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Graduate Employability of
South Asian Ethnic Minority
Youths
Through a first-of-its kind qualitative exploratory study, Bibi Arfeen
elucidates the multifaceted complexities and dynamics that
contribute to successful higher education-to-work transition among
South Asian Ethnic Minority (EM) youths in Hong Kong.
Hong Kong’s recent expansion of higher education has given rise
to budding academic and career aspirations amongst South Asian
ethnic minority youths hoping to achieve upward social and
economic mobility. Yet, existing bodies of scholarly work have yet to
conceptualise the key determinants that drive an adaptive transition
for these youths. This book challenges the widely held assumption
that an undergraduate degree is a panacea to job acquisition and
security as transitions are actively shaped by larger social, cultural,
and economic trajectories potentially influencing the capabilities of
ethnic minority youths. In light of their lived experiences, this book
foregrounds the voices of ethnic minority youths to gauge an
understanding of their higher education-to-work transitions by
placing the job-preparatory and job-seeking stages as the basis of
the inquiry.
Suggesting implications for institutional and public policymaking
for the inclusion and empowerment of EM youths, this book will
appeal to scholars interested in minority studies and graduate
employment, EM youths, university administrators and counsellors,
NGOs working with EM communities as well as policymakers.

Bibi Arfeen is an experienced secondary school–level teacher with

a doctorate in education and over a decade-long experience
teaching South Asian ethnic minority students. She serves as Head
of the English Department and School Literacy Leader in Hong Kong.
Education and Society in
China
Series Editors: Gerard A. Postiglione and Zhu Zhiyong

China’s economic rise has been breathtaking and unprecedented. Yet

educational opportunities remain highly unequal. China has the
essential ingredients to build a great system of education, but
educational governance needs an overhaul if China is to realise its
goal of dramatically boosting its technological output to world-class
levels. As more work by established Chinese and overseas scholars
becomes accessible in English to the larger global community, myths
will be removed and replaced by more accurate and sophisticated
analyses of China’s fascinatingly complex educational transformation.
This series will provide highly analytical examinations of key issues in
China’s education system.

Books in the series include:

How China’s System of Higher Education Works

Pragmatic Instrumentalism, Centralized-Decentralization, and
Rational Chaos
Benjamin Green

Citizenship and Education in Contemporary China

Contexts, Perspectives, and Understandings
Yeow-Tong Chia and Zhenzhou Zhao
Urban and Rural Students’ Access to Elite Chinese
Universities
Contextualising Bourdieu in China
Yanru Xu

Graduate Employability of South Asian Ethnic Minority

Youths
Voices from Hong Kong
Bibi Arfeen

For the full list of books included in the series, visit:

www.routledge.com/Education-and-Society-in-China/book-series/ESC
 Graduate Employability of
South Asian Ethnic Minority
Youths
Voices from Hong Kong
Bibi Arfeen
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 Bibi Arfeen
The right of Bibi Arfeen to be identified as author of this work has been asserted
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-032-63110-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-63112-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-63113-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781032631134
Typeset in Galliard
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
To my parents,
Abaji and Ami, to whom I owe everything

To my son,
Zain, the noor of my eyes
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
1 Foundations
2 Conceptualising Higher Education-to-Work Transitions
3 Lessons from Academic Experiences of Minority Youths
4 Understanding Employability and Employment of Ethnic
Minority Graduates
5 Transition Stage I: Forces Shaping the Job Preparatory Stage
6 Transition Stage II: Forces Shaping the Job-Seeking Stage
7 Developing Employability: A New Perspective for Ethnic
Minority Graduates
8 Future Directions and Contributions
Appendix I Study Participants’ Profile
Appendix II Interview Protocol
Index
Figures
2.1 A summary of potential factors shaping a youth’s S-W
transition
2.2 DeLuca et al.’s Person-in-context model
2.3 Theoretical framework for the study
6.1 Job-seeking enablers of EM youths
6.2 Job-seeking barriers of EM youths
7.1 A summary of the individual and contextual factors that
shape an adaptive transition
7.2 The three manifestations of resilience at the intersections of
each domain that EM youths exercise to overcome structural
and contextual constraints
Tables
1.1 Number of working ethnic minorities by sex, ethnicity, and
occupation, 2021 (including foreign domestic helpers)
1.2 Median monthly income (HK$) from main employment of
working EMs (excluding foreign domestic helpers), 2021
1.3 Ethnic minorities aged 15–24 with post-secondary
educational attainment by ethnicity, 2011, 2016, and 2021
(including foreign domestic helpers)
1.4 Summary of study participants
3.1 Educational pathways of Graduates and Final Year Students*
to higher education
3.2 Major and minor subjects of EM youths (*Graduate)
4.1 Number of job applications sent out by EM Graduates before
receiving the first job offer
4.2 The three most important skills of employability as perceived
by Final Year Students prior to seeking jobs
4.3 Job consideration factors of Final Year Students
4.4 Job-seeking methods preferred by EM youths
4.5 Perceived challenges during job-search of Final Year
Students
Acknowledgements
I thank the Almighty for His immense blessings and grace in giving
me the courage to complete my work successfully. It is with
immense pleasure that I acknowledge and express my heartfelt
thanks to all those who have played crucial roles in supporting this
work.
Foremost, my appreciation extends to my study participants, a
batch of young and promising South Asian ethnic minority youths
from different walks of life. Thank you for entrusting me with your
narratives: imbued with adversities yet emancipating with hope and
determination. I hope every one of you has fulfilling future
prospects. Second, I would like to thank the community
representatives whose rich experience, valuable information, and
expertise on the subject matter shed light on many areas of the
study. Third, my gratitude also goes to the local ethnic Chinese
participants whose academic and work experiences enabled a
deeper understanding of the complexities within my study.
The completion of this study could not have been possible without
the expertise of my esteemed supervisor and book series editor,
Professor Gerard Postiglione. His unwavering support and
encouragement have helped me to realise my vision. My deepest
gratitude towards Dr Jisun Jung for being the guiding light of this
work at its inception. I am deeply thankful to her invaluable
supervision, support, and tutelage during the course of my research.
The completion of this book would have been far from possible were
it not for their invaluable suggestions and advice.
 I would also like to thank a notable group of academics who have
provided input with their balanced advice and practical suggestions
at critical stages of my research, including Dr Gao Fang, Dr Tai
Chung-Pui, Dr Syed Saad Ul Hassan Bukhari, Dr Khan Adeel, Dr Ullah
Rizwan, Dr Chee Wai-Chi, and Dr Gary Harfitt. In particular, I would
like to thank and acknowledge Dr Margaret Lo for her deep
academic insights and helpful comments on my research. I am
honoured to have had such intellectual stimulation and inspiration. I
am also thankful to Dr Alice Te and Kazumi Cheng for their pointers
on completing this book.
I am also grateful to Katie Peace and Khin Thazin from Routledge
for their support and professionalism in facilitating me with the
publication of this book.
Above ground, I am indebted to my parents, whose value to me
only grows with age. Abaji, my pillar of strength, his everlasting
support and belief in my potential is the reason I stand tall today.
Ami, thank you for the unconditional love, care, and nurturance. I
would also like to thank my siblings, nephews, and nieces for their
love and understanding.
My son, Zain, the Sultan of my heart. This journey would have
been impossible without his willingness to put up with the most
irksome version of his mother. His wit-filled shenanigans and
infectious smile kept me going each time when I was about to fall
apart. Thank you, young man.
Abbreviations
EM
Ethnic Minorities
EC
Ethnic Chinese
NC
Non-Chinese
FYS
Final Year Student
UGC
University Grants Committee
S-W
School-to-Work
H-W
Higher Education-to-Work
CA
Capability Approach
1
Foundations
DOI: 10.4324/9781032631134-1

