2.6]
 b) divergent of one continental plate
- occurs when plates diverts under a continent
- the tensional force of moving plates produces cracks (faults) leading to the gradual
breaking of the continent.
- the area becomes a low lying area and is called rift valley. Sometimes the rift valley is
occupied by water thereby forming a sea or river of considerable length
- an example is the Great East African valley. River Nile is a product of such formation.

[diagram; bunnett pg 18 fig 2.7]

2] Convergent/Destructive plate margins

- This is when plates move towards each other.
-an area where plates move towards each other is called convergent zone/ subduction zone
- This collision of plates can cause earthquakes and some volcanic eruptions
- it referred to as destructive sometimes because some material of the crust is destroyed in
the mantle
a) Oceanic and continental plate
- As they collide/converge the denser or heavier oceanic plate subsides into the mantle.
-the continental plates rises above the oceanic plate since it contains lighter rock materials.
It folds to produce fold mountains.
-the subducted oceanic plate is heated in the mantle and convects/rises to the top resulting
in the formation of volcanic islands in the ocean
-when the two plates collide (at subduction zone) they form a depression known as oceanic
trench. It is the deepest part of the oceans
-an example of an oceanic trench is Peru trench due to the collision of South American &
Pacific plates

[Diagram; Bunnet ]
b) continental and continental
-when the two plates collide they fold upwards.
-they are made up of same elements (SIAL) and therefore have same densities
-as they fold upwards they form a series of mountains/ mountain ranges
-an example of this collision is the collision of African plate (northern part) and Eurasian
plate (southern part). The fold mountains are referred to as Alps in Europe & Atlas mountains
in Africa

[Diagram Bunnett ]

3] Shearing Plates
-this when plates move past each other or when plates move parallel to each other along a
fault line
-such plate movement causes earth quakes
FOLDING AND FAULTING

Folding
-it is the bending of the strata (rock layer) within the crust
-the movement is due to internal compressional forces (forces which move horizontally
towards each other)
*NB-strength of compressional forces is not always uniform thereby bringing about different
types of folds i.e. simple and complex ones
-an Anticline is an upfold of rock layers. This results in formation of ridges
- a Syncline a downfold of rock layers. This results in formation of valleys/ low lands
- arms which extend away from a region of fold is called a fold limb
Types of Folds
1) Symmetrical
-occurs when a rock is compressed by forces of equal strength
-the crustal rock is forced to move upwards forming folds
-the folds formed have equal sides/limbs in terms of steepness.
-the term symmetrical refer to items which are identical and equal in this case on the gradient
of the limbs
-this association of forces with the same magnitude produce a simple fold (symmetrical fold)
2) Asymmetrical
-occurs when symmetrical compressional forces are unequal
-the side where the force is greater produce a gentle limb than the weaker side resulting in a
bend
-the limbs produced have different angle of inclination hence are referred to as
asymmetrical/unequal.
-on the diagram below, force B is greater than force A so limb B will push towards limb A
(weaker side) leading to steepening of limb A.
-this association of different magnitude of forces produces bendfold or asymmetrical fold
Diagram

3) Overfold
-this is a progression from an asymmetrical fold
-on the diagram, as force B continues to push force A further, limb B will
override limb A creating an overfold in the process.
4) Overthrust
- a type of fold whereby one limb (with A STRONGER FORCE) is thrust/pushed forward
over the other (with the weaker force) leading to fracturing/ breaking of the rock strata
-the type of fold is also referred to as thrust fault as it involves a line of fracture due to
excessive compression of one limb.
Diagram

5) Recumbent fold
Faulting
- it is the fracturing or breaking of rocks which are hard and brittle
 - faults are caused either by lateral (horizontal movement) or vertical (up and down
stresses) forces of tension or compression
- NB- compressional forces are those that move towards each other whereas tensional are
forces which move away from each other leading to fracturing of rocks

Types of faults
a) Normal fault
- is a product of tension of blocks along a fault line
-as forces pull apart te middle block is forced to slump or sink resulting in a low land in
between
-this slumping of the middle block result in the formation of a rift valley or graben
-the length of the escarpment is called a heaveas shown on the diagram
b) Reverse fault
- this is a product of compressional forces over blocks along a fault line
-the forces compress the utter block resulting the upthrow of the middle block in bettwen
-the uplifted block forms a mountain-like feature or upland known as Horst or block
mountain
c) Tear fault
- This is a product of shearing forces or lateral movement of forces along a fault line
- -this causes blocks to move past each other or sliding.
Effects of Faulting
-the resultant processes of faulting have got a bearing on human activities
-an influence or effect can be negative or positive
a) power generation
-when a fault occurs along a river course a waterfall is created
- the feature can be used to harness electricity from the flowing water.
b) tourism
-also the waterfalls acts as tourist attraction center eg Vic falls, Mtarazi falls in Manicaland
c) agriculture
-there is reduced water supply when the river changes in course due to disturbances posed by
waterfall.
-there is increased flow of water along the area where the river flows to after waterfall

VULCANICITY
-it is a process by which molten rock material from within the earth is forced into the crust or
finds its way to the surface.

Terms
 Magma- molten rock material found beneath the surface. When magma solidifies in
forms intrusive features (to be learned in following section)
 Lava- molten rock material found on the earth’s surface. It is a result of extrusion of
magma onto the surface. When lava solidifies it produces extrusive landforms(as noten
in following section)
-when a vulcanicity occurs intrusive and extrusive landforms are produced.
A] INTRUSIVE LANDFORMS

-when magma from the mantle finds its way into the crust through cracks (created through
folding&fualting) it solidifies and forms various landforms.
-the landforms/features produced will appear on the surface as a result of denudation
processes
-the landforms are rocks and belong to the igneous type of rocks (Sometimes these landforms
can be referred to as igneous intrusions)
-the landforms depend on the nature of joints/cracks/spaces in the crust. This can be
horizontal, vertical or inclined to the bedding planes.

-5 prominent intrusive landforms are noted as follows;

1) Batholiths – these are very large deep seated and domeshaped features
- which are also bottomless
-they have a smooth rounded top.
-they have less cracks and joins
-when exposed to the surface through erosion they are then referred to as Dwala
or Ruware.
-an example is the massive Domboshava hill located some few kilometers from
Harare along
Mazowe road.

