High performance control of AC drives

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Atif Iqbal
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HIGH PERFORMANCE
CONTROL OF AC DRIVES
WITH MATLAB®/
SIMULINK
HIGH PERFORMANCE
CONTROL OF AC DRIVES
®
WITH MATLAB /
SIMULINK
Second Edition

Haitham Abu-Rub
Texas A&M University at Qatar, Doha, Qatar

Atif Iqbal
Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

Jaroslaw Guzinski
Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
This edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Edition History
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd (1e 2012)

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Dedicated to my parents, my wife Beata, and my children Fatima, Iman,
Omar, and Muhammad.
—Haitham Abu-Rub

Dedicated to my parents, parents in-laws, my wife Shadma, and my kids

Abuzar, Noorin, and Abu Baker who have inspired me to write this book.
—Atif Iqbal

Dedicated to my parents, my wife Anna, and my son Jurek.

—Jaroslaw Guzinski
Contents
Acknowledgment xiv

Biographies xvi

Preface to Second Edition xviii

Preface to First Edition xx

About the Companion Website xxii

1 Introduction to High-Performance Drives 1

1.1 Preliminary Remarks 1
1.2 General Overview of High-Performance Drives 6
1.3 Challenges and Requirements for Electric Drives for Industrial Applications 10
1.3.1 Power Quality and LC Resonance Suppression 11
1.3.2 Inverter Switching Frequency 12
1.3.3 Motor-Side Challenges 12
1.3.4 High dv/dt and Wave Reflection 12
1.3.5 Use of Inverter Output Filters 13
1.4 Wide Bandgap (WBG) Devices Applications in Electric Motor Drives 14
1.4.1 Industrial Prototype Using WBG 15
1.4.2 Major Challenges for WBG Devices for Electric Motor Drive
Applications 15
1.5 Organization of the Book 16
References 19

2 Mathematical and Simulation Models of AC Machines 23

2.1 Preliminary Remarks 23
2.2 DC Motors 23
2.2.1 Separately Excited DC Motor Control 24
2.2.2 Series DC Motor Control 27
2.3 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor 28
2.3.1 Space Vector Representation 28
2.3.2 Clarke Transformation (ABC to αβ) 29
2.3.3 Park Transformation (αβ to dq) 32
2.3.4 Per Unit Model of Induction Motor 33
2.3.5 Double Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) 36
2.4 Mathematical Model of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor 39
2.4.1 Motor Model in dq Rotating Frame 40
2.4.2 Example of Motor Parameters for Simulation 42
viii Contents

2.4.3 PMSM Model in Per Unit System 42

2.4.4 PMSM Model in α − β (x − y)-Axis 44
2.5 Problems 45
References 45

3 Pulse-Width Modulation of Power Electronic DC–AC Converter 47

Atif Iqbal, Arkadiusz Lewicki, and Marcin Morawiec
3.1 Preliminary Remarks 47
3.2 Classification of PWM Schemes for Voltage Source Inverters 48
3.3 Pulse-Width Modulated Inverters 49
3.3.1 Single-Phase Half-Bridge Inverters 49
3.3.2 Single-Phase Full-Bridge or H-Bridge Inverters 55
3.4 Three-Phase PWM Voltage Source Inverter 60
3.4.1 Carrier-Based Sinusoidal PWM 67
3.4.2 Third-Harmonic Injection Carrier-Based PWM 67
3.4.3 MATLAB/Simulink Model for Third-Harmonic Injection PWM 72
3.4.4 Carrier-Based PWM with Offset Addition 72
3.4.5 Space Vector PWM (SVPWM) 74
3.4.6 Discontinuous Space Vector PWM 79
3.4.7 MATLAB/Simulink Model for Space Vector PWM 84
3.4.8 Space Vector PWM in Overmodulation Region 93
3.4.9 MATLAB/Simulink Model to Implement Space Vector PWM in
Overmodulation Regions 99
3.4.10 Harmonic Analysis 100
3.4.11 Artificial Neural Network-Based PWM 100
3.4.12 MATLAB/Simulink Model of Implementing ANN-Based SVPWM 103
3.5 Relationship Between Carrier-Based PWM and SVPWM 104
3.5.1 Modulating Signals and Space Vectors 105
3.5.2 Relationship Between Line-to-Line Voltages and Space Vectors 106
3.5.3 Modulating Signals and Space Vector Sectors 107
3.6 Low-Switching Frequency PWM 107
3.6.1 Types of Symmetries and Fourier Analysis 109
3.6.2 Selective Harmonics Elimination in a two-Level VSI 109
3.6.3 MATLAB Code 114
3.7 Multilevel Inverters 116
3.7.1 Neutral-Point-Clamped (Diode-Clamped) Multilevel Inverters 116
3.7.2 Flying Capacitor-Type Multilevel Inverter 120
3.7.3 Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter 126
3.8 Space Vector Modulation and DC-Link Voltage Balancing in Three-Level
Neutral-Point-Clamped Inverters 128
3.8.1 The Output Voltage of Three-Level NPC Inverter in the Case of
the DC-Link Voltage Unbalance 128
3.8.2 The Space Vector PWM for NPC Inverters 134
3.8.3 MATLAB/Simulink of SVPWM 137
3.9 Space Vector PWM for Multilevel-Cascaded H-Bridge Converter with
DC-Link Voltage Balancing 138
3.9.1 Control of a Multilevel CHB Converter 141
3.9.2 The Output Voltage of a Single H-Bridge 142
Contents ix

3.9.3 Three-Level CHB Inverter 143

3.9.4 The Space Vector Modulation for Three-Level CHB Inverter 145
3.9.5 The Space Vector Modulation for Multilevel CHB Inverter 149
3.9.6 MATLAB/Simulink Simulation of SVPWM 150
3.10 Impedance Source or Z-source Inverter 150
3.10.1 Circuit Analysis 154
3.10.2 Carrier-Based Simple Boost PWM Control of a Z-source Inverter 156
3.10.3 Carrier-Based Maximum Boost PWM Control of a Z-source
Inverter 157
3.10.4 MATLAB/Simulink Model of Z-source Inverter 159
3.11 Quasi Impedance Source or qZSI Inverter 159
3.11.1 MATLAB/Simulink Model of qZ-source Inverter 164
3.12 Dead Time Effect in a Multiphase Inverter 164
3.13 Summary 169
Problems 169
References 170

4 Field-Oriented Control of AC Machines 177

4.1 Introduction 177
4.2 Induction Machines Control 178
4.2.1 Control of Induction Motor Using V/f Methods 178
4.2.2 Vector Control of Induction Motor 182
4.2.3 Direct and Indirect Field-Oriented Control 188
4.2.4 Rotor and Stator Flux Computation 188
4.2.5 Adaptive Flux Observers 189
4.2.6 Stator Flux Orientation 190
4.2.7 Field Weakening Control 191
4.3 Vector Control of Double Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) 192
4.3.1 Introduction 192
4.3.2 Vector Control of DFIG Connected with the Grid (αβ Model) 194
4.3.3 Variables Transformation 194
4.3.4 Simulation Results 198
4.4 Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 198
4.4.1 Introduction 198
4.4.2 Vector Control of PMSM in dq Axis 200
4.4.3 Vector Control of PMSM in α−β Axis Using PI Controller 203
4.4.4 Scalar Control of PMSM 207
Exercises 208
Additional Tasks 208
Possible Tasks for DFIG 208
Questions 208
References 209