They’re unaware of different identities, different people in Hong

Kong and it just shows how problems in the system are just
brushed away under the rug.

Introduction
The first chapter serves as the foundation for the rest of this book
by discussing the historical and social context of South Asian ethnic
minorities (EM) in Hong Kong. Given the ambiguity and incoherence
in the global definition of the term ‘ethnic minority’, the book sets
the scene by first providing a locally driven interpretation of the
term. It then discusses the underappreciated yet pivotal
contributions of South Asian EMs historically on account of the fact
that they have been one of the key players in the development of
Hong Kong fostering its diversity. Backed by relevant empirical
research and government statistics, the increase in higher education
participation of EM youths is discussed with a focus on the rise in
higher education aspirations amongst these youths due to the
massification of tertiary education and favourable policy changes in
the last decade. Consequently, a growing population of South Asian
EM youths with a strong desire to achieve upward and social mobility
have taken advantage of these changes. This book addresses these
growing developments by undertaking an exploratory study centred
on the voices of an aspiring group of South Asian EM youths in Hong
Kong. This chapter also elaborates on the research method adopted
in this book and ends with providing an overview.

The Ongoing Debate – Defining

‘Ethnic Minorities’
The glossary of terms used globally to refer to racial and ethnic
groups minority in population has been hotly contested with long-
standing controversies. The dismal state of affairs is further fuelled
by the lack of a unanimous consensus or guidelines on the clear
exposition of terms for use within scholarly journals or works
(Bhopal, 2004). Although popular terminology may suffice a political
or casual conversational discourse, the absence of an accurate
definition has propagated immense challenges in comparing studies
internationally. Within the social sciences, concepts of race and
ethnicity have been used disputably when addressing the identity of
a group. The former bases its categorisation on the physical or
visible characteristics of a population, while the latter is imprecise
and fluid in nature as it entails cultural factors and identities that are
inherited, ascribed or adopted (O’Connor, 2018). As such, ‘ethnicity’
is deemed a more appropriate way to address identity as it captures
the link between race, migration, religion, language, and nationality
(Song, 2003), thus depicting a multifaceted and positive image of a
group of population.
Meanwhile, the complex and multidimensional nature of ethnicity
should be acknowledged as it is time- and context-bound resulting in
differing interpretations across populations. Existing categories or
labels such as ‘minority ethnic’, ‘minoritised ethnic’, or ‘ethnic
minority’ are used disparately in literature when addressing minority
populations. At a more general level, ‘ethnic minority’ is most
commonly used in reference to racial groups that are a minority in
the population. With much criticism for its placement of emphasis on
‘ethnic’, the term ‘minority ethnic’ is thus more favoured over ‘ethnic
minority’ as it is more inclusive of the notion that all people,
including the majority, have an ethnicity and the issues relate to
‘minority’ groups. A more recent and nuanced term, ‘minoritised
ethnic’, has gained recognition as it affirms the process of
‘minortisation’ through the social process of dominion and power
over mere statistical representations (The Law Society, 2022). Given
the diverse terminology, the challenge to recognise them as
shorthand for potentially crucial information is further compounded
by the pace of social change. Hence, both purpose and context
should become prime determinants when applying ethnicity
terminologies (Bhopal, 2004). In the Hong Kong context, the term
‘ethnic minority’ has been ambiguously used in reference to people
who self-proclaim to be of non-Chinese (NC) ethnicity. This would
include all minority populations including white professional
expatriates and foreign domestic helpers. Yet, in policymaking, the
term characterises working-class locally born South Asian
populations suggesting a hint of stigmatisation (Baig, 2012). While
acceding to their shortcomings, the extensive adoption of the locally
derived term ‘ethnic minorities’ or ‘EM’ in present scholarly works has
obligated the study to also undertake both terms within the
parameters of the following definition until a more universal term is
scholastically adopted.
 Spanning from a few generations, more and more South Asians
are locally born (around 48% in 2011 to 53% in 2021) reflecting the
increase in EMs giving birth and raising children in Hong Kong (CSD,
2022). While it is acknowledged that there is diversity among ethnic
groups in Hong Kong, this book focuses solely on South Asian youths
(predominantly Indian, Nepalese, Filipino, and Pakistani) born and
bred locally and takes the ethnic Chinese (EC) majority as points for
comparison for several reasons: (1) South Asians form the largest
(around 50%) of all EM groups in Hong Kong (CSD, 2022); (2) the
population of South Asians is much younger (median age 33.5) than
the whole population (median age 43.5) signifying that they are a
good source to replenish the rapidly aging Hong Kong population
(CSD, 2022); (3) South Asians account for 40.6% of the
impoverished population living under the poverty line (CSD, 2018). A
plethora of scholarships (e.g., Cheung et al., 2015; Gu & Patkin,
2013) have identified these issues as closely linked to the
ramifications of restricted access to education and employment
opportunities constricted by structural inequalities.

