A-level Psychology

11 January, 2024

Attachment
Explanations of Attachment
Attachment
The specification for the whole are is displayed below:
Attachment
Explanations of attachment
Learning theory:
Learning theory recognises that humans have drives, such as hunger & thirst,
which we are motivated to reduce (for example, when we feel hungry we will
want to get rid of this feeling by finding food).
Drives related to biological needs (like food) are called primary drives.
A baby has several primary drives, such as
comfort & security, but the main one is
hunger.
Because the mother is most often the one
providing food, she becomes associated with
the satisfaction of this primary drive – this
kind of association links to classical
conditioning.
Attachment
Explanations of attachment
Learning theory:

Classical conditioning is a behaviourist theory of learning. It states that

when a naturally occurring stimulus and an environmental stimulus are
repeatedly paired, the environmental stimulus will eventually elicit a similar
response to the natural stimulus. The most famous studies associated with
classical conditioning are Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s experiments
with dogs.
Attachment
Learning theory:
Classical conditioning
Classical Types of Stimuli and Responses
Each of the stimuli and responses in classical conditioning is referred to by
specific terms that can be illustrated with reference to Pavlov’s
experiments.
The presentation of food to the dog is referred to as the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) because of the dog’s response to the food occurs naturally.
The light or bell is the conditioned stimulus (CS) because the dog must
learn to associate it with the desired response.
Salivation in response to the food is called the unconditioned response
(UCR) because it’s an innate reflex.
Salivation to the light or bell is the conditioned response (CR) because the
dog learns to associate that response with the conditioned stimulus.
Attachment
Explanations of attachment: Learning theory
Attachment
Learning theory:
Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning involves learning to repeat a behaviour, or not

depending on the consequences. If it produces a pleasant consequence, that
behaviour is likely to be repeated again. The behaviour has been reinforced.
If a behaviour produces an unpleasant consequence it is less likely to be
repeated.
In operant conditioning behaviours are strengthened or weakened based on
the consequences of behaviour.
Attachment
Learning theory:
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is a method that employs reinforcement (rewards) and
punishments for behaviour.
In operant conditioning behaviours are strengthened or weakened based on
the consequences of behaviour.
There are four types of operant conditioning techniques:
• Positive reinforcement – the addition of reward
• Negative reinforcement – the removal of punishment
• Positive punishment – the addition of punishment
• Negative punishment – the removal of reward
Attachment
Learning theory:
Operant conditioning
• A drive is something that motivates behaviour e.g. the
infant is hungry and there is a drive to reduce the
discomfort.
• When an infant is fed the drive is reduced and they are
rewarded through negative reinforcement (escaping
something unpleasant).
• Food is seen as the primary reinforcer. Through the
process of classical conditioning the person supplying
the food becomes associated with avoiding discomfort
(secondary reinforcer).
• Attachment occurs because the child seeks the person
who can supply the reward.
 Attachment
Explanations of attachment
Learning theory:
Apply it: Apply it: ethical issues in infant research:
Psychologists are concerned with ethical issues in their
research. Sometimes the obvious way to gather data raises
really serious issues. A group of psychologists are interested
in which is more important when it comes to forming
attachments with adults – feeding or cuddling babies. The
psychologists come up with the following experimental design:
they will ask the parent who does most of the feeding to stop
cuddling their baby. They will ask the other parent to do no
feeding but provide comfort and cuddles. A year later the
researchers will assess how strongly attached the infant is to
each parent.
Answer the two questions on your handout relating to ethics.
Attachment
Explanations of attachment
Evaluation of learning theory:
1. For learning theory, feeding activity is crucial to the
emergence of the infant-caregiver attachment – it also
suggests the infant is a passive participant in this
process.
• Provided that it has an appropriate environment, the
infant will learn to attach because of the rewarding
activities of the caregiver.
• However, the findings of Harlow’s
studies contradict this – infant monkeys
put contact comfort from a surrogate
mother ahead of nourishment.
Attachment
Explanations of attachment
Evaluation of learning theory:
• Even when Harlow introduced
a frightening stimulus into
the cage, such as a toy
spider, the infant monkey ran
for security to the cloth-
covered ‘monkey’ rather than
to the one providing food.
Attachment
Explanations of attachment
Evaluation of learning theory:
2. Learning theory would predict that the infant’s
strongest attachments would be to the person who most
often provides food, comfort etc. – that is the person
who has the greatest impact on drive reduction.
• Schaffer & Emerson (1964), however,
found that less than half the children in
their research had attachments to people
with this kind of caregiving responsibility.
• Furthermore, research by Harlow on
rhesus monkeys suggests that other
factors, such as physical & social contact,
are important in attachment formation.
Attachment
Explanations of attachment
Evaluation of learning theory:
3. Learning theory predicts that in the absence of
reinforcements, learned behaviours will eventually die
away (extinction).
• In this case, absence for a period of
time from the caregivers who provide
reinforcement should result in the
strength of the attachment diminishing.
• Even everyday observations of children
who have been separated from their
parents for a length of time show this
not to be the case.
Attachment
Explanations of attachment
Evaluation of learning theory:
4. According to learning theory, whilst reinforcements
increase the likelihood of behaviours occurring again,
punishment will do the opposite & reduce the likelihood
of behaviours reoccurring.
• However, this is contradicted by the
observation that children continue to
show strong attachment behaviours
towards parents who have been very cruel
to them – for instance, parents who have
been punishing rather than reinforcing (a
good example is the book ‘A Child Called
It’).