5 Direct Torque Control of AC Machines 211

Truc Phamdinh
5.1 Preliminary Remarks 211
x Contents

5.2 Basic Concept and Principles of DTC 212

5.2.1 Basic Concept 212
5.2.2 Principle of DTC 214
5.3 DTC of Induction Motor with Ideal Constant Machine Model 220
5.3.1 Ideal Constant Parameter Model of Induction Motors 220
5.3.2 Direct Torque Control Scheme 222
5.3.3 Speed Control with DTC 225
5.3.4 MATLAB/Simulink Simulation of Torque Control and Speed
Control with DTC 225
5.4 DTC of Induction Motor with Consideration of Iron Loss 240
5.4.1 Induction Machine Model with Iron Loss Consideration 240
5.4.2 MATLAB/SIMULINK Simulation of the Effects of Iron Losses
in Torque Control and Speed Control 243
5.4.3 Modified Direct Torque Control Scheme for Iron Loss Compensation 254
5.5 DTC of Induction Motor with Consideration of Both Iron Losses and
Magnetic Saturation 259
5.5.1 Induction Machine Model with Consideration of Iron Losses and
Magnetic Saturation 259
5.5.2 MATLAB/Simulink Simulation of Effects of Both Iron Losses and
Magnetic Saturation in Torque Control and Speed Control 260
5.6 Modified Direct Torque Control of Induction Machine with Constant
Switching Frequency 275
5.7 Direct Torque Control of Sinusoidal Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motors (SPMSM) 276
5.7.1 Introduction 276
5.7.2 Mathematical Model of Sinusoidal PMSM 276
5.7.3 Direct Torque Control Scheme of PMSM 278
5.7.4 MATLAB/Simulink Simulation of SPMSM with DTC 278
References 296

6 Nonlinear Control of Electrical Machines Using Nonlinear Feedback 299

Zbigniew Krzeminski and Haitham Abu-Rub
6.1 Introduction 299
6.2 Dynamic System Linearization Using Nonlinear Feedback 300
6.3 Nonlinear Control of Separately Excited DC Motors 301
6.3.1 MATLAB/Simulink Nonlinear Control Model 303
6.3.2 Nonlinear Control Systems 303
6.3.3 Speed Controller 304
6.3.4 Controller for Variable m 304
6.3.5 Field Current Controller 306
6.3.6 Simulation Results 306
6.4 Multiscalar Model (MM) of Induction Motor 306
6.4.1 Multiscalar Variables 307
Contents xi

6.4.2 Nonlinear Linearization of Induction Motor Fed by

Voltage Controlled VSI 308
6.4.3 Design of System Control 310
6.4.4 Nonlinear Linearization of Induction Motor Fed by Current
Controlled VSI 311
6.4.5 Stator-Oriented Nonlinear Control System (based on Ψ s, is) 314
6.4.6 Rotor–Stator Fluxes-Based Model 315
6.4.7 Stator-Oriented Multiscalar Model 316
6.4.8 Multiscalar Control of Induction Motor 318
6.4.9 Induction Motor Model 319
6.4.10 State Transformations 320
6.4.11 Decoupled IM Model 321
6.5 MM of Double-Fed Induction Machine (DFIM) 322
6.6 Nonlinear Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 325
6.6.1 Nonlinear Control of PMSM for a dq Motor Model 327
6.6.2 Nonlinear Vector Control of PMSM in α−β Axis 329
6.6.3 PMSM Model in α−β (x−y) Axis 329
6.6.4 Transformations 329
6.6.5 Control System 333
6.6.6 Simulation Results 334
6.7 Problems 334
References 334

7 Five-Phase Induction Motor Drive System 337

7.1 Preliminary Remarks 337
7.2 Advantages and Applications of Multiphase Drives 338
7.3 Modeling and Simulation of a Five-Phase Induction Motor Drive 339
7.3.1 Five-Phase Induction Motor Model 339
7.3.2 Five-Phase Two-Level Voltage Source Inverter Model 345
7.3.3 PWM Schemes of a Five-Phase VSI 380
7.4 Direct Rotor Field-Oriented Control of Five-Phase Induction Motor 396
7.4.1 MATLAB/Simulink Model of Field-Oriented Control of Five-Phase
Induction Machine 398
7.5 Field-Oriented Control of Five-Phase Induction Motor with Current
Control in the Synchronous Reference Frame 402
7.6 Direct Torque Control of a Five-Phase Induction Motor 404
7.6.1 Control of Inverter Switches Using DTC Technique 404
7.6.2 Virtual Vector for Five-Phase Two-Level Inverter 405
7.7 Model Predictive Control (MPC) 420
7.7.1 MPC Applied to a Five-Phase Two-Level VSI 421
7.7.2 MATLAB/Simulink of MPC for Five-Phase VSI 422
7.7.3 Using Eleven Vectors with γ = 0 423
7.7.4 Using Eleven Vectors with γ = 1 425
7.8 Summary 426
7.9 Problems 426
References 427
xii Contents

8 Sensorless Speed Control of AC Machines 433

8.1 Preliminary Remarks 433
8.2 Sensorless Control of Induction Motor 433
8.2.1 Speed Estimation Using Open-Loop Model and Slip Computation 434
8.2.2 Closed-Loop Observers 434
8.2.3 MRAS (Closed-Loop) Speed Estimator 443
8.2.4 The Use of Power Measurements 446
8.3 Sensorless Control of PMSM 448
8.3.1 Control System of PMSM 450
8.3.2 Adaptive Backstepping Observer 450
8.3.3 Model Reference Adaptive System for PMSM 452
8.3.4 Simulation Results 454
8.4 MRAS-Based Sensorless Control of Five-Phase Induction Motor Drive 454
8.4.1 MRAS-Based Speed Estimator 458
8.4.2 Simulation Results 460
References 464

9 Selected Problems of Induction Motor Drives with Voltage Inverter and

Inverter Output Filters 469
9.1 Drives and Filters – Overview 469
9.2 Three-Phase to Two-Phase Transformations 471
9.3 Voltage and Current Common Mode Component 473
9.3.1 MATLAB/Simulink Model of Induction Motor Drive with PWM
Inverter and Common Mode Voltage 474
9.4 Induction Motor Common Mode Circuit 477
9.5 Bearing Current Types and Reduction Methods 478
9.5.1 Common Mode Choke 480
9.5.2 Common Mode Transformers 482
9.5.3 Common Mode Voltage Reduction by PWM Modifications 483
9.6 Inverter Output Filters 489
9.6.1 Selected Structures of Inverter Output Filters 489
9.6.2 Inverter Output Filters Design 494
9.6.3 Motor Choke 503
9.6.4 MATLAB/Simulink Model of Induction Motor Drive with PWM
Inverter and Differential Mode LC Filter 506
9.7 Estimation Problems in the Drive with Filters 509
9.7.1 Introduction 509
9.7.2 Speed Observer with Disturbances Model 511
9.7.3 Simple Observer Based on Motor Stator Models 514
9.8 Motor Control Problems in the Drive with Filters 516
9.8.1 Introduction 516
9.8.2 Field-Oriented Control 518
9.8.3 Nonlinear Field-Oriented Control 522
9.8.4 Nonlinear Multiscalar Control 526
Contents xiii

9.9 Predictive Current Control in the Drive System with Output Filter 530
9.9.1 Control System 530
9.9.2 Predictive Current Controller 534
9.9.3 EMF Estimation Technique 536
9.10 Problems 541
Questions 544
References 545

10 Medium Voltage Drives – Challenges and Trends 549

Haitham Abu-Rub, Sertac Bayhan, Shaikh Moinoddin, Mariusz Malinowski, and
Jaroslaw Guzinski
10.1 Introduction 549
10.2 Medium Voltage Drive Topologies 551
10.3 Challenges and Requirements of MV Drives 561
10.3.1 Power Quality and LC Resonance Suppression 561
10.3.2 Inverter Switching Frequency 561
10.3.3 Motor Side Challenges 562
10.4 Summary 569
References 569