Orienting South Asian Ethnic

Minorities in Hong Kong
Population mobility as a result of globalisation has expedited within
and between countries driving various global societies to undergo a
historical and radical transition in terms of their ethnic composition
(Ball et al., 2002). As a former colony of the United Kingdom, the
early history of Hong Kong is reflective of a multicultural
convergence with vast contributions of South Asian EMs dating back
to the mid-1800s where Indian males were employed to perform the
roles of soldiers and troops. Most British were able to maintain their
elite status and high standard of life enabled through Indian soldiers
and police officers, thereby instigating segregation between the
former and the rest of the population, i.e., the Chinese and Eurasian
(Carroll, 2007). The roles of Indian Sikh and Muslim male gradually
became affiliated with power and authority as they formed one-third
of the police force up until the 1960s. Post-India and Pakistan
partition in 1947, the British began to recruit Nepalese Gurkha
soldiers for service while allowing the union of their families, thus
giving birth to Nepali communities and subsequent generations
(O’Connor, 2018). The historical contributions in the form of service
and cultural dissemination of South Asian EMs could not be
undermined and remains imperative to the making of the city.
Hong Kong today has witnessed a substantial and continuous rise
in the population of EMs. According to the 2021 thematic report on
Population Census (CSD, 2022), the number of South Asian ethnic
minorities had risen from 65,521 in 2011 to 101,969 in 2021, which
corresponds to a percentage increase of 56% over the span of a
decade. Records show that the EM population is more youthful
compared with the overall population of Hong Kong, with 19.6% of
them below 15 years and only 5.8% over 65 years (CSD, 2022). Of
40,000 EM youths (15–24 years old) who thrive in the city in 2021
(ibid.), the largest growth was found in South Asians (an 86%
increase from 2016 to 2021). In addition, around one-third of South
Asians are locally born (around 31% in 2016 and 2021). It could be
anticipated that these new generations of local born EMs will
become a non-negligible source of human capital for Hong Kong in
the future. Under the backdrop of an expanding multicultural
demographic, many public debates have called for a more proactive
integration of EMs through education reforms and labour market
interventions.
Yet, it has been contended in the works of many local scholarships
(e.g. Wentling and Waight, 2000; Ip and Chiu, 2015) that the topic
of EMs, in general, has been dealt with infinitesimal significance. By
referring to this group of population as ‘NC’, South Asian EMs tend to
be denied of their contributions to Hong Kong since the 1840s in
prevailing narratives (O’Connor, 2018). The continuous diversification
of Hong Kong population post-1997 has failed to keep up with the
prosperity and well-being of EMs, thereby giving rise to a new
identity politics (O’Connor, 2018) that requires an alternative
perspective aiming to grasp the implication of a changing
demographic. Most South Asians EMs have long remained in
disadvantaged socio-economic positions with great disparities found
amongst different EM sub-groups in educational attainment and
occupational status. Some sub-ethnic groups in general are more
educated (e.g., Whites, Japanese, and Koreans) and are more likely
to be in managerial or professional positions (Table 1.1). In 2021,
over 56% of EMs worked as managers; and professionals or
associate professionals while about 37% of the whole population
were engaged in these employment categories (CSD, 2022). These
findings, nonetheless, were not representative of the realities of all
ethnic groups. South Asians such as Pakistanis and Nepalese were in
general less educated and more likely to be engaged in elementary
occupations (26% and 25%, respectively).
 Table 1.1 Number of working ethnic minorities by
(including foreign domes

Clerical supp
workers/serv
Professionals/associate and sales
Ethnicity Sex Managers professionals workers
Filipino M 8.3 29.9 28.8
F 0.5 1.8 2.0
Both 0.8 2.9 3.0
Indian M 30.0 44.5 13.3
F 11.2 32.2 15.5
Both 20.9 38.5 14.3
Nepalese M 4.0 14.6 25.8
F 2.8 18.4 48.6
Both 3.5 16.3 36.0
Pakistani M 6.0 20.8 26.9
F 1.9 26.8 53.1
Both 5.1 22.1 32.7
Whole M 11.5 33.2 26.1
Population
F 7.9 27.3 37.2
 Both 9.7 30.2 31.8

Excluding domestic helpers, the median monthly income from main

employment of working EMs was $20,000 in 2021 (ibid.). This
amount was slightly higher than the median of the whole population
($19,500). However, the median monthly income varied notably
among different ethnic groups. As shown in Table 1.2, Indians
remained in a superior position ($29,620), whereas Filipinos
($16,550), Nepalese ($17,000), and Pakistanis ($15,000) were
shown to earn much less than the whole Hong Kong population.