2) Sill – these are horizontal intrusions along bedding planes of crustal rocks
##NB- Bedding planes are horizontal layers of sediments which are
compacted/cemented with time
-when we have space along bedding planes magma may find its way into the spaces
and solidifies.
-This results in the formation of a horizontal feature which has become to be known as
the sill.
-when exposed to the surface sills form flat topped hills/ mountains due to the
protective cap of
the resistant sill to denudation process.
-sills can also be found to exist in series.
- after exposed to the surface in river valley escarpments they produce spectacular
waterfalls as
In the case of Nyanga.

3) Dyke – these are vertical or inclined intrusions across bedding planes of crustal rocks.
-cracks can be vertical or inclined and magma certainly finds its way into the space
and solidifies
thereby producing dykes.
 -when exposed to erosive agents, they form a depression when material is prone to
weathering
or a ridge when material is resistant to weathering.

4) Laccolith -they have flat bases and rounded top

- it is formed when magma is intruded in large quantities from a fissure/crack
forcing the
Sedimentary rock bed to curve upwards
5) Lapolith – saucer shaped igneous intrusion
- in this case magma intrusion moves horizontally along bedding planes and
forms a
basin-like structure
-rich in mineral deposits such chrome and asbestos
- great dyke is such an example
*NB- Igneous rocks provides with gravel for road construction, quarry stones, valuable
minerals , beautiful scenery etc
B] EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS (VOLCANOES)
-As magma erupts onto the surface mountain-like features are produced which are known as
volcanic cones OR a continued process of magma eruption onto the surface (lava) results in
accumulation of the erupted material which forms volcanic cones.
LIFE CYCLE OF A VOLCANO
-all volcanoes pass through a cycle of series of activity in its eruption phase
-3 phases/stages constitutes this cycle i.e.
1) active
-this is when volcanoes erupt very frequently
-or they can b called active when a volcano has erupted in recent time
-Mount Cameroon is one such an example
2) dormant
-this is when a volcano has not erupted for a long time but showing signs of eruption
-the signs include, gas emissions, some liquid pouring out of the vent of fissure
3) Extinct
-these are volcanoes which do not show any signs/ activity that eruption might take place.
-Basically there are 3 types of volcanic cones namely; Acid cones, Shield cone &
Composite cone.

TYPES OF VOLCANIC CONES

A] Shield cone / Lava cone
-this is a volcanic mountain that is built almost entirely of lava flow.
-the shape of a shield cone is rounded like a real shield is.
-the slopes vary from being steep to gentle depending on the material constituting the lava
-Due to the different lava flow material we then have 2 types of Lava cones which are FLUID
lava cone and ACID lava cone.
(1) Fluid lava cone/ Shield - this is made up of fluid lava flow which easily flow forming
gently sloping sides of the cone.
-their base is wider extending hundreds of kilometers
[DIAGRAM pg. 45 Bunnett]
(2) Acid lava cones – this is made up of viscous (thick) lava which does not easily flow
thus producing a steep sided cone.
- their base is small as compared to fluid lava cone.
[DIAGRAM pg. 45 Bunnett]
NB Sometimes the lavas are so viscous (thick) such that when they are forced out of the pipe
they solidify to form a plug-dome which may completely block the vent. As denudation takes
place the cone can be eaten up/ destroyed leaving behind the resistant lava rock as a plug.
[DIAGRAM -5LINES]
B] Ash and Cinder cone / Acid cone
-these are volcanic mountains that are built entirely of volcanic cinders and ash.
##-ash and cinder are small fragments of blotted and blown lava.
-when lava is blown in the atmosphere during a violent eruption, it splits into small pieces
and falls down and piles up thereby building a cone of that nature (ash &cinder cone).
-they are small (compared to the ones above) and have steep sides.
[DIAGRAM pg. 44 Bunnett]
C] Composite cone
- is formed of alternate layers of lava flow and volcanic ash/cinders.
-Slopes to the either side of the vent are symmetrical (identical).
- as regards to its formation, it is known that a volcano begins each eruption with great
violence forming a layer of ash. As violent eruption stops, lava starts to pour out forming its
own layer of lava on top of ash layer.
-a continued process of this action produces a composite cone.
-on the other hand, lava may also find its way out to the surface along fault lines/cracks
within the cone. This results in the formation of small cones called conelets over the side of
the main cone.
 [DIAGRAM pg. 44/45-Bunnett]

CALDERA
-it is an enlarged crater/a huge crater-like depression.
*NB- crater is a shallow depression which surrounds the exit of the vent/pipe.
Formation of a Caldera
-it is formed either by;
(1) Violent eruption- composite volcano sometimes explodes violently.
.-When this happens the top part is blown off into small fragments and ashes leaving
behind an enlarged crater (caldera).
(2) or Subsidence – occurs when the vent/pipe possesses less magma often after a major
eruption.
-the top part of the cone becomes heavy, unbalanced and unsupported hence it collapses
or sinks inside thereby creating a huge crater than before which is referred to as a caldera [pg.
46].
*NB-caldera may be filled with water forming a lake e.g. Lake Bosumtwi (Ghana), Crater
Lake (USA), and Lake Toba (Indonesia).
FISSURE ERUPTIONS & RESULTANT FEATURES
-they are not as violent as eruptions taking place through a vent/pipe.
-they occur along fault lines within a major cone forming conelets as mentioned earlier on.
-eruption of magma along a fissure is quiet and spreads to the surrounding area.
-features produced include;
(a)lava plateaus-these are high and fairly level features of lava accumulation.
(b)lava plain-these are low level gentle features produced by limited lava flow over an
extensive area.
(c)lava flow- a continuous flow of lava from a conelets.
*NB- Hot springs and Geysers are also features of volcanic activity but involve super-heated
water as opposed to molten rock material. HOTSPRINGS form when super-heated water
from beneath flows quietly onto the surface and over. The feature is used as a tourist
attraction as well as for ‘medicinal’ purposes. GEYSERS are formed when heated water is
ejected with great pressure into the air, usually accompanied by steam.
*NB- volcanic active areas are largely confined to plate margins/boundaries and major fault
zones.
EFFECTS OF FOLDING.FAULTING AND VULCANISM