11 Current Source Inverter Fed Drive 575

Marcin Morawiec and Arkadiusz Lewicki
11.1 Introduction 575
11.2 Current Source Inverter Structure 576
11.3 Pulse Width Modulation of Current Source Inverter 578
11.4 Mathematical Model of the Current Source Inverter Fed Drive 582
11.5 Control System of an Induction Machine Supplied by a Current Source
Inverter 583
11.5.1 Open-Loop Control 583
11.5.2 Direct Field Control of Induction Machine 584
11.6 Control System Model in Matlab/Simulink 587
References 591

Index 593
Acknowledgment
We would like to take this opportunity to express our sincere appreciation to all the people
who were directly or indirectly helpful in making this book a reality. Our thanks go to our
colleague and students at Texas A&M University at Qatar, Qatar University, Aligarh Muslim
University, and Gdansk University of Technology. Our special thanks go to Prof. Abullah
Kouzou, Dr. M. Rizwan Khan, and Mr. M. Arif Khan for assisting us in this work. We are
also grateful to Dr. Khalid Khan, for his assistance in preparing MATLAB®/Simulink
models and converting C/C++ files into MATLAB®. We are also thankful to Dr. Shaikh
Moinoddin for his help especially in Chapters 3, 7, and 10 of the book.
We are indebted to our family members for their continuous support, patience, and encour-
agement without which this project would not have been completed. We would also like to
express our appreciation and sincere gratitude to the staff of Wiley for their help and
cooperation.
Above all we are grateful to almighty, the most beneficent and merciful who provides us
confidence and determination in accomplishing this work.

Haitham Abu-Rub, Atif Iqbal, and Jaroslaw Guzinski

Biographies
Haitham Abu-Rub is a full professor holding two PhDs from Gdansk University of
Technology (1995) and from Gdansk University (2004). Dr. Abu Rub has long teaching
and research experiences at many universities in many countries including Qatar, Poland,
Palestine, the USA, and Germany.
Since 2006, Dr. Abu-Rub has been associated with Texas A&M University at Qatar, where
he has served for five years as the chair of Electrical and Computer Engineering Program and
has been serving as the Managing Director of the Smart Grid Center at the same university.
His main research interests are energy conversion systems, smart grid, renewable energy sys-
tems, electric drives, and power electronic converters.
Dr. Abu-Rub is the recipient of many prestigious international awards and recognitions, such
as the American Fulbright Scholarship and the German Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship.
He has co-authored around 400 journal and conference papers, five books, and five book chap-
ters. Dr. Abu-Rub is an IEEE Fellow and Co-Editor in Chief of the IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics.
Atif Iqbal, Fellow IET (UK), Fellow IE (India) and Senior Member IEEE, DSc (Poland),
PhD (UK)-Associate Editor Industrial Electronics and IEEE ACCESS, Editor-in-Chief,
I-manager’s Journal of Electrical Engineering, and Former Associate Editor IEEE Trans.
on Industry Application, is a full professor at the Department of Electrical Engineering, Qatar
University, and former full professor at Electrical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University
(AMU), Aligarh, India. He is a recipient of Outstanding Faculty Merit Award academic year
2014–2015 and Research excellence awards 2015 and 2019 at Qatar University, Doha, Qatar.
He received his BSc (Gold Medal) and MSc Engineering (Power System & Drives) degrees in
1991 and 1996, respectively, from the Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh, India, and
PhD in 2006 from Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK. He obtained DSc
(Habilitation) from Gdansk University of Technology in Control, Informatics and Electrical
Engineering in 2019. He has been employed as a lecturer in the Department of Electrical
Engineering, AMU, Aligarh, since 1991 where he served as full professor until August
2016. He is recipient of Maulana Tufail Ahmad Gold Medal for standing first at BSc Engg.
(Electrical) Exams in 1991 from AMU. He has received several best research papers awards,
e.g. at IEEE ICIT-2013, IET-SEISCON-2013, SIGMA 2018, IEEE CENCON 2019, and IEEE
ICIOT 2020. He has published widely in International Journals and Conferences, his research
findings related to power electronics, variable speed drives, and renewable energy sources. Dr.
Iqbal has authored/co-authored more than 390 research papers and two books and three chap-
ters in two other books. He has supervised several large R&D projects worth more than mul-
timillion USD. He has supervised and co-supervised several PhD and Masters students. His
principal area of research interest is smart grid, complex energy transition, active distribution
network, electric vehicles drivetrain, sustainable development and energy security, distributed
energy generation, and variable speed drives.
Biographies xvii

Jaroslaw Guzinski received MSc, PhD, and DSc degrees from the Electrical Engineering
Department at Technical University of Gdansk, Poland, in 1994, 2000, and 2011, respectively.
Since 2016, he has been associate professor at Gdansk University of Technology. Currently he
is the head of the Department of Electric Drives and Energy Conversion at the same university.
From 2006 to 2009, he has been involved in the European Commission Project PREMAID
Marie Curie, “Predictive Maintenance and Diagnostics of Railway Power Trains,” coordinated
by Alstom Transport, France. From 2010 to 2014, he has been a consultant in the prestigious
project of integration of renewable energy sources and smart grid for building unique labora-
tory LINTE^2. In 2012, he was awarded by Polish Academy of Sciences – Division IV: Engi-
neering Sciences for his monograph “Electric drives with induction motors and inverters output
filters – selected problems.” He obtained scholarships from the Socrates/Erasmus program and
was granted with three scientific projects supported by the Polish government in the area of
sensorless control and diagnostic for drives with LC filters. He has authored and co-authored
more than 150 journal and conference papers. He is an inventor of some solutions for speed
sensorless drives with LC filters (six patents). His interests include sensorless control of elec-
trical machines, multiphase drives (five-phase), inverter output filters, renewable energy, and
electrical vehicles. Dr. Guzinski is a Senior Member of IEEE.
Preface to Second Edition
The first edition of the book was widely accepted by universities, students, and researchers.
Second edition of the book endeavors to enrich the content of the book by updating the existing
content, adding some new advancements on the motor drive technology, and responding to the
suggestions of many readers. The second edition of the book enhances the content of almost all
the chapters. The first chapter gives an overview of the electric motor drive technology using
new switching devices. The new power switching devices fabricated using wide band gap tech-
nology are becoming popular in motor drives application. The new devices are silicon carbide
(SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) that offer low switching and conduction losses while offering
operation at a higher temperature and reduced converters size. High power under medium volt-
age (MV) drives demand low switching frequency to reduce the losses in order to improve effi-
ciency. Low switching frequency pulse-width modulation (PWM) is attractive for high-power
drive systems. Selective harmonic elimination (SHE) is a low switching frequency PWM tech-
nique that selectively eliminates certain low-order harmonics by switching the devices at a pre-
specified switching angle or switching instant. SHE is further elaborated in this edition of the
book. Multilevel inverters are used in high-power drives because of lower waveforms distortion
and obtaining lower dv/dt. Phase-shifted and level-shifted PWM techniques are generally used
for controlling multilevel inverters. Switching loss formula for a five-level cascaded H-bridge
inverter is also presented in this edition of the book. Design of passive components of an imped-
ance source network is added as well. Space vector PWM technique applied to three-level neu-
tral point clamped inverter and cascaded H-bridge is added in this edition of the book.
Multiphase drives are also enhanced in this edition. Direct torque control is a high-
performance drive control that controls torque and speed of AC motors. The key strategy lies
in selecting proper inverter voltage according to the torque and stator flux errors. The inverter
models are different in a multiphase inverter compared to three-phase inverter. Thus, the appli-
cation of DTC in a multiphase machine is different from a three-phase machine. DTC applied to
a five-phase induction motor is included in this edition of the book.
A new chapter is added on the state-of-art solutions and advances in MV drives technologies.
The choice and deployment of MV drives in industries are associated with numerous require-
ments related to the front-end converter and inverter. Solutions are discussed that offer high
efficiency, low price, size and weight, minimum harmonic distortion, reduction in dv/dt, mit-
igation of common mode voltage (CMV), avoiding torsional vibration, transformerless solu-
tions, fault detection capability, and condition monitoring. The newly added Chapter 10
presents a comprehensive overview of the design and research trends of MV drives in addition
to presenting the challenges and requirements associated with the use of this type of drives.
The new subject of the current-source-inverter-fed drive has been added in Chapter 11. In
this new chapter, the structure of current source inverter based on insulated gate bipolar tran-
sistor (IGBT) transistors is presented. Moreover, the PWM strategy of the inverter output
Preface to Second Edition xix