Table 1.2 Median monthly income (HK$) from

main employment of working EMs (excluding
foreign domestic helpers), 2021
2011 2016 2021
Ethnicity Number % Number % Number %
Filipino 38627 29.7 65839 36.4 68563 34.6
Indian 11992 52.5 15865 52.2 20728 58.1
Nepalese 2081 16.1 3218 15 5314 22.2
Pakistani 1862 17.1 2616 20.5 4522 25.1
Whole 1703031 27.3 2130107 32.7 2285236 34.6
Population

With reference to education, young South Asian EMs had a lower

school attainment. At age groups 3–5, 12–17, and 18–24, the school
attendance rates in 2021 were 90.7%, 96.2%, and 29.2%,
respectively, while those for the whole population were 92.5%,
97.8%, and 51.8% (EOC, 2020). In the group aged 15 or above,
however, the proportion of EMs (36.3%) proceeding to post-
secondary education level soared and was slightly higher than that
of the whole population (34.6%). Alas, these figures may not be
reflective of the situation across EM sub-groups.
While more than 80% of Japanese, Koreans, and Whites attended
post-secondary education, South Asian EMs comparatively were not
on par. In Table 1.3, about 60% of Indians attained a post-
secondary education in 2021 while the number was considerably
lower for Pakistanis, Nepalese, and Filipinos. On the contrary, a
closer look within all ethnic groups shows a rise in the number of
youths joining post-graduate education from 2011 to 2021. Although
the number is less salient when compared to the whole population,
there is a considerable increase in the number of Pakistani youths
enrolling in tertiary education, i.e., from 1,862 in 2011 to 4,522 in
2021. The case is similar across the Nepalese, Indian, and Filipino
ethnic groups, with the latter doubling in number from 38,627 in
2011 to 68,563 in 2021. This strongly reinforces the argument that
higher education expansion policy has, to a certain extent,
effectively reached some aspects of the EM population with a
potential to presumably provide alternative futures and alleviate their
existing socio-economic challenges. Taking all the figures above into
account, it could be deduced that the educational and occupational
attainments of EMs vary greatly across ethnic groups and sexes.
 Table 1.3 Ethnic minorities aged 15–
24 with post-secondary educational
attainment by ethnicity, 2011, 2016,
and 2021 (including foreign domestic
helpers)
Ethnicity Sex 2011 2016 2021
Filipino M 13000 14040 17500
F 9000 11700 16000
Both 10000 12240 16550
Indian M 25500 15150 35000
F 15000 15000 20000
Both 22500 22000 29620
Nepalese M 12000 14500 20000
F 8000 11250 14500
Both 10000 12600 17000
Pakistani M 10000 12800 15500
F 10000 12000 11810
Both 10000 12750 15000
Whole Population M 13000 17000 20000
F 10900 14000 17000
Both 12000 15500 19500

Given the wider access to post-secondary attainment (Table 1.3),

there has been little evidence of the massification of higher
education on the impact of the livelihoods of EMs. A recent report
(HKSAR Government, 2020) shows that more than 30.5% of the
youths aged 25–29 were economically active in the first half of 2019,
with at least half (54.1%) possessing a post-secondary educational
attainment yet were still living under the poverty line. More precisely,
the harsh reality is that the earning capacity of these youths is well
below the median monthly income of the whole population (ibid.). A
case in point is that only 17% of Indians with a tertiary education
qualification engaged as managers or administrators which was
much lower than that of the whole population (20%) (CSD, 2017). It
could therefore be deduced from these statistics that the possession
of a tertiary qualification may not equivocally guarantee an equal
opportunity and access to the labour market compared to local ECs.
This may be a direct indication that there are several impediments in
the way of EM graduates when reaching their true capabilities or
actualising their aspirations. These will be discussed in the following
section.