Merits
-folded mountain ranges positively influence rainfall amounts and agriculture. Windward
sides of mountain regions such as Eastern Highlands, Drankensberg receive higher
rainfall enabling farmers to diversify in their economic activity.
-volcanic mountains such as Kilimanjaro contain an extensive area of fertile soils around
them which are suitable for agriculture.
-geothermal power works in the same way other sources of power (HEP, TEP). The
super-heated water from geysers can be harnessed to produce geothermal power. It is also
one of the environmentally friendly energy.
-Both hot springs and geysers are tourist attraction centers and foreign currency can be
generated. New Zealand is famous for its hot springs and in Zimbabwe we have
Nyanyadzi hot springs near Birchenough Bridge.
-igneous rocks are rich in minerals. The great dyke of Zimbabwe houses chrome, iron ore,
gold, asbestos etc.
-great east African rift valley contains a series of Lakes which are a source of fish (food),
recreation and tourist centers. Such Lakes include Lake Tanganyika, Rudolf etc.
Demerits
-untimeous volcanic eruptions often lead to death and injury of thousands of people.
-volcanic eruptions especially the fluid type distorts the ecosystem’s balance as it destroys
vegetation and fauna.
-earthquakes results in destruction of property, loss of life (the 2011 Japan).
-mountain ranges creates barriers for construction of communication lines.
-they also leads to lower rainfall along the leeward side of the range thus negatively
impacting on agriculture. This is in the case of creation of block mountains/ horsts.
*NB- to minimize the adverse effects of volcanoes early warning systems have to be put
into effect (hence need to invest in research, development, training and communication).
In case of earthquakes construction of buildings which are strong enough to withstand the
shocks or those that can absorb the shock waves or even constructing buildings with light
material such as wood as in the case of California to reduce impacts of hurricanes. (Japan
is leading in this technology).

EARTHQUAKES

-These are sudden earth movements/vibrations/shocks which occur in the crust.

-these shocks results in breaking of the earth’s surface/ground
-The process is made possible by internal forces of folding and faulting.
 -Volcanic activity is also a cause of the movements
-the extent to which the earthquake occurs is determined by the force/magnitude/size of
internal movements (foldings&faulting) i.e. the greater the internal movement is the
greater the earthquake.
Key Words
 Focus – is the point from which the earthquake (vibration) begins. Therefore this
point is located beneath the surface.
 Epicenter – it is the point/place on the surface above the focus. It is where the
shock waves first hit the surface.
 Seismograph – instrument which records the intensity of an earthquake. Intensity
of an earthquake is measured by vibrations/tremors/shockwaves.
 Richter scale – a scale which records the total amount of energy released by an
earthquake. [amount of energy released = magnitude]. The scale is calibrated
from 1 to 9. And 0 representing no movement, 9 for the most severe movement.
*NB-the R scale is used in the same manner as the Beaufort scale

EARTHQUAKE ZONES
-they are a common feature over plate margins
*NB-both volcanic activities and earthquakes are distributed along plate margins as shown on
diagram below
[DIAGRAM Bunnett pg. 40]
-they occur around mid-oceanic ridges (Mid Atlantic ridge between African and South
American plates), volcanic islands (Japan and other South- East Asian islands) and along
regions of crustal compression (convergent of North Africa and Southern Parts of Europe)

NATURE/FORMS OF EATHQUAKES
-As indicated earlier on earthquakes are a result of shock waves from the place of origin
(focus) up to the epicenter.
-there are 2 types of these shockwaves as follows;
a) Body Waves
-are waves that travel to the surface from the epicenter.
-there are 2 sub-types of BWaves;
 Primary waves- they cause crustal rocks to move back and forth (forward and
backwards)
  Secondary waves-they cause crustal rocks to move side to side, that is, at right angle
to the wave movement.
b) Surface waves
-are waves or shocks that travel over the surface causing rocks and other structures to shack
sideways.
-2 sub-types of SWaves are noted as well;
 Love waves (L-waves)- results in surface rocks and other structures to move sideways
at right angle to the wave direction.
 Rayleigh waves (R-waves) - cause surface rocks and other structures to move in a
vertical circular movement. (same as water waves do).
*NB- Only the Surface waves results in the destruction of the environment or what is on the
ground and the surroundings (flora, fauna and infrastructure and us included)

WEATHERING
FOCUS AREAS
 Definition of terms
 Types of weathering and differences and relationships among them (chem, mech &
bio)
 Factors affecting weathering (rate and type)
 Weathering processes; physical, chemical and biological processes.
 Weathering type in different regions
DEFINITIONS
 Weathering- is the breaking down [decomposition/disintegration] of rocks in situ.
-this is necessitated by physical, chemical and biological means
 In-situ means in one position or with no movement, therefore the process of
weathering occurs on the same position.
 Erosion is the washing away of loose/detached rock material (soil in particular)
 Weathering and erosion differ in that, the former occurs at one position/with no
movement and the latter involves transportation/movement of weathered material.
 Denudation is the composite/complex process of weathering, erosion/transportation
and deposition of weathered rock material.
TYPES OF WEATHERING
-There are 3 types of weathering namely; physical, chemical and biological
1] Physical or Mechanical weathering
-the breaking down of rocks by physical or mechanical means into boulders or blocks
-there are no changes to the composition of rock under physical weathering. The rock
changes in size only.
2] Chemical weathering
-the breaking down of rocks by chemical means into fine particles
-the rocks weathered change in their chemical compositions.
-this process results in the formation of soil.
3] Biological weathering
-breaking down of rocks by plant and animal action.
-this weathering type often involves both chemical and mechanical means of weathering