current is also given. The special attention is given to control system of induction machine sup-
plied by current source inverter even to open loop control as well as for direct field control.
Sections 3.9 and 3.10 in Chapter 3 are added by Professor Arkadiusz Lewicki and Professor
Marcin Morawiec, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland.
Many individuals have sent their suggestions and advice on the first edition of this book. We
acknowledge with gratitude the generous and critical comments made by the individuals that
helped us to improve the second edition of the book.
We are grateful to our PhD students and researchers who contributed in improving the sec-
ond edition of the book. The whole book is proofread and typos and language error are ratified
by Professor Abdallah Kouzou, Djelfa University, Algeria. Other researchers and PhD students
involved in the preparation of this edition of the book are Dr. Khaliqurrahman, Aligarh Muslim
University; Dr. Salman Ahmed, Islamic University of Science & Technology, India; Dr. Marif
Duala, University of Malaya; Mr. Syed Rahman, Texas A&M University; Dr. Mohammad
Meraj and Dr. Pandav Kiran Maroti, Qatar University; and Dr. Shady Khalil, Texas A&M
University at Qatar.
Professor Haitham Abu-Rub is grateful to the emotional support and inspiration of his wife
Beata and children: Fatima, Iman, Omar, and Muhammad. Professor Atif Iqbal is thankful to
his wife Shadma, elder son Abuzar, daughter Noorin, and youngest son Abu Baker who are
constant source of inspiration, their support helped to complete the second edition of the book.
Professor Jaroslaw Guzinski appreciates the huge support of his whole family, friends from
Qatar and India, as well as the wonderful collaborators and authorities of the Electrical and
Control Engineering of the Gdansk University of Technology.
Preface to First Edition
The book describes the concept of advanced control strategies of AC machine drives along with
their complete simulation models using MATLAB/Simulink. Electrical Motors consume the
most energy of the electricity generated worldwide. Thus, there exists a huge scope of saving
energy by devising efficient operation schemes of these electrical machines. One approach
could be the special design of motors with high-energy efficiency. Other approach lies in
the proper control of the machines. The electrical motors employed in various applications
run at fixed speed. However, it is found that by varying the speed of motors depending upon
the load requirements, the efficiency can be improved significantly; thus, the variable speed
operation is extremely important in obtaining highly efficient operations of the machines.
As a result, the speed control of a machine for industrial and household applications is most
vital for limiting greenhouse gas emission and offering an environment-friendly solution. Con-
trolling the operation of an electrical machine by varying its speed, in literature, is called “var-
iable speed drives” or “adjustable speed drives.”
This book discusses the advanced technology used to obtain variable speed AC drives. This
book also describes the basic modeling procedures of power electronic converters and AC
machines. The mathematical model thus obtained will be used to develop a simulation model
using MATLAB/Simulink. The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) techniques for voltage source
inverters and their simulation models are described in one chapter. The AC machines that are
taken up for discussion are the most popular squirrel cage induction machine, permanent mag-
net synchronous machine, and the double-fed induction machine. The book illustrates the
advance control techniques of electric drives such as “field-oriented control,” “direct torque
control,” “feedback linearization control,” “sensorless operation,” and advances in “multi-
phase (more than three-phase) drives.” A separate chapter is dedicated to a five-phase motor
drive system. The effect of using an output LC filter at the inverter side on the motor drive
control is elaborated on in another chapter.
These control techniques are in general called “high-performance drives” as they offer
extremely fast and precise dynamic and steady-state response of electric machines. Thus, this
book describes the most important and industrially accepted advanced control technology of
AC machines. The book encompasses these diverse topics in a single volume.
This book features exhaustive simulation models based on MATLAB/Simulink. MATLAB/
Simulink is an integral part of taught courses at undergraduate and postgraduate programs and
is also extensively used in industries. Thus, the simulation models will provide a handy tool to
students, practicing engineers, and researchers to verify the algorithms, techniques, and mod-
els. Once familiar with the models presented in the book, students and practicing engineers can
develop and verify their own algorithms and techniques.
Preface to First Edition xxi

The book is useful for students studying electric drives/motor control at UG/PG levels. The
prerequisite will be the basic courses of electric machines, power electronics, and controls. Lec-
turers can find tutorial materials and solutions to the problems set out in the book on the com-
panion website: http://www.wiley.com/go/aburub_control. The contents of the book will also
be useful to researchers and practicing engineers, as well as specialists.
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/aburubcontrol2e
1
Introduction to High-Performance
Drives

1.1 Preliminary Remarks

The function of an electric drives system is the controlled conversion of electrical energy to a
mechanical form, and vice versa, via a magnetic field. Electric drive is a multidisciplinary field
of study, requiring proper integration of knowledge of electrical machines, actuators, power
electronic converters, sensors and instrumentation, control hardware and software, and commu-
nication links (Figure 1.1). There have been continued developments in the field of electric
drives since the inception of the first principle of electrical motors by Michael Faraday in
1821 [1]. The world dramatically changed after the first induction machine was patented
(US Patent 381968) by Nikola Tesla in 1888 [2]. Initial research focused on machine design with
the aim of reducing the weight per unit power and increasing the efficiency of the motor. Con-
stant efforts by researchers have led to the development of energy-efficient industrial motors
with reduced volume machines. The market is saturated with motors reaching high efficiency
of almost 95–96%, resulting in no more significant complaints from users [3]. AC motors are
broadly classified into three groups: synchronous, asynchronous (induction), and electronically
commutated motors. Asynchronous motors are induction motors with a field wound circuit or
with squirrel cage rotors. Synchronous motors run at synchronous speeds decided by the supply
frequency (Ns = 120f/P) and are classified into three major types: rotor excited, permanent
magnets, and synchronous reluctance types. Electronic commutated machines use the principle
of DC machines but replace the mechanical commutator with inverter-based commutations.
There are two main types of motors that are classified under this category: brushless DC motors
and switched reluctance motors. There are several other variations of these basic configurations

High Performance Control of AC Drives With MATLAB®/Simulink, Second Edition.

Haitham Abu-Rub, Atif Iqbal, and Jaroslaw Guzinski.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/aburubcontrol2e
2 High Performance Control of AC Drives With MATLAB®/Simulink

Power
electronics

Software Electric
machines

Electric drives

Instrumentation Control system

Signal
processing

Figure 1.1 Electric drive system

of electric machines used for specific applications, such as stepper motors, hysteresis motors,
permanent magnet-assisted synchronous reluctance motors, hysteresis-reluctance motors, uni-
versal motors, claw pole motors, frictionless active bearing-based motors, linear induction
motors, etc. Active magnetic bearing systems work on the principle of magnetic levitation
and, therefore, do not require working fluid, such as grease or lubricating oils. This feature is
highly desirable in special applications, such as artificial heart or blood pumps, as well as in
the oil and gas industry.
Induction motors are called the workhorse of industry due to their widespread use in indus-
trial drives. They are the most rugged and cheap motors available off the shelf. However, their
dominance is challenged by permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM), because of their
high power density and high efficiency due to reduced rotor losses. Nevertheless, the use of
PMSMs is still restricted to the high-performance application area, due to their moderate ratings
and high cost. PMSMs were developed after the invention of Alnico, a permanent magnet mate-
rial, in 1930. The desirable characteristics of permanent magnets are their large coercive force
and high reminiscence. The former characteristics prevent demagnetization during start and
short conditions of motors, and the latter maximizes the air gap flux density. The most used
permanent magnet material is neodymium–boron–iron (NdBFe), which has almost 50 times
higher B-H energy compared to Alnico. The major shortcomings of permanent magnet
machines are the nonadjustable flux, irreversible demagnetization, and expensive rare-earth
magnet resources. Variable flux permanent magnet (VFPM) machines have been developed
to incorporate the adjustable flux feature. This variable flux feature offers flexibility by opti-
mizing efficiency over the whole machine operation range, enhancing torque at low speed,
Introduction to High-Performance Drives 3