Emerging Trends: Education and

Employment of EMs
At the forefront of this book is a thriving population that could no
longer be disregarded in public discourse. That one might be au fait
with the lives and struggles of EMs, it is necessary to delve deeper
into their educational and occupational outcomes supported by
findings of relevant studies.
Education
Past studies in Hong Kong have identified that in this highly
competitive context, for education, EM sub-groups in Hong Kong
face particular barriers at each stage of the progression pathway
through kindergarten to post-secondary education. These include
limited Chinese proficiency (e.g., Gao, 2011; Hong Kong Unison,
2015), racial discrimination (e.g., Crabtree & Wong, 2013; Ku et al.,
2016), lack of access to education-related information (e.g., Hong
Kong Unison, 2015; Ku & Chan, 2011), and so forth. At the systemic
level, for instance, the barriers begin at kindergarten with limited
admission of EM children (EOC, 2018), while the least popular low-
band mainstream schools most readily opened their doors to EM
students, partly to stave off the threat of closure as the overall birth
rates in Hong Kong declined. Certain complex issues also seemed to
prevail as a consequence of identity, racism, and secondary
schooling experiences of EM youths. In the works of Gao (2011 and
2017), it was found that there was a dynamic interplay between
ethnicity, class, and school resources in the education experiences of
EM youths and that they became more exposed to systemic racism
and admissions discrimination that blocked their pursuits of post-
secondary education. In addition to familial support, other studies
(e.g., Gube & Gao, 2019) have also confirmed that the
interdependence of minority members and community support had a
part to play in the educational outcomes and the selection and
application of universities.
In the last 20 years, however, various policies and initiatives have
been implemented in response to the plight of South Asian EMs.
These came in two forms: anti-discrimination laws which focused on
legal actions against any form of prejudice and prevents certain
discriminatory behaviours (Blakemore & Brake, 1996), while the
other concerned policies that were designed to improve the positions
of disadvantaged groups by providing extra resources for education,
training, and other social services to facilitate equal opportunity. In
2014, for instance, the ‘designated school’ label was removed, and
EM students were allowed to choose a school from a broader
selection while schools were granted extra monetary resources for
supporting their learning needs. This policy, however, failed to meet
its goal as racial segregation within schools was still apparent. It was
reported that only eight primary schools accepted over 90% of EM
students, defeating the initial purpose of having a more elaborate
choice for school selection (Hong Kong Unison, 2015). Furthermore,
a rather important policy in the area of Chinese Language
Curriculum was implemented in 2014 to provide opportunities for
EMs to learn Chinese as a second language with the intention of
mitigating problems faced in education and transitions to work. The
framework, however, faced major backlash for its lack of clarity in
learning objectives and flexibility in pedagogic principles (ibid.).
With respect to easing the university entrance requirements for
EMs, alternative Chinese language criteria for admission to publicly
funded universities were accepted to replace the mainstream
Chinese subject. Similarly, it has been criticised for being inadequate
as the IGCSE (Chinese) examination is equivalent to a local primary
two local Chinese level whilst local-born EMs needed a higher
Chinese proficiency to improve their linguistic repertoire and meet
labour market demands. The expansion of higher education and
increase in access to education in the last 15 years has led to 40.6%
of EM youths participating in post-secondary in 2021 (CSD, 2022).
Policies such as the introduction of multiple pathways for secondary
students through the promotion of sub-degree and self-financed
programmes and removing the Chinese language subject as a
university entrance requirement ameliorated access and
simultaneously pervading an aspiring batch of EM youths to adopt
the ‘education gospel’ rhetoric (Grubb & Lazerson, 2005).
Notwithstanding the enhanced access to higher education for some
EM youths, Chee (2018) criticised these programmes for failing to
counter hierarchies in education as many EM youths were usually
concentrated and accepted in the least competitive programmes
consequently shaping their poor employment outcomes. In the
higher education scene, as such, it was found that more than 71%
of the 186 non-degree programmes required a certain level of
Chinese proficiency (Hong Kong Unison, 2015). Akin to most
neoliberal regimes, this has reinforced the uncontested belief
amongst EM youths that an undergraduate degree was a guarantor
of job security and an antidote to all their socio-economic difficulties.

Employment
Within an ever-expanding youth population of 1.2 billion globally
aged between 15 and 24 and the youth global literacy rate predicted
to rise from 86% in 2000 to 91% in 2020 (UNESCO, 2021), there are
some serious implications on the labour market. Rising global youth
unemployment, i.e., from 15.5% in 2016 to 17.2% in 2020,
attributable to the growing complexities and broader shifts in the
labour market, has transformed its nature and entrance
requirements. The surge in expectations of a more formal education
has prolonged the education period, while the rising trends of
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 of Germinal, 271;
of Prairial, 272;
of Vendémiaire, 281.

Intendants, position of, 7-10;

decline of, 47;
fall of, 62.

Isnard, 184, 266.

Issy l'Evêque, priest of, 138.

J.

Jacobin Club, origin of, 105,106;

organisation of, 142-145;
attitude of, in summer of 1791, 150-154;
protests against war, 167;
share of, in elections of 1792, 182, 183;
under the Terror, 213;
parties at, in 1793-94, 241-246;
under Robespierre, 255, 259;
close of, 263, 265.

Jacobins, rise of the, 129-154;

theory of the, 137-140, 209;
numbers and organisation of the, 142-147, 199;
leaders of the, 143, 229-235;
in the Constituent, 105, 149-153;
in the Legislative, 163, 164;
opposed to war, 166, 167;
attitude of, towards Prison Massacres, 178, 179;
in the Convention, 182-183;
attitude of, on question of Louis' death, 191;
struggle with Girondists, 189-206;
Government of, 212-216;
 principles applied, 218-229;
character of, 187, 216, 217, 229-235, 283;
schisms and struggles among, 237-260, 262-273.

Jansenists, the, 103.

Javogues, 217, 231.

Jemappes, Battle of, 180.

Jeunes Gens, the, 264, 272, 279.

Jeunesse Dorée, the, 264.

Jews, attacks on the, 61.

Joseph, Emperor, 42, 156-158.

Jourdan, 206, 274, 275.

Journal de Paris, the, 106.

Journal des Débats, 108.

Journal des Etats-Généraux, Mirabeau's journal, 107.

Journal Général de la Cour et de la Ville, Reactionary journal, 112.

K.

Kellermann, 255.

King. See Louis XVI.

Kléber, 274, 276.

Kosciusko, 277.

L.

Labourers. See Peasants and Artisans.

Laclos, 113, 144.

Lacombe, Proconsul in Bordeaux, 217;

Rose, 186.

Lacretelle, 264.

Lacroix, 237.

Lafayette, and the National Guard, 67, 68, 118, 153;

on 5th October, 70;
Marat and, 111;
Orleans and, 114;
character and views of, 116-118;
Mirabeau and, 73, 121, 122;
party of, 131, 135, 150, 153, 163;
at Massacre of Champ de Mars, 151;
not elected Mayor, 165;
policy of, in spring and summer, 1792, 166-173;
flight of, 177.

Lakanal, 216.

Lally-Tollendal, 100.

La Marck, 121, 123.

Lameths, the, in the Constituent, 104;

party of, 131, 135, 150.
Landes, District of the, 217.

Languedoc, one of the Pays d'État, 6.

Lanjuinais, 103, 184, 266.

Laon, distress in, 270.

Laplanche, 231.