Relationships of weathering types

-generally physical weathering results in the breaking down of rocks into large pieces known
as blocks. Chemical on the other hand results in weathering of rocks into small particles.
-chemical weathering occurs after physical weathering and results in the formation of soil
(complete weathered material). An example is when underground rocks are exposed to the
surface by Pressure release and processes like Oxidation, carbonation, hydrolysis then takes
place.
-biological weathering occurs with the involvement of either physical or chemical
weathering. In that way bio-weathering can be bio-physically or bio-chemically induced
weathering.
- physical weathering occurs on exposed rocks or surface rocks but chemical weathering
attacks both hidden and uncovered rocks.
WEATHERING PROCESSES
-Weathering processes are either Physical/ Mechanical, Chemical or biological
1] Physical processes
(a) Thermal expansion and contraction/ insolation- temperature changes from high to low
results in the expansion and contraction of rocks. Continuity of these alternating temperatures
results in the fracturing/breaking of rocks. This type of fracturing is called exfoliation
whereby the rock peels off.
(b) Hydration. Sometimes referred to as wetting and drying of rocks. Some rocks are soft that
they absorb water and they expand as they soak the water. When it is dry the water
evaporates and the rock becomes dry. This alternating wetting and drying results in the
breaking of rocks. In this case the rock composition is not changed hence it becomes
mechanical weathering.(when the rock mineral composition does not react with this
water a physical weathering process will be at play; in that scenario the process of
hydration can be both physical or chemical)
(c) Pressure release – the process is also known as unloading. Under this process overlying
material (not rocks) are removed and this causes the underlying rocks to expand and fracture
parallel to the surface. From the knowledge of Intrusive landforms these rocks are formed
beneath the surface and under great pressure of the material above them.
(d) Freeze-thaw/ Frost weathering – this is effected by freezing and thawing of water in rock
cracks due to temperatures which fluctuates above and below freezing point. The process
usually occurs in alpine/mountainous areas and periglacial areas. As water freezes it expands
by approximately 10% in its volume this widens the crack. As it thaws/melts more water
penetrates and freezes as temperatures go below freezing point. A continuation of this process
results in the breaking of rocks
(e) Salt crystallization- This process works in the same manner as Frost weathering the
difference is that salt crystals are involved as saline solution evaporates it leaves salt crystals
behind as opposed to water freezing
2] Chemical processes
(a) Oxidation –this is whereby rocks are weathered through addition of oxygen and water to
rock metals(minerals such as iron). Oxides are produced under this process such as hematite.
The rocks weathered by this process turns into a reddish-brown color on the surface and this
weakens the rock. The process is better known as ‘rusting’
(b) Carbonation – the process operates on soft rocks such as limestone and chalk which
contain calcium carbonate. This takes place when rain combines with carbon dioxide (or
organic/humic acid)to form a weak carbonic acid. This carbonic acid reacts with limestone
(calcium carbonate) and forms calcium bicarbonate. This is a chemical change and
decomposition of limestone rocks.
(c) Hydrolysis- hydrogen in water reacts with mineral ions to form a new compound. In this
case when a rock is exposed to water below the surface the hydrogen in water will react with
free mineral ions within the rock thereby producing a completely new compound. As an
example Felspur in granite reacts with hydrogen to form clay-
# this process effectively operates underground resulting in the creation of castle kopjes (this
is known as deep weathering)
(d) Solution-
(e) Hydration
f) Pollution –this is the form of chemical weathering and it incorporates chemicals from
pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide among others. This chemicals produce
weak acids such as sulphuric acids, carbonic acids when they blend with water forming
process in the atmosphere. These acids are corrosive to rocks, buildings, roof tiles, roads etc
3] Biological processes
(a) plant action
(b) animal action

FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING

-the type and rate at which rocks decompose depend on a number of factors such as rock
type (igneous, sedimentary), rock hardness (nature), chemical composition of rocks and
others.
1) climate- is the main factor which solely determine the rate and type of weathering of rocks
at a location.
-rainfall amount and temperature determine the vegetation of an area. And these 3 climatic
elements determine weathering rate and type
- alternating temperatures promote weathering by insolation/thermal expansion process. And
this is typical of a hot desert climate with little rainfall. The type of weathering occurring
would be physical
- more rainfall promotes dense vegetation growth as in the tropical and equatorial climatic
regions. The type of weathering can vary from purely biological or bio-chemical weathering
(plant action, solution) and chemical (hydrolysis, hydration, oxidation).
- in cold regions/climate freeze- thaw process is common as water freezes thereby increase in
volume leading to widening of cracks.
- in equatorial climate chemical and biological weathering take place. Physical weathering is
limited as the rocks are not often exposed for physical processes to occur. There is dense
vegetation cover which in-turn protect the soil from eroding hence rocks are set to decompose
underground by action of humic acids.
-in savanna climate there is a balance of the three weathering types as a result of seasons.
However there is a limit to some processes e.g. freeze thaw.
**NB-high temperatures speeds up the rate of chemical reactions therefore chemical
weathering is affected by temperature
LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WEATHERING
-Castle kopjes
-bornhadt
-dwala

-etc
Physical Geography
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysi
cal/chapter/weathering-processes/ 19/9/19.
Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition

Weathering Processes
Weathering is the process that changes solid rock into sediments. With weathering, rock is
disintegrated into smaller pieces. Once these sediments are separated from the rocks, erosion
is the process that moves the sediments away from it’s original position. The four forces of
erosion are water, wind, glaciers, and gravity. Water is responsible for most erosion. Water
can move most sizes of sediments, depending on the strength of the force. Wind moves sand-
sized and smaller pieces of rock through the air. Glaciers move all sizes of sediments, from
extremely large boulders to the tiniest fragments. Gravity moves broken pieces of rock, large
or small, down slope. These forces of erosion will be covered later.While plate tectonics
forces work to build huge mountains and other landscapes, the forces of weathering and mass
wasting gradually wear those rocks and landscapes away, called denudation. Together with
erosion, tall mountains turn into hills and even plains. The Appalachian Mountains along the
east coast of North America were once as tall as the Himalayas.

No human being can watch for millions of years as mountains are built, nor can anyone
watch as those same mountains gradually are worn away. But imagine a new sidewalk or
road. The new road is smooth and even. Over hundreds of years, it will completely disappear,
but what happens over one year? What changes would you see? What forces of weathering
wear down that road, or rocks or mountains over time?

Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering, breaks rock into smaller pieces.
These smaller pieces are just like the bigger rock, just smaller. That means the rock has
changed physically without changing its composition. The smaller pieces have the same
minerals, in just the same proportions as the original rock.There are many ways that rocks
can be broken apart into smaller pieces. Ice wedging, also called freeze-thaw weathering, is
the main form of mechanical weathering in any climate that regularly cycles above and below
the freezing point. Ice wedging works quickly, breaking apart rocks in areas with
temperatures that cycle above and below freezing in the day and night, and also that cycle
above and below freezing with the seasons.Ice wedging breaks apart so much rock that large
piles of broken rock are seen at the base of a hillside called talus. Ice wedging is common in
Earth’s polar regions and mid latitudes, and also at higher elevations, such as in the
mountains. Abrasionis another form of mechanical weathering. In abrasion, one rock bumps
against another rock.