DFIG
Grid
supply
Wind turbine

Grid-end Machine-side
converter converter
Figure 1.2 General view of a DFIG connected to wind system and utility grid

extending the high speed operating range, and reducing the likelihood of an excessively high
back-electromotive force (EMF) being induced at high speed during inverter fault conditions.
The VFPMs are broadly classified into hybrid-excited machines (they have the field coils and
the permanent magnets) and mechanically adjusted permanent magnet machines. Detailed
reviews on the variable flux machines are given in [4]. The detailed reviews on the advances
on electric motors are presented in [5–16].
Another popular class of electrical machine is the double-fed induction machine (DFIM)
with a wound rotor. The DFIM is frequently used as an induction generator in wind energy
systems. The double-fed induction generator (DFIG) is a rotor-wound, three-phase induction
machine that is connected to the AC supply from both stator and rotor terminals (Figure 1.2).
The stator windings of the machine are connected to the utility grid without using power con-
verters, and the rotor windings are fed by an active front-end converter. Alternatively, the
machine can be fed by current or voltage source inverters with controlled voltage magnitude
and frequency [17–22].
In the control schemes of DFIM, two output variables on the stator side are generally defined.
These variables could be electromagnetic torque and reactive power, active and reactive power,
or voltage and frequency, with each pair of variables being controlled by different structures.
The machine is popular and widely adopted for high-power wind generation systems and
other types of generators with similar variable-speed high-power sources (e.g. hydro systems).
The advantage of using this type of machine is that the required converter capacity is up to three
times lower than those that connect the converter to the stator side. Hence, the costs and losses
in the conversion system are drastically reduced [17].
A DFIG can be used either in an autonomous generation system (stand-alone) or, more com-
monly, in parallel with the grid. If the machine is working autonomously, the stator voltage and
frequency are selected as the controlled signals. However, when the machine is connected to the
infinite bus, the stator voltage and frequency are dictated by the grid system. In the grid-
interactive system, the controlled variables are the active and reactive powers [23–25]. Indeed,
there are different types of control strategies for this type of machine; however, the most widely
used is vector control, which has different orientation frames similar to the squirrel cage induc-
tion motor; however, the most popular of these is the stator orientation scheme.
4 High Performance Control of AC Drives With MATLAB®/Simulink

Power electronics converters are used as an interface between the stiff voltage and frequency
grid system and the electric motors to provide adjustable voltage and frequency. This is the
most vital part of a drive system that provides operational flexibility. The development in
power electronic switches is steady, and nowadays high-frequency low-loss power semicon-
ductor devices are available for manufacturing efficient power electronic converters. The
power electronic converter can be used as DC-DC (buck, buck–boost, boost converters),
AC-DC (rectifiers), DC-AC (inverters), and AC-AC (cycloconverters and matrix converters)
modes. In AC drive systems, inverters are used with two-level output or multilevel output (par-
ticularly for higher-power applications). The input side of the inverter system can consist of a
diode-based, uncontrolled rectifier or controlled rectifier for regeneration capability called
back-to-back or active front-end converter. The conventional two-level inverter has the disad-
vantages of the poor source-side (grid-side) power factor and distorted source current. The sit-
uation is improved by using back-to-back converters or matrix converters in drive systems.
The output-side (AC) voltage/current waveforms are improved by employing the appropriate
pulse width modulation (PWM) technique, in addition to using a multilevel inverter system. In
modern motor drives, the transistor-based [insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), integrated
gate-commutated thyristor (IGCT), MOSFET] converters are most commonly used. The
increase in transistors switching frequency and decrease in transistor switching times are a
source of some serious problems. The high dv/dt and the common-mode (CM) voltage gener-
ated by the inverter PWM control result in undesirable bearing currents, shaft voltages, motor
terminal overvoltages, reduced motor efficiency, acoustic noise, and electromagnetic interfer-
ence (EMI) problems, which are aggravated by the long length of the cable between the con-
verter and the motor. To alleviate such problems, generally, the passive LC filters are installed
on the converter output. However, the use of an LC filter introduces unwanted voltage drops
and causes a phase shift between the filter input and output voltages and currents. These can
negatively influence the operation of the whole drive system, especially when sophisticated
speed, sensorless control methods are employed, requiring some estimation and control mod-
ifications for an electric drive system with an LC filter at its output. With the LC filter, the
principal problem is that the motor input voltages and currents are not precisely known; hence,
additional voltage and current sensors are employed. Since the filter is an external element of
the converter, the requirement of additional voltage and current sensors poses technical and
economical problems in converter design. The more affordable solution is to develop proper
motor control and use estimation techniques in conjunction with LC filter-based drive [26–30].
The simulation tool is a significant step for performing advanced control for industry. How-
ever, for practical implementation, the control platform for the electric drive system is provided
with microcontrollers (mCs), digital signal processors (DSPs), and/or field-programmable gate
arrays (FPGAs). These control platforms offer the flexibility of control and make possible the
implementation of complex control algorithms, such as field-oriented control (FOC), direct tor-
que control (DTC), nonlinear control, and artificial-intelligence-based control. The first micro-
processor, the Intel 4004 (US Patent # 3821715), was invented by Intel engineers Federico
Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor in November 1971 [31]. Since then, the development of
faster and more capable microprocessors and μCs has grown tremendously. A microcontroller
is a single IC containing the processor core, the memory, and the peripherals. Microprocessors
are used for general-purpose applications, such as in PCs, laptops, and other electronic items,
and are used in embedded applications for actions such as motor control. The first DSP was
Introduction to High-Performance Drives 5