Lebon, 143, 217, 232, 273.

Lecarpentier, 216.

Lecointre, 237, 263.

Legendre, 237, 263, 265.

Legislative Assembly, meeting of, 163;

parties in, 163, 164;
policy of, 165, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 178, 179.

Le Mans, Battle of, 276.

Leopold II, succeeds Emperor Joseph, 157, 158;

policy of, 159-163;
death of, 168.

Lepelletier Section, the, 281.

Lindet, 214, 215, 234, 273.

Linguet, 107.

Local Government, new system of, 75-79.

Locke, 110
Loire, war on the, 205.

London, Journalism in, 107.

Longwy, surrender of, 177.

Louis XI, 5.

Louis XIV, 14.

Louis XVI, Court of, 44;

emancipates serfs, 44;
charities of, 44, 45;
character of, 45;
early reforms of, 45-47;
States-General and, 53, 55, 57, 58, 67;
visit to Paris, 67;
on 5th and 6th October, 69, 70;
Constituent Assembly and, 73, 74, 87, 150, 152;
flight to Varennes, 149;
army under, 81;
deposition demanded, 150;
Legislative Assembly and, 165-173;
Lafayette and, 70, 172;
the Allies and, 173, 174;
Girondists and, 167, 171, 174, 175, 191;
dethroned, 175;
executed, 191, 194.

Loustallot, 108, 109.

Louvet, 184, 266.

Lyons, troubles at, 61, 134, 141;

declares against Jacobin Government, 205, 216, 217;
trade of, ruined by Revolution, 224;
 distress in, 225, 270.

M.

Maignet, 217, 258.

Mallet du Pan, 107, 112, 173, 174.

Malmesbury, 277.

Malouet in Constituent Assembly, 64, 100, 101, 152;

his estimate of the Jacobins, 143;
Louis and, 173.

Manfredini, 42.

Marat, editor of Ami du Peuple, 109;

early career and character of, 109-111;
in July, 1791, 150, 151;
protests against war, 167;
approves, September Massacres, 178;
in the Convention, 182, 190, 197, 210;
assassination of, 206.

Maréchaussée, the, 8.

Maret, 108.

Marie Antoinette, character of, 48;

political influence of, 48, 58, 125, 162, 165, 186;
execution of, 207.

Marseilles, disorder in, 141;

declares against Jacobin Government, 205;
under the Terror, 216, 217, 225;
reaction at, 279.
Massacre, of Champ de Mars, 151;
of September, in the prisons, 178.

Masséna, 274.

Maury, 99.

Maximum, the, established, 198, 222, 223;

repealed, 266-270.

Mayence, emigrants at, 159;

retaken by Allies, 205.

Mercure, Constitutional journal, 106, 112.

Méricourt, Théroigne de, 186.

Merlin, of Douai, 105, 263;

of Thionville, 263, 274.

Mesmerists, the, 42.

Messidor, 228.

Métayers, position of the, 20, 21, 132.

Middle classes, under Ancien Régime, 16, 17, 18, 43;

gainers by Revolution, 132;
cease to support Revolution, 202, 203;
Jacobin measures against, 222, 223;
in the Reaction, 264.

Milhaud, 274.

Militia, the, 22, 23.

 Mirabeau, Comte de, in the Constituent Assembly, 57, 63, 64, 65,
72, 73,
74, 84, 89, 90, 91, 92, 103, 106, 122, 123;
as journalist, 107;
political aims, 118, 119, 120;
Lafayette and, 121, 122;
notes for the Court, 123-127;
pensioned by the Court, 127, 128;
character of, 128;
death of, 128, 147;
Marquis de, 44;
Vicomte de, 99.

Molleville, Bertrand de, 166.

Momoro, 237; Sophie, 186.

Monasteries, abolition of the, 84, 85.

Monciel, Terrier de, 172, 173.

Moniteur, the, 107, 108.

Monsieur. See Provence.

Montaubon, religious troubles at, 141.

Montesquieu, 31, 32.

Montmartre, relief works at, 69.

Montmorin, 122, 126, 166, 173.

Montreuil-sur-Mer, distress at, 270.

Moreau, 274.
Morelly, 36.

Mounier, 50, 100, 101.

Mountain, the, 197, 198;

after Thermidor, 262, 263, 271.
See Jacobins.

Municipality of Paris. See Commune.

Muscadins, the, 220, 264.

Mysticism, revival of, in eighteenth century, 42.

N.

Nancy, mutiny at, 82;

distress at, 270, 271.

Nantes, Vendéans at, 206;

Carrier at, 217;
decline of commerce at, 224.

Napoleon, at the capture of the Tuileries, 175.

See Bonaparte.

Narbonne, 166, 167.

National Agents, 213.

National Assembly, title taken by Commons, 57.

See Constituent Assembly.

National Debt. See Finance.

National Guard, creation of the, 62, 76, 78;

 Lafayette and the, 67, 68, 118, 153, 172;
action of the, 136, 140, 141, 179;
reorganised as battalions of the Sections, 199;
under Hanriot, 204, 205, 212, 256, 260;
changes in the, after Thermidor, 262, 271, 273;
on 13th Vendémiaire, 281.

Necker, reforming ministry of, 14, 42, 46;

fall of, 47, 48;
recall of, 51;
vacillation of, 53, 56;
dismissed again, 58;
finance of, 88, 89;
failure of, 114, 115;
Madame, 185.

Neerwinden, defeat of Dumouriez at, 194.

Newton, 110.

Ney, 274.

Nice, French successes at, 194.

Nîmes, religious troubles at, 141.

Nivôse, 227.

Noailles, Vicomte de, 104.

Nobles, under the Ancien Régime, 11-14, 44;

in States-General, 56, 57.