 Gravity causes abrasion as a rock tumbles down a mountainside or cliff.

  Moving water causes abrasion as particles in the water collide and bump against one
another.
 Strong winds carrying pieces of sand can sandblast surfaces.
 Ice in glaciers carries many bits and pieces of rock. Rocks embedded at the bottom of
the glacier scrape against the rocks below.
 Abrasion makes rocks with sharp or jagged edges smooth and round. If you have ever
collected beach glass or cobbles from a stream, you have witnessed the work of
abrasion.

Now that you know what mechanical weathering is, can you think of other ways it could
happen? Plants and animals can do the work of mechanical weathering. This could happen
slowly as a plant’s roots grow into a crack or fracture in rock and gradually grow larger,
wedging open the crack. Burrowing animals can also break apart rock as they dig for food or
to make living spaces for themselves.

Mechanical weathering increases the rate of chemical weathering. As rock breaks into
smaller pieces, the surface area of the pieces increases. With more surfaces exposed, there are
more surfaces on which chemical weathering can occur.

Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is the other important type of weathering. Chemical weathering is
different from mechanical weathering because the rock changes, not just in size of pieces, but
in composition. That is, one type of mineral changes into a different mineral. Chemical
weathering works through chemical reactions that cause changes in the minerals.Most
minerals form at high pressure or high temperatures deep in the crust, or sometimes in the
mantle. When these rocks reach the Earth’s surface, they are now at very low temperatures
and pressures. This is a very different environment from the one in which they formed and
the minerals are no longer stable. In chemical weathering, minerals that were stable inside the
crust must change to minerals that are stable at Earth’s surface.Remember that the most
common minerals in Earth’s crust are the silicate minerals. Many silicate minerals form in
igneous or metamorphic rocks deep within the earth. The minerals that form at the highest
temperatures and pressures are the least stable at the surface. Clay is stable at the surface and
chemical weathering converts many minerals to clay. There are many types of chemical
weathering because there are many agents of chemical weathering. Water is the most
important agent of chemical weathering. Two other important agents of chemical weathering
are carbon dioxide and oxygen.

Chemical Weathering by Water

A water molecule has a very simple chemical formula, H2O, two hydrogen atoms bonded to
one oxygen atom. But water is pretty remarkable in terms of all the things it can do. Water is
a polar molecule; the positive side of the molecule attracts negative ions and the negative side
attracts positive ions. So water molecules separate the ions from their compounds and
surround them. Water can completely dissolve some minerals, such as salt. Hydrolysis is the
name of the chemical reaction between a chemical compound and water. When this reaction
takes place, water dissolves ions from the mineral and carries them away. These elements
have undergone leaching. Through hydrolysis, a mineral such as potassium feldspar is
leached of potassium and changed into a clay mineral. Clay minerals are more stable at the
Earth’s surface.

Chemical Weathering by Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with water as raindrops fall through the atmosphere. This
makes a weak acid, called carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is a very common in nature where it
works to dissolve rock. Pollutants, such as sulfur and nitrogen, from fossil fuel burning,
create sulfuric and nitric acid. Sulfuric and nitric acids are the two main components of acid
rain, which accelerate chemical weathering.

Chemical Weathering by Oxygen

Oxidation is a chemical reaction that takes place when oxygen reacts with another element.
Oxygen is very strongly chemically reactive. The most familiar type of oxidation is when
iron reacts with oxygen to create rust. Minerals that are rich in iron break down as the iron
oxidizes and forms new compounds. Iron oxide produces the red color in soils.Now that you
know what chemical weathering is, can you think of some other ways chemical weathering
might occur? Chemical weathering can also be contributed to by plants and animals. As plant
roots take in soluble ions as nutrients, certain elements are exchanged. Plant roots and
bacterial decay use carbon dioxide in the process of respiration.

Influences on Weathering
Rock and Mineral Type
Weathering rates depend on several factors. These include the composition of the rock and
the minerals it contains as well as the climate of a region. Different rock types weather at
different rates. Certain types of rock are very resistant to weathering. Igneous rocks,
especially intrusive igneous rocks such as granite, weather slowly because it is hard for water
to penetrate them. Other types of rock, such as limestone, are easily weathered because they
dissolve in weak acids.Rocks that resist weathering remain at the surface and form ridges or
hills. Devil’s Tower in Wyoming is an igneous rock from beneath a volcano. As the
surrounding less resistant rocks were worn away, the resistant center of the volcano remained
behind.Different minerals also weather at different rates. Some minerals in a rock might
completely dissolve in water, but the more resistant minerals remain. In this case, the rock’s
surface becomes pitted and rough. When a less resistant mineral dissolves, more resistant
mineral grains are released from the rock.

Climate
A region’s climate strongly influences weathering. Climate is determined by the temperature
of a region plus the amount of precipitation it receives. Climate is weather averaged over a
long period of time. Chemical weathering increases as:
  Temperature increases: Chemical reactions proceed more rapidly at higher
temperatures. For each 10 degrees C increase in average temperature, the rate of
chemical reactions doubles.
 Precipitation increases: More water allows more chemical reactions. Since water
participates in both mechanical and chemical weathering, more water strongly
increases weathering.

So how do different climates influence weathering? A cold, dry climate will produce the
lowest rate of weathering. A warm, wet climate will produce the highest rate of weathering.
The warmer a climate is, the more types of vegetation it will have and the greater the rate of
biological weathering. This happens because plants and bacteria grow and multiply faster in
warmer temperatures.

Factors that Influence Mass Wasting

Once rock material has been broken down into smaller, unstable pieces by weathering, the
material has the potential to move down slope called mass wasting (also called a mass
movement or a landslide) because of gravity. Before looking into the various types of
landslides, the factors that influence them must be examined. Ultimately, this comes down to
the dynamics of two factors: gravity and steepness of slope. The steeper the slope, the greater
potential for gravity to pull objects down. The shallower the slope, the less effect gravity has
on pulling objects down.