produced by Texas Instruments, TMS32010, in 1983 [32], followed by several DSPs being
produced and used for several applications, ranging from motor control to multimedia applica-
tions to image processing. Texas Instruments has developed some specific DSPs for electric
drive applications, such as the TMS320F2407, TMS320F2812, and TMS320F28335. These
DSPs have dedicated pins for PWM signal generation that serves by controlling power conver-
ters. Nowadays, control algorithms implement more powerful programmable logic components
called FPGAs, the first of which, XC2064, was invented by Xilinx co-founders Ross Freeman
and Bernard Vonderschmitt in 1985. FPGAs are composed of logic blocks with memory ele-
ments that can be reconfigured to obtain different logic gates. These reconfigurable logic gates
can be configured to perform complex combinational functions. The first FPGA XC2064 con-
sisted of 64 configurable logic blocks, with two three-input lookup tables. In 2010, an extended
processing platform was developed for FPGAs that combines the features of an advanced
reduced instruction set machine (ARM) high-end microcontroller (32-bit processor, memory,
and I/O) with an FPGA fabric for easier use in embedded applications. Such configurations
make it possible to implement a combination of serial and parallel processing to address the
challenges in designing today’s embedded systems [33].
The primitive electric drive system uses a fixed-speed drive supplied from the grid, while
mostly employing the DC motor. Adjustable-speed drive ASD systems offer more flexible con-
trol and increased drive efficiency when compared to the fixed speed drive. DC motors inher-
ently offer decoupled flux and torque control, with fast dynamic response and simple control
mechanism. However, the operating voltage of the DC machines is limited by the mechanical
commutator’s withstand voltage; in addition besides, the maintenance requirement is high due
to its brush and commutator arrangement. DC drives are now increasingly replaced by AC
drives due to the advent of the high-performance control of AC motors, such as vector control,
direct torque control (DTC), and predictive control, offering precise position control and an
extremely fast dynamic response [34]. The major advantages of AC drives over DC drives
include their robustness, compactness, economy, and low maintenance requirements.
Biologically inspired artificial intelligence techniques are now being increasingly used for
electric drive control and are based on artificial neural networks (ANN), fuzzy logic control
(FLC), adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), and genetic algorithm (GA) [35,
36]. A new class of electric drive controls, called brain emotional learning-based intelligent
controller (BELBIC), is reported in the literature [37]. The control relies on the emotion pro-
cessing mechanisms in the brain, with the decisions made on the basis of an emotional search.
This emotional intelligence controller offers a simple structure with a high autolearning feature
that does not require any motor parameters for self-performance. The high-performance drive
control requires some sort of parameter estimation of motors, in addition to the current, speed,
and flux information for a feedback closed-loop control. Sensors are used to acquire the infor-
mation and are subsequently used in the controller. The speed sensors are the most delicate part
in the whole drive system, thus extensive research efforts are being made to eliminate the speed
sensors from the drive system, with the resulting drive system becoming a ‘sensorless’ drive. In
sensorless drive schemes, existing current and voltage sensors are used to compute the speed of
the machine, and the computed speed is used for closed-loop control. The literature on sensor-
less drives is too vast to list; however, a comprehensive review is available in [38–40].
A sensorless drive offers the advantages of a compact drive with reduced maintenance, reduced
cost, and its ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions. Despite impressive progress
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regarded as comprising two distinct types of nervous condition,
according as the loop formed by the two visceral nerve-cords is
twisted over itself, forming a figure of 8, or continues straight and
uncrossed. In the former case, we get the condition known as
streptoneurous, in the latter that as euthyneurous.[315] The
Euthyneura include the whole of the Opisthobranchiata[316] and
Pulmonata, the Streptoneura all the Prosobranchiata.

Fig. 101.—Nervous system of the Amphineura: A,

Proneomenia; B, Neomenia; C,
Chaetoderma; D, Chiton; c, cerebral ganglia;
l, l, lateral cords; pc, posterior commissure; s,
sublingual commissure or ring, with ganglia; v,
v, pedal cords. (Alter Hubrecht.)
The simplest form of nervous system in the euthyneurous
Gasteropoda occurs in the Opisthobranchiata. The cerebral, pleural,
and pedal ganglia tend to become concentrated in a ring-like form,
united by short commissures at the posterior end of the pharynx. The
visceral loop is in some cases long, and the two or three visceral
ganglia are then situated at its posterior extremity. The nervous
system of the Pulmonata is of a similar type, the visceral loop being
often much shorter, and tending to draw in towards the central group
of ganglia. The tentacular and optic nerves are, as usual, derived
from the cerebral ganglion, with which also the octocysts are
probably connected by rather long nerves. A pair of buccal ganglia
innervate the buccal mass, and are united by commissures with the
right and left cerebral ganglia. The osphradial nerve springs from
one of the ganglia on the visceral loop, the osphradium itself being
situated (in Limnaea) immediately above the pulmonary orifice and
adjacent to the anus (Fig. 102). This massing of the ganglia is still
better illustrated by the accompanying figure of Physa (Fig. 103), in
which the animal is represented as if transparent, so that the ganglia
and nerves are seen through the tissues.
Fig. 102.—I. Nervous system of Limnaea
stagnalis L. The oesophagus has been
cut and pulled forwards through the
nerve-collar, so as to expose the lower
surface of the buccal mass(dissected by
F. B. Stead)
B.M, buccal mass.
B.G, buccal, C.G, cerebral, Os.G,
osphradial, Pe.G, pedal ganglia.
Pl.G, pleural ganglia.
Op.N, optic, Os.N, osphradial, Te.N,
tentacular nerve.
Ot, otocyst; V.L, visceral loop.
R, rectum, dotted in to show its position
relative to the osphiadium.

II. Right side of the head of Limnaea

stagnalis. The overhanging flap of the
 mantle has been cut in the middle line,
and the right half twisted back, so as to
expose the pulmonary orifice, etc. The
points A A on the mantle edge were
continuous before the mantle was cut;
the line BA is part of the free edge of the
mantle.
An, anus; F, female generative orifice; J,
portion of jaw; M, male generative orifice
under right tentacle; Os, osphradium; P.O,
pulmonary orifice.
Of the streptoneurous Gasteropoda, the nervous system of
Fissurella and Haliotis shows distinct points of similarity to that of the
Amphineura. The pedal nerves are united by transverse
commissures throughout their entire length, while a double
commissure unites the cerebral ganglia to the mass from which the
pedal nerves proceed. In the great majority of the Streptoneura the
ganglia (except the visceral) are more concentrated and the
commissures are consequently much shorter. The accompanying
figure of Cyclostoma, in which the animal is represented as in that of
Physa just described, illustrates this grouping of the ganglia, the twist
of the visceral loop, and the position of the visceral ganglia at its
posterior end.
Fig. 103.—Nervous system of
Physa acuta Drap., showing
the massing of the ganglia at
the hinder end of the
pharynx: e, e, eyes; m,
mouth; m.l, m.l, mantle
lappets; o.f, female
generative orifice; o.m, male
generative orifice; os,
osphradium. (After Lacaze-
Duthiers.)
 Fig. 104.—Example of a
streptoneurous Gasteropod
(Cyclostoma elegans Drap.): c.g,
c.g, cerebral ganglia; e, e, eyes;
os, osphradium; ot, ot, otocysts;
p.g, p.g, pedal ganglia; pl.g, pl.g,
pleural ganglia; sp.g, supra-
intestinal ganglion; sb.g, sub-
intestinal ganglion; t.n, tentacle
nerve; v.g, visceral ganglion. (After
Lacaze-Duthiers.)
Scaphopoda.—In the Scaphopoda the nervous system
resembles that of the Pelecypoda. The cerebral and pleural ganglia
lie close together, while the pedal ganglia are placed in the anterior
part of the foot, connected with the cerebral ganglia by long
commissures; the visceral loop is rather long, and the two visceral
ganglia are adjacent to the anus.
Pelecypoda.—The nervous system in the Pelecypoda is the
simplest type in which well-marked ganglionic centres occur. The
ganglia are few, symmetrically placed, and are usually at a
considerable distance apart. There are, as a rule, three distinct pairs
of ganglia, the cerebral (cerebro-pleural), pedal, and visceral. The
cerebral are formed by the fusion of the cerebral and pleural ganglia,
which, however, in some cases (Protobranchiata) continue distinct.
[317] They lie above or on each side of the mouth, united by a
commissure of varying length. Another pair of commissures unites
them with the pedal ganglia, which are placed at the base of the foot,
and are usually very close together, sometimes (as in Anodonta)
becoming partially fused. The length of these commissures depends
upon the distance between mouth and foot; thus they are very long
in Mya and Modiola, and very short in Pecten. In cases where the
foot is rudimentary or becomes aborted through disuse (e.g. Ostrea),
the pedal ganglia may dwindle or disappear altogether. The visceral
ganglia are on the ventral side of the posterior adductor muscle,
beneath the rectum, and innervate the branchiae, osphradia, and the
whole of the visceral sac. A pair of cerebro-visceral commissures
traverses the base of the foot, surrounding it with a comparatively
short loop (compare Fig. 106, c.v.c´), while a long commissure,
which runs round the entire edge of the mantle, and supplies
branching nerves to the mantle border and siphons (Fig. 106, c.v.c),
may also connect the visceral and cerebral ganglia.
 Fig. 105.—Nervous system of
Pelecypoda: A, Teredo; B,
Anodonta; C, Pecten; a, a,
cerebral ganglia; b, pedal
ganglia; c, visceral
ganglia. (After
Gegenbaur.)
Cephalopoda.—In the Cephalopoda the concentration of ganglia
attains its maximum, and may perhaps be regarded as approaching
the point at which a definite brain may be said to exist. Another point
of distinction is the formation of special small ganglia upon the
nerve-cords in different parts of the body. In the Tetrabranchiata
(Nautilus) the cerebral and pedal ganglia form a broad ring which
surrounds the oesophagus, the former giving out the optic nerves,
with their special optic ganglion, and a pair each of buccal and
pharyngeal ganglia, the latter the nerves of the arms and funnel. The
visceral loop is still present in the form of a separate band, which
innervates the branchiae, osphradia, and viscera generally, forming
a special genital ganglion in connexion with the reproductive organs.
The principal ganglia of the Dibranchiata are still more concentrated,
even the visceral loop being possibly united with the rest in forming
an unbroken mass in which scarcely any trace of commissures can
be detected. The pedal ganglion becomes separated into two
portions, one of which innervates the arms, the other the funnel. Two
peculiar ganglia (the stellate ganglia) supply a number of branching
nerves to the mantle.