Notables, of 1787, 49;

of 1788, 53.

Notre Dame, Goddess of Reason installed in, 227.

 O.

Orange, tribunal of, 258;

Prince of, 277.

Orateur du Peuple, Fréron's journal, 263.

Orleans, high court at, 80;

Duke of, 12, 14, 69, 112-114, 150, 207.

P.

Pache, minister of war, 190, 192, 193;

Mayor of Paris, 193, 212, 236;
proscription of, 273.

Palais Royal, meetings in, 60, 69, 113, 264.

Panckoucke, 106, 107.

Panis, 178, 212, 273.

Paris, excitement and distress in, 26, 51, 58, 59, 60, 67, 68, 69,
133,
136, 171, 173;
influence of, on finance of Constituent Assembly, 89, 95;
clubs in, 105, 106, 144;
numbers of Jacobins in, 143;
government of, 145-147;
Prison Massacres in, 175-179;
agitation against Louis, 171, 173, 191;
the Girondists and, 193, 196-205;
under the Terror, 222-228, 242, 260;
Reaction in, 263, 264, 271, 272, 273, 279, 281.
Paris, Parlement of, 49, 50.

Parlements, the local, 6, 7, 79.

Parties, in Constituent Assembly, 98-105;

in Legislative Assembly, 163, 164;
in Convention, 183, 184, 237, 240, 259, 262, 263, 273, 279.

Patriote Français, Brissot's journal, 108.

Payan, 256.

Pays d'Élection, provincial assemblies created in, 46.

Pays d'État, the, 6.

Peasantry, condition of, under Ancien Régime, 19-27;

outbreak of, in 1789, 58-62;
disappointed with the Revolution, 132, 133, 136, 137, 139, 141;
under the Terror, 217, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225;
in the Reaction, 270, 282.

Père Duchesne, Hébert's journal, 231.

Pétion, in Constituent Assembly, 105, 106, 153;

Mayor of Paris, 165, 179, 184, 190.

Petit Gautier. See Journal Général de la Cour et de la Ville.

Philippe Egalité. See Orleans.

Philippeaux, 237, 245.

Philosophers, the, in eighteenth century, 28-36.

Physiocrats, the, 36.

Picardy, distress in, 270.

Pichegru, 271, 274, 275, 276.

Pillnitz, conference of, 159-162.

Pitt, policy of, 42, 156, 157, 194;

Robespierre on, 252.
See England.

Pluviôse, 228.

Point du Jour, Barère's paper, 108.

Poland, influence of, on European politics, 157-159, 277;

Kosciusko's revolt in, 277.

Police of Paris, under Ancien Régime, 60;

during Revolution, 199, 200, 202.

Poll-tax, 12, 24, 95.

Pombal, 42.

Pope, the, alienated by Constituent Assembly, 86, 87;

rule of, at Avignon, 141.

Prairial, 228.
See Insurrection.

Press, the, controlled by Church, 15, 33;

new power of, 106-112;
during the Reaction, 263.

Prieur (of the Côte-d'Or), 214, 215.

Prieur (of the Marne), 214, 215.

Provence, Comte de, policy of, 115, 116;

Mirabeau and, 126;
Emigrants and, 161, 165, 279.

Provincial Assemblies, in 1787, 46.

Prudhomme, 106, 107.

Prussia, policy of, 156-162, 276-278.

See Allies.

Q.

Queen. See Marie Antoinette.

Quesnai, 36.

Quiberon, Emigrants at, 279.

R.

Rabaut de St. Etienne, 103.

Reason, worship of, 186, 227, 237.

Representatives on mission, 195, 213, 215-217, 274.

Republic, talk of, 150;

proclamation of, 189.

Réveil du Peuple, Reactionary song, 264.

Révolutions de France et de Brabant, Desmoulins' paper, 109.

 Révolutions de Paris, Democratic paper, 107, 108.

Revolutionary Army, the, 199, 212, 233.

Revolutionary Government, the, 212-217.

Revolutionary Tribunal, the, established, 195;

reorganised, 212, 257, 258;
abolished, 273.

Rewbell, 105, 274.

Reynaud, 217.

Rhine, war on the, 194, 276, 277.

Richard, 274.

Richelieu, policy of, 5.

Rights of Man, declaration of the, 66.

Robespierre, in the Constituent Assembly, 105, 106, 147-153;

the typical Jacobin, 41, 143, 147;
policy and position of, in 1791, 147-153;
opposes war, 167;
action on the 20th June, 172;
elected to the Convention, 182;
attacks of Girondists on, 190;
in Committee of Public Safety, 213, 214, 220, 221, 226, 228, 229,
230, 234;
attacks the Commune, 241-246;
deserts Danton, 247;
ascendency of, 248-260;
character of, 148, 248-255;
review of his career, 249-255;
 power of, in 1794, 255, 256;
his belief in the Terror, 255-257;
his action when in power, 257, 258;
his fall, 259, 260.

Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Duc de, 100.

Rohan, Cardinal de, 16.

Roland, Minister of the Interior, 167;

dismissal of, 171;
return of, to office, 175;
and September Massacres, 179;
carries dissolution of Insurrectionary Commune, 189;
resignation of, 192;
Madame, 164, 171, 184, 185, 207.

Romme, 263, 273.

Ronsin, 232, 236, 243.

Rosicrucians, the, 42.

Rouen, Archbishop of, 15, 99;

rising at, 61;
Mirabeau advises the King to retire to, 121;
distress at, 225.

Rousseau, influence of, 31, 34, 36-41.

See Contrat Social.

Rühl, 212, 273.

Russia, policy of, 156-159, 277, 278.

See Catherine and Allies.
 S.

Sabran, Madame de, 185.