There are several factors that influence mass wasting, but ultimately it is a battle between
friction and gravity. If the friction on a rock is stronger than gravity for a particular slope, the
rock material will likely stay. But if gravity is stronger, the slope will fail.The steeper the
slope, the stronger the friction or rock strength must be to resist down slope motion. The
steepest angle a slope can be before the ground will slide is about 35 degrees, called the angle
of repose. Many times we will cut through a slope to make room for a road or other forms of
development. So to help prevent the slope from sliding along these cut areas, retaining walls
must be build. More on this later.

Composition of Slope Material

Another factor that determines mass wasting is the slope’s material. Mass wasting is more
prone on slopes that contain clay and shale. Without going into great detail here, the shape
and composition of individual clay particles can absorb water and prevent water from
peculating through the ground. A layer of clay on a slope can prevent water from filtering
through the slope. Instead, the water stays near the surface and saturates the ground. This can
cause the surface layers to lose friction and slide.

Weight and Friction of Slope

A third factor that influences whether a slope will fail is the load or weight of that slope.
Adding weight to a weakened slope can obviously cause it to slide easier, especially on steep
slopes. This added weight tends to occur by building on top of weak slopes, increasing the
steepness of the slope, or over-saturating the slope.Friction has been mentioned as a factor
several times already, but there are a few more things must be said here. As already noted, as
long as the friction along the slope is stronger than gravity, the ground is unlikely to slide.
But if that friction is weakened, slope fail becomes more likely. There are several other ways
friction can be reduced along a slope: wildfires, removal of vegetation, or adding too much
water.Gravity is probably the ultimate driving force of mass wasting. The force of gravity
pulls all things on the planet toward the center of the Earth. Without gravity, mass wasting
would not occur. But unlike many of the other factors, humans have no influence or control
on gravity.

Regional Climate Conditions

A region’s climate can also determine the likelihood of a landslide. Climate is based on
temperature and precipitation. Mass wasting is prone in the spring-time when snow melt,
water saturation, and runoff is greatest. Also the type of climate will help determine the type
of mass wasting. Humid climates tend to have slides, where water-saturated slopes fail and
fall. Drier climates tend to have rocks that fall; especially early spring. Canyons and places
prone to wildfires tend to have debris flows.

Water Content within Slopes

The amount of water in the soil is a major factor in the stability of a slope. When you build a
sand castle, water is needed to build the walls and towers. That is because water has surface
tension and is attracted to each other. This allows you to build towers greater than the angle
of repose. So a little water can actually prevent slopes from sliding. But too much water
lubricates the individual grains of sediment decreasing friction between each grain, so the
possibility of mass wasting increases. The increase of water within the soils can come from
over watering, pipe or swimming pool leaks, or prolonged stormy weather. In Utah and many
mountainous regions, spring runoff of snow melt increases the water content within the soil.

Gravity
Finally, gravity is the driving force of mass wasting. The force of gravity pulls all things on
the planet toward the center of the Earth. But unlike many of the other factors, humans have
no influence or control on gravity. For more information on what causes landslides in Utah

Types of Mass Wasting

A rock fall are the fastest of all landslide types and occurs when a rock falls through the air
until it comes to rest on the ground—not too complicated. In Utah, they are common in the
spring and fall because of freeze-thaw weathering. In the daytime, temperatures in the spring
and fall tend to be above freezing, which allows liquid water to enter cracks within rocks.

At night, the temperatures cool below freezing and the water within the rocks freezes and
expands which causes the rock to break more. The following morning, the ice will melt and
go deeper within the crack to refreeze later that night. This freeze-thaw action over time can
cause rocks to break off and fall to the ground. The debris the accumulates at the base of
these steep slopes is called talus.
But rock falls can also occur when heavy precipitation is falling on a steep slope, causing the
rocks to lose friction and fall. The YouTube video below is a rock fall captured in Taiwan in
late August 2013, following heavy precipitation in the region.

Rotational Slides
Rotational slides occur when the a landslide occurs in a curved manner concave to the sky.
When this type of slide occurs, the upper surface of the slide tilts backwards toward the
original slope and the lower surface moves away from the slope. They are common when the
soil tends to be deep in clay or soft sediment deposits. The video on the right is a large
landslide again in Taiwan in early September 2013 following every rainfall. Needless to say,
they were having a bad few days in the region.

Transitional Slides
Rather than rotating, a translational slide occurs when slope failure occurs parallel to the
slope. Often times the slope failure occurs on soil composed of clay or shale, or along old
fault lines, or previous slide areas. What makes translational slides dangerous is that they tend
to flow faster and travel farther than rotational slides. The most expensive translational slide
in U.S. history actually occurred in Thistle, Utah in 1983.

Debris Flows

Debris flows are one of the most

common, but most dangerous of the various types of landslides because of their speed and
consistency. Debris flows tend to be a mixture of rock and water with two to three times the
density of flooding streams. That density allows debris flows strip away the land and pick up
objects as large as school buses. Debris flows are most common at the mouth of canyons
along alluvial fans. Lets first explain an alluvial fan. When floods occur within the mouth of a
canyon, either because of intense thunderstorms or snow melt, the erosive power of the water
can pick up sediment and boulders – a debris flow. Now once the debris flow reaches the
mouth of a canyon, the sediment gets deposited in a fan-shaped delta called an alluvial fan.
The problem is that people like to live along alluvial fans because of their scenic view on the
canyon. Another influence of debris flows is wildfires. When a wildfire strips an area of its
vegetation, the bare soil is easily eroded away in either a thunderstorm or snow melt creating
these debris flows. Because of Utah’s topography and tendency to wildfires, debris flows are
quite common.
Volcanic Mass Wasting

Lahars were mentioned in the module

on volcanoes, but in essence they are volcanic landslides. Recall that volcanoes eject
pyroclastic material ranging is size from ash to boulders. Now there tends to be two ways
lahars occur. One is if a thunderstorm precipitates large amounts of moisture on the
pyroclastic material and the pyroclastics flow down slope. The other option is if a volcano is
snow-capped and the heat from the volcano causes some of the snow to melt and mix with
the pyroclastic material. What makes lahars so dangerous is that they have the consistency of
concrete and can travel hundreds of miles. For a breakdown of potential landslide types in the
State of Utah,

Types of Mass Wasting

A rock fall are the fastest of all landslide types and occurs when a rock falls through the air
until it comes to rest on the ground—not too complicated. In Utah, they are common in the
spring and fall because of freeze-thaw weathering. In the daytime, temperatures in the spring
and fall tend to be above freezing, which allows liquid water to enter cracks within rocks.