Fig. 106.—Nervous system of Cardium edule L.: a.m, anterior adductor

muscle; br, branchiae; br.n, branchial nerve; c.g, c.g, cerebral ganglia;
c.p.c, cerebro-pedal commissure; c.v.c’, cerebro-visceral commissure;
c.v.c, cerebro-visceral commissure of mantle; l.p, labial palps: m, mouth;
p.g, pedal ganglion; p.m, posterior adductor muscle; v.g, visceral ganglion.
(After Drost, × 3.)

E. L. Bouvier, Système nerveux, morphologie générale et

classification des Gastéropodes prosobranches: Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool.
(7), iii. 1887, pp. 1–510.
J. Brock, Zur Neurologie der Prosobranchier: Zeit. wiss. Zool. xlviii.
1889, pp. 67–83.
 O. Bütschli, Bemerkungen über die wahrscheinliche Herleitung der
Asymmetrie der Gasteropoda, etc.: Morph. Jahrb. xii. 1886, pp. 202–
222.
B. Haller, Zur Kenntniss der Muriciden. I. Anatomie des
Nervensystems: Denksch. Math. Nat. Kl. Ak. Wien, xlv. 1882, pp. 87–
106.
„ Untersuchungen über marine Rhipidoglossen. II. Textur des„
Centralnervensystems und seiner Hüllen: Morph. Jahrb. xi. 1885, pp.
319–436.
H. Grenadier, Abhandlungen zur vergleichenden Anatomie des
Auges: Abh. Naturf. Gesell. Halle, xvi. 1884, pp. 207–256; xvii. 1886,
pp. 1–64.
A. P. Henchman, The Origin and Development of the Central
Nervous System in Limax maximus: Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv. xx. 1890,
pp. 169–208.
V. Hensen, Ueber das Auge einiger Cephalophoren: Zeit. wiss.
Zool. xv. 1865, pp. 157–242.
C. Hilger, Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gasteropodenauges: Morph.
Jahrb. x. 1885, pp. 352–371.
Lacaze-Duthiers, Otocystes ou Capsules auditives des
Mollusques (Gastéropodes): Arch. Zool. Exp. Gén. i. 1872, pp. 97–
166.
„ „ Du système nerveux des Mollusques gastéropodes
pulmonés aquatiques: ibid. pp. 437–500.
P. Pelseneer, Recherches sur le système nerveux des Ptéropodes:
Arch. Biol. vii. 1887, pp. 93–130.
„ Sur la valeur morphologique des bras et la composition du
système nerveux central des Cephalopodes: Arch. Biol. viii. 1888, pp.
723–756.
H. Simroth, Ueber die Sinneswerkzeuge unserer einheimische
Weichthiere: Zeit. wiss. Zool. xxvi. 1876, pp. 227–348.
J. W. Spengel, Die Geruchsorgane und das Nervensystem der
Mollusken: Zeit. wiss. Zool. xxxv. 1881, pp. 333–383.
 CHAPTER VIII
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, JAW, AND RADULA: EXCRETORY ORGANS

The digestive tract, or, as it is often termed, the alimentary canal

or gut, is a very important feature of the Mollusca. It may be
regarded as consisting of the following parts: (1) a mouth or oral
aperture: (2) a throat or pharynx; (3) an oesophagus, leading into (4)
a stomach, (5) an intestine and rectum, ending in (6) an anus.
The primitive positions of mouth and anus were presumably at the
anterior and posterior ends of the animal, as in the Amphineura and
symmetrical Mollusca generally. But the modifications of original
molluscan symmetry, which have already been referred to (p. 154,
compare pp. 245, 246), have resulted in the anus becoming, in the
great majority of Gasteropoda, twisted forward, and occupying a
position on some point in the right side in dextral, and in the left in
sinistral species.
The process of digestion, as the food passes from one end of the
tract to the other, is performed by the aid of the secretions of various
glands, which open into the alimentary canal at different points in its
course. The principal of these are the salivary glands, situated on the
pharynx and oesophagus, and the liver, biliary or hepatic gland,
connecting with the stomach. With these may be considered the anal
and ink-glands, which, in certain genera, connect with the terminal
portion of the rectum.
1. The mouth is generally, as in the common snail and periwinkle,
placed on the lower part of the head, and may be either a mere
aperture, circular or semicircular, in the head-mass, or, as is more
usual, may be carried on a blunt snout (compare Fig. 6, p. 10, and
Fig. 68, p. 159), which is capable of varying degrees of protrusion.
From the retractile snout has doubtless been derived the long
proboscis which is so prominent a feature of many genera (compare
Figs. 1, B, and 99), and in some (e.g. Mitra, Dolium) attains a length
exceeding that of the whole body. As a rule, Mollusca provided with
a proboscis are carnivorous, while those whose mouth is on the
surface of the head are Vegetable feeders, but this rule is by no
means invariable. The mouth is thickened round the aperture into
‘lips,’ which are often extensile, and appear capable of closing upon
and grasping the food. In the Pelecypoda the mouth is furnished, on
each side, with a pair of special external lobes, the ‘labial palps,’
which appear to be of a highly sensitive nature, and whose object it
is to collect, and possibly to taste, the food before it passes into the
mouth.
2. The Pharynx, Jaws, and Radula.—Immediately behind the lips
the mouth opens into the muscular throat, pharynx, or buccal mass.
The pharynx of the Glossophora, i.e. of the Gasteropoda,
Scaphopoda, and Cephalopoda, is distinguished from that of the
Pelecypoda,[318] by the possession of two very characteristic organs
for the rasping or trituration of food before it reaches the oesophagus
and stomach. These are (a) the jaw or jaws, and (b) the radula,[319]
odontophore, or lingual ribbon. The jaws bite the food, the radula
tears it up small before it passes into the stomach to undergo
digestion. The jaws are not set with teeth like our own; roughly
speaking, the best idea of the relations of the molluscan jaw and
radula may be obtained by imagining our own teeth removed from
our jaws and set in parallel rows along a greatly prolonged tongue.
[320]

In nearly all land Pulmonata the jaw is single, and is placed

behind the upper lip. If a common Helix aspersa be observed
crawling up the inside of a glass jar, or feeding on some succulent
leaf, the position and action of the jaw can be readily discerned. It
shows very black when the creature opens its mouth, and under its
operation the edge of a lettuce leaf shows a regular series of little
curved indentations, in shape not unlike the semicircular bites
inflicted by a schoolboy upon his bread and butter. The jaw of Helix
(Fig. 107, B) is arched in shape, and is strengthened by a number of
projecting vertical ribs. That of Limax (A) is straighter, and is slightly
striated, without vertical ribs. In Bulimulus (C) the arch of the jaw is
very conspicuous, and the upper edges are always denticulated; in
Orthalicus there is a central triangular plate with a number of
overlapping plates on either side; in Succinea (E) there is a large
square accessory plate above the jaw proper. The form of the jaw is
peculiar not only to the genus but to the species as well. Thus the
jaw of H. aspersa is specifically distinct from that of H. pomatia, and
that of H. nemoralis is distinct from both. Wiegmann has
observed[321] that in young Arion, Limax, and Helix, the jaw consists
of two pieces, which coalesce by fusion in the adult, thus indicating a
stage of development in advance of the double jaw which is found in
most of the non-pulmonate Mollusca. In all fresh-water Pulmonata
there are two small accessory side plates besides the jaw proper
(Fig. 107, F).