Sainte-Amaranthe, Mme de, 185.

Santerre, 172.

Sardinia, policy of, 160.

Saverne, Cardinal de Rohan's palace at, 16.

Savoy, war in, 194.

Sections, organisation of the Parisian, 145-147, 199, 200, 212, 213,

242;
insurrections prepared in the, 174, 175, 198, 201, 203, 204, 205,
260, 281;
committees in the, 146, 195, 200, 212, 213;
battalions of the, 199;
police of the, 146, 199, 200;
reaction in the, 264, 271.

Seigneur, rights of. See Feudal.

Sémonville, 126.

Sentinelle du Peuple, Democratic paper, 107.

Serfdom, extinction of, 20, 44.

Sergent, 178.

Servan, 170, 171, 254.

Sieyès, Abbé, writings of, 51;

in the Constituent Assembly, 84, 102;
 the Girondists and, 164;
in the Convention, 211;
during the Reaction, 263, 280.

Social Compact. See Contrat Social.

Socialism, beginnings of, 36, 218-226.

Soho, Marat in, 110.

Soubrany, 263, 273.

Soult, 274.

Spain, policy of, 156, 160, 278.

St. André, Jean Bon, 214, 234, 273.

St. Antoine, Faubourg, insurrection of, 174;

disarmed, 273.

St. Domingo, trouble in, 71.

St. Etienne, Terror at, 217.

St. Hurugues, Marquis de, 113.

St. Just, among the Jacobin leaders, 143;

in Committee of Public Safety and Convention, 213, 214, 220,
221,
222, 226, 229, 234, 241;
on mission, 216, 274;
relations with Danton and Robespierre, 245, 246, 255, 256, 257,
259, 260.

Staël, Madame de, 166, 185.

States-General, elections to the, 31-54;
opening of the, 55-57.
See Constituent Assembly.

Strasbourg, Bishop of, 16;

rising at, 61;
plots at, 161;
decline of trade in, 224;
working men imprisoned in, 225.

Subdelegates, powers of, 9, 47.

Suvórof, 277.

Sweden, policy of, 156, 160.

See Gustavus.

Swedenborgians, the, 42.

T.

Taille, the, 23, 24.

Talleyrand, 102, 106.

Tallien, on mission, 216;

in Thermidor, 259;
during the Reaction, 263, 264;
Madame, 186.

Talma, Madame, 185.

Talon, 126.

Tarascon, Reaction at, 279.

Target, 103.

Taxes, under Ancien Régime, 23-25;

of the Constituent Assembly, 93-96;
resistance to, 139, 196, 267;
on the rich, 198, 220.
See Finance.

Tennis Court Oath, the, 57.

Tenures, of the Ancien Régime, 19-21.

Terror, establishment of the, 170, 195, 206, 212;

government of the, 212-217;
principles of the, 218-230;
character of the leaders of the, 230-235, 283;
Danton and the, 238, 240, 242;
Robespierre and the, 256, 257, 258, 261;
end of the, 261, 262, 273.

Thermidor, 228;
insurrection of, 259, 260.

Thermidorians, the, 263, 279.

Thibeaudeau, 263.

Thouret, 103, 126.

Three Hundred, the, 145.

Thugut, 276.

Thuriot, 263, 271.

Tiers-État, importance of the, 51, 52, 53;

constitutes itself the National Assembly, 57.
Toulon, declares against Jacobin government, 205, 216, 217;
capture of, 244.

Toulouse, Archbishop of, 15, 49;

distress in, 134.

Trèves, Emigrants at, 159.

Trianon, the Queen at, 44.

Tronchet, 103.

Troyes, Bishop of, 15;

rising at, 61;
distress in, 270.

Tuileries, attacks on, 172, 175.

Turgot, observations of, 23, 26;

contributes to Encyclopaedia, 34;
one of the economists, 36;
Comptroller-General, 45;
fall of, 47.

Turkey, critical position of, 157.

Turreau, 'Hellish Columns' of, 278.

V.

Vacheron, 231.

Vadier, in Constituent Assembly, 105;

in Committee of General Security, 212, 232;
fall of, 265, 271.
Valenciennes, captured, 205.

Valmy, Battle of, 180.

Varennes, Louis' flight to, 149.

Vaucluse, Terror in the, 217.

Vendée, la, nobles of, 13;

rising in, 199, 205, 206, 276, 278, 279.

Vendémiaire, 227;
insurrection of, 281.

Ventôse, 228.

Verdun, surrender of, 177, 178.

Vergniaud, in the Legislative, 164;

in the Convention, 183, 184;
on the execution of the King, 191;
death of, 207.

Versailles, King's Council at, 7, 9;

Court at, 12, 13;
States General at, 55-58, 63-67;
Parisian mob at, 69;
suggested meeting of Convention at, 201.

Veto, debates on the, 67.

Victor, 274.

Vieux Cordelier, Desmoulins' paper, 242-245.

Vincent, 236, 243.

 Vingtièmes, the, 12, 24.

Vizille, Assembly of, 50.

Volney, 107.

Voltaire, 31-33, 110.

W.

War, desired by Girondists, 164;

opposed by Jacobins, 166, 167;
declared against Austria, 168;
effects of, 168, 169, 170, 181, 224;
progress of, 170, 173, 177, 180, 181, 194, 205, 206, 235, 273-
279;
in La Vendée, 199, 205, 206, 276, 278, 279.

Warsaw, Polish revolt at, 277.

Wattignies, Battle of, 206.

Westermann, 237.

West Indies, trade of, affected, 224.

Women, part played by, in the Revolution, 184-186.

Worms, Emigrants at, 161.

Y.

Young, Arthur, observations of, 19, 43, 224.

Ysabeau, 216.
THE END.
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