At night, the temperatures cool below freezing and the water within the rocks freezes and
expands which causes the rock to break more. The following morning, the ice will melt and
go deeper within the crack to refreeze later that night. This freeze-thaw action over time can
cause rocks to break off and fall to the ground. The debris the accumulates at the base of
these steep slopes is called talus.

But rock falls can also occur when heavy precipitation is falling on a steep slope, causing the
rocks to lose friction and fall. The YouTube video below is a rock fall captured in Taiwan in
late August 2013, following heavy precipitation in the region.

Rotational Slides
Rotational slides occur when the a landslide occurs in a curved manner concave to the sky.
When this type of slide occurs, the upper surface of the slide tilts backwards toward the
original slope and the lower surface moves away from the slope. They are common when the
soil tends to be deep in clay or soft sediment deposits. The video on the right is a large
landslide again in Taiwan in early September 2013 following every rainfall. Needless to say,
they were having a bad few days in the region.

Transitional Slides
Rather than rotating, a translational slide occurs when slope failure occurs parallel to the
slope. Often times the slope failure occurs on soil composed of clay or shale, or along old
fault lines, or previous slide areas. What makes translational slides dangerous is that they tend
to flow faster and travel farther than rotational slides. The most expensive translational slide
in U.S. history actually occurred in Thistle, Utah in 1983.

Debris Flows

Debris flows are one of the most

common, but most dangerous of the various types of landslides because of their speed and
consistency. Debris flows tend to be a mixture of rock and water with two to three times the
density of flooding streams. That density allows debris flows strip away the land and pick up
objects as large as school buses. Debris flows are most common at the mouth of canyons
along alluvial fans. Lets first explain an alluvial fan. When floods occur within the mouth of a
canyon, either because of intense thunderstorms or snow melt, the erosive power of the water
can pick up sediment and boulders – a debris flow. Now once the debris flow reaches the
mouth of a canyon, the sediment gets deposited in a fan-shaped delta called an alluvial fan.
The problem is that people like to live along alluvial fans because of their scenic view on the
canyon. Another influence of debris flows is wildfires. When a wildfire strips an area of its
vegetation, the bare soil is easily eroded away in either a thunderstorm or snow melt creating
these debris flows. Because of Utah’s topography and tendency to wildfires, debris flows are
quite common.

Volcanic Mass Wasting

 Lahars were mentioned in the module
on volcanoes, but in essence they are volcanic landslides. Recall that volcanoes eject
pyroclastic material ranging is size from ash to boulders. Now there tends to be two ways
lahars occur. One is if a thunderstorm precipitates large amounts of moisture on the
pyroclastic material and the pyroclastics flow down slope. The other option is if a volcano is
snow-capped and the heat from the volcano causes some of the snow to melt and mix with
the pyroclastic material. What makes lahars so dangerous is that they have the consistency of
concrete and can travel hundreds of miles. For a breakdown of potential landslide types in the
State of Utah

Limiting Mass Wasting Potential

Drainage Controls
Ultimately preventing mass wasting is impossible because gravity will always exist, but
smarter development can help minimize the risk and hazards. One component in landslide
mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall that water can cause slopes to lose their
friction as water lubricates individual grains of soil. And if you cut a slope and put a retaining
wall for support, you may be preventing the water from filtering through. Thus you will often
find drains at the base of retaining walls that allow underground water to within the slopes to
drain out.

Slope Grade and Support

If people dig into the base of a slope to create a road or a home site, the slope may become
unstable and move downhill. This is particularly dangerous when the underlying rock layers
slope towards the area. Ultimately preventing landslides is impossible because gravity will
always exist. But smarter development can help minimize the risk and hazards created by
landslides. One component in landslide mitigation is basic drainage control of water. Recall
that water can cause slopes to lose their friction as water lubricates individual grains of soil.
And if you cut a slope and put a retaining wall for support, you may be preventing the water
from filtering through. Thus you will often find drains at the base of retaining walls that
allow underground water to within the slopes to drain out.Slope support is one of most
common types of mitigation for potential mass wasting. As mentioned above, a retaining wall
can be built to support a steep slope. Next, the retaining wall must be anchored to the bedrock
within the slope to hold the wall to the slope. Another type of slope support is simply planting
vegetation. The roots of vegetation tend to grab and hold soil in place, so by planting various
types of plants and trees can be a simple and cheap way to stabilize a slope. For more on what
homeowners can do to minimize your risk to landslides in Utah,

Subsidence
Subsidence occurs when loose, water saturated sediment begins to compact causing the
ground surface to collapse. Now there are two types of subsidence.

Slow Subsidence

Slow subsidence occurs when the water within the sediment is slowly squeezed out because
of overlying weight. There are several examples of slow subsidence, but the best one is
Venice, Italy. Venice (image on the right) was built at sea level on the now submerged delta
of the Brenta River. The city is sinking because of the overlying weight of the city and
pumping of ground water. The problem now is that sea levels are rising as glaciers melt and
water expands due to global warming. An example of slow subsidence in the U.S. includes
New Orleans, Louisiana. As we all know from Hurricane Katrina, the Mississippi River has a
vast network of levees that prevent the massive river from flooding – most of the time. But by
preventing the spring-time flooding, we are preventing the river from depositing sediment
onto the land. Instead, the sediment is being transported to the Gulf of Mexico creating the
massive Mississippi delta.

Fast Subsidence
 Fast subsidence occurs when naturally acidic
water begins to dissolve limestone rock to forma a network of water-filled underground
caverns. But if droughts or pumping of ground water reduces the water table below the level
of the caves, they caverns collapse creating surface sinkholes.A dramatic example of fast
subsidence occurred in Guatemala City in 2007 when a massive sinkhole formed 300 feet
deep. As noted above, the underground region surrounding Guatemala is composed of
limestone that and a vast underground network of caverns. It is believed that the water table
has been dropping in the region and thus draining the caves. Afterward the caves can not
support the overlying weight and collapse in.

Faulting – Rift Valley and Block Mountains

Posted on December 5, 2013 by askmisstan

Faulting

Due to the earth movements, movements at plate boundaries place stress and tension on the
crustal rocks. These tensional or compressional forces result in parts of the crusts to be
fractured. Hence, a fault is a fracture/cracked in the rocks which are being displaced.

We usually associate faults with earthquakes.

But did you know that faults could also form mountains?

Features formed/produced as a result of faulting

 Block Mountains
 Rift Valleys

Type of Forces

Tensional Forces occurs when the earth crusts are forced to move apart from each other.
Compressional Forces occurs when the earth crusts are forced to move towards each other.
Block Mountains

Block mountains also known as Horst. It is formed when the tensional forces causes the
plates on

the earth crusts to move apart. This movement causes the rocks to be stretched. Temperatures
are low and the rocks are brittle. Instead of folding, they break into large blocks.

Due to the compressional forces, the middle section of the rocks are uplifted, resulting it to be
higher than the surrounding land.
An example of the block mountain is the Vosges in France and the Black Forest in Germany
which are separated by the Rhine Valley. These block mountains are formed from the
divergence of the Eurasian Plate and the North American plate.
These mountains have sharp peaks. This is because of the vertical movement and tilting of
the rocks. Some of the mountains in this range rise over 12,000 feet. Most have a build up of
debris at the base on the steepest side. This is because of erosion. The opposite sides have a
more gradual slope.

Rift Valleys
Rift valleys are long, narrow depressions on the earth surface bounded by more or less
parallel faults. A rift valley is also known as a graben. Rift valleys are thought to have been
developed either from the action of tensional forces in the crust or from the action of
compressional forces.

Scientists sometimes argue whether both block mountains (horsts) and rift valleys (grabens)
move, or if only one part moves. Many feel that the rift valley (graben) is the part that moves,
due to the force of gravity. The block mountain (horst) is left standing higher above the
sunken graben. This is difficult to determine.

Many fault-block mountain ranges are a horst and graben system. In these systems, the
mountains (horsts) are separated by deep valleys (grabens). Sometimes the valleys are
actually wide basins.

2 ways for rift valleys to occur

1. Tensional Forces
a) Tension forces act on the layers of rock.

b) Gradually, two parallel faults appar and the middle block of rocks begin to sink.

c) As a result, it forms the rift valley. The land on both sides of the rift valley remains in
place.

2. Compressional Forces
a) Layers of rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

b) Faults developed and the outer blocks move upwards. (Block mountains are formed)

c) The middle block stays in the place and a rift valley form.

Benefits of the Rift Valley to people of East Africa

 Beautiful scenery to attract tourist arrivals (tourism)

 Lakes in the rift valley provide fish (Fishing)
 Provides water for domestic and agricultural use
 Lakes provide water for transport (water transportation)
 Forests on the slopes are sources of timber
 Gentle slopes are used for crop farming and settlement due to the fertile soils
 Rift valley lakes are used for mining
  Wildlife conservation

Problems faced by the people living in the Rift valley

 High temperatures result in shortage of water

 Earthquakes may destroy property
 Little rainfall or drought in the rain shadow areas
 Poor means of transport and communication because of the steep escarpments
 Salty lakes because of high temperatures and high evaporation rates
 Soil erosion and landslides especially on the steep slopes

Faulting – Rift Valley and Block Mountains →

Fold Mountains
Posted on November 29, 2013 by askmisstan

Fold mountains are mountain ranges that are formed when two of the tectonic plates that
make up the Earth’s crust push together at their border. The extreme pressure forces the edges
of the plates upwards into a series of folds.

Fold mountains can grow to impressive heights and lengths. Examples of fold mountains
include the Himalayas, the Rocky Mountains and the Andes.

The Himalayas
The Andes (Peru)

Youtube Video on the time lapse of formation of the Himalayas

Do you know?

1. It is believed that around 70 million years ago, there was a massive collision between India
and Asia resulting in globe changing repercussions. The Great Himalayas was one such
creation, caused by the explosive collision of the two land masses.

2. This huge mountain range, served as a natural barrier for thousands of years preventing
early interactions between the nationals of India, China and Mongolia.

3. The Himalayas is translates into ‘the abode of snow’.

Uses of Fold Mountains

Farming is a primary activity in all of the fold mountain ranges around the world. This is due
to the cattle and sheep farming due to the height and steepness of many of the slopes.
However, in the foothills of the Himalayas the Nepalese people use terraces in the
mountainside to help them grow crops, and some southern facing Alpine slopes are used for
vines and fruits.

Forestry is another big business in these mountainous regions. Examples of cultivated

coniferous forests can be seen in the Alps, where the trees have been deliberately planted as
crops. However in the foothills of the Himalayas large-scale deforestation is also taking
place, with logging companies cutting down vast tracts of the deciduous rainforest there.

Tourism is another major use of the Fold Mountains of the world. Because they are in more
economically developed countries,the Alps and the Rockies are perhaps the best examples of
the impact of tourism.However, it is an increasing industry in both the Andes and the
Himalayas,as people look for less crowded places to go to.

 The main tourist attraction in the Rockies and the Alps is skiing. Hundreds of
thousands of people ski each year and this has brought great changes and problems to
the main areas.
 The increase in tourism has meant much-improved infrastructure, a huge increase in
hotels and restaurants and the development of entire resorts. It has brought a large
amount of much needed money into these areas and allowed local people to diversify
from farming into many other jobs.

Fold Mountains have a lot of other things to attract visitors. These include hill walking, the
attractive scenery, river rafting, and climbing. All these have contributed to areas in the Alps
and the Rockies becoming all year round holiday resorts.

Problems Living in Fold Mountain Areas

 Mountainous regions are particularly difficult to build in due to the steep sided
valleys and cold climate. Roads and other communications links have to snake their
way up wherever they can, and often these roads are not big enough to adequately
service a large community.
 The climate is very cold and wet, meaning that most industrial and agricultural
activity is difficult. For farmers they have a very short growing season, and it is
difficult to use machinery on the steep slopes.
 Avalanches are a constant threat, as was seen to devastating effect in Ranrahirca,
Peru, in 1962. Huge amounts of money are spent each year to try and combat the
avalanche threat, especially with the large amount of tourists using the mountains.