Fig. 107.—Jaws of various Pulmonata: A, Limax

(gagates Drap., Lancashire, × 15); B, Helix
(acutissima Lam., Jamaica, × 15); C,
Bulimulus (depictus Reeve, Venezuela, × 20);
D, Achatina (fulica Fér., Mauritius, × 7); E,
Succinea (elegans Riss., Aral District, × 30);
F, Limnaea (stagnalis L., Cambridge, × 30).
Nearly all the non-carnivorous Prosobranchiata, land, fresh-water,
and marine alike, are provided with two large lateral jaws. Many of
these are sculptured with the most elaborate patterns, and appear to
be furnished with raised teeth, like a file. In the Nudibranchiata the
jaws are of great size and beauty of ornamentation (Fig. 109).

Fig. 108.—Jaws of A, Triton australis Lam., Sydney; B, Ampullaria

fasciata Reeve, Demerara; C, Calliostoma punctulatum Mart.,
New Zealand; D, Cyclophorus atramentarius Sowb., Sanghir; all
× 15.
 Fig. 109.—Jaws of A, Chromodoris gracilis Iher., × 15; B,
Scyllaea pelagica L., × 7; C, Pleurobranchus plumula
Mont., × 10; D, Pleurobranchaea Meckelii Lam., × 5/2.

The carnivorous genera, whether marine (e.g. Conus, Murex,

Buccinum, Nassa) or land (e.g. Testacella, Glandina, Streptaxis,
Ennea), are entirely destitute of jaws, the reason probably being that
in all these cases the teeth of the radula are sufficiently powerful to
do the work of tearing up the food without the aid of a masticatory
organ as well. Jaws are also wanting in the Heteropoda, and in many
of the Nudibranchiata and Tectibranchiata.
In the Cephalopoda the jaws, or ‘beaks,’ as they are called, are
most formidable weapons of attack. In shape they closely resemble
the beaks of a parrot, but the hook on the dorsal side of the mouth
does not, as in birds, close over the lower hook, but fits under it.
Powerful muscles govern these mandibles, which must operate with
immense effect upon their prey (Fig. 110).
Fig. 110.—Jaws of Sepia:
A, in situ within the
buccal mass, several
of the arms having
been cut away; B,
removed from the
mouth and slightly
enlarged.
 Fig. 111.—Patella vulgata L.,
showing the normal position
of the radula, which is
doubled back in a bow; the
shell has been removed, and
the whole visceral mass is
turned forward, exposing the
dorsal surface of the
muscular foot: gr,
longitudinal groove on this
surface; i, i, intestine; l, liver;
m, m, mantle edge; mu,
muscles (cut through)
fastening the visceral mass
to the upper sides of the foot;
ov, ovary; r, radula; u.f,
upper or dorsal surface of
the foot.

The Radula.[322]—When the food has passed beyond the

operation of the jaw, it comes within the province of the radula, the
front part of which perhaps co-operates to a certain extent with the
jaw in performing the biting process. The function of the radula as a
whole is to tear or scratch, not to bite; the food passes over it and is
carded small, the effect being very much the same as if, instead of
dragging a harrow over the surface of a field, we were to turn the
harrow points upwards, and then drag the field over the harrow.
The radula itself is a band or ribbon of varying length and breadth,
formed of chitin, generally almost transparent, sometimes beautifully
coloured, especially at the front end, with red or yellow.[323] It lies
enveloped in a kind of membrane, in the floor of the mouth and
throat, being quite flat in the forward part, but usually curving up so
as to line the sides of the throat farther back, and in some cases
eventually forming almost a tube. The upper surface, i.e. the surface
over which the food passes, is covered with teeth of the most varied
shape, size, number, and disposition, which are almost invariably
arranged in symmetrical rows. These teeth are attached to the
cartilage on which they work by muscles which serve to erect or
depress them; probably also the radula as a whole can be given a
forward or backward motion, so as to rasp or card the substances
which pass over it.
The teeth on the front part of the radula are often much worn (Fig.
112), and probably fall away by degrees, their place being taken by
others successively pushed up from behind. At the extreme hinder
end of the radula the teeth are in a nascent condition, and there are
often as many as a dozen or more scarcely developed rows. Here,
too, lie the cells from which the teeth are originally formed.
The length and breadth of the radula vary greatly in different
genera. In Littorina it is very narrow, and several times the length of
the whole animal. It is kept coiled away like a watch-spring at the
back of the throat, only a small proportion of the whole being in use. I
have counted as many as 480 rows in the common Littorina littorea.
In Patella it is often longer than the shell itself, and if the radula of a
large specimen be freshly extracted and drawn across the hand, the
action of the hooks can be plainly felt. In Aerope, the Turbinidae
generally, and Haliotis it is very large. In Turritella, Aporrhais,
Cylichna, Struthiolaria, and the Cephalopoda it is small in proportion
to the size of the animal. In the Pulmonata generally it is very broad,
the length not exceeding, as a rule, thrice the breadth; in most other
groups the breadth is inconsiderable, as compared to the length.
 The Radula is wanting in two families of Prosobranchiata, the
Eulimidae and Pyramidellidae, which are consequently grouped
together as the section Gymnoglossa. It is probable that in these
cases the radula has aborted through disuse, the animals having
taken to a food which does not require trituration. Thus several
genera contained in both these families are known to live
parasitically upon various animals—Holothurians, Echinoderms, etc.
—nourishing themselves on the juices of their host. In some cases,
the development of a special suctorial proboscis compensates for
the loss of radula (see pp. 76–77). In Harpa there is no radula in the
adult, though it is present in the young form. No explanation of this
fact has yet been given. It is also absent in the Coralliophilidae, a
family closely akin to Purpura, but invariably parasitic on corals, and
probably nourished by their exudations. There is no radula in
Entoconcha, an obscure form parasitic on the blood-vessels of
Synapta, or in Neomenia, a genus of very low organisation, or in the
Tethyidae, or sea-hares, or in one or two other genera of
Nudibranchiata.
 Fig. 112.—Example of a front
portion of a radula
(Cantharus ringens Reeve,
Panama), much worn by use.
× 70.
The number of teeth in the radula varies greatly. When the teeth
are very large, they are usually few in number, when small, they are
very numerous. In the carnivorous forms, as a rule, the teeth are
comparatively few and powerful, while in the phytophagous genera
they are many and small. Large hooked and sickle-shaped teeth,
sometimes furnished with barbs like an arrow-head, and poison-
glands, are characteristic of genera which feed on flesh; vegetable
feeders, on the contrary, have the teeth rounded, and blunter at the
apex, or, if long and narrow, so slender as to be of comparatively
little effect. Genera which are normally vegetarian, but which will,
upon occasion, eat flesh, e.g. Limax and Hyalinia, exhibit a form of
teeth intermediate between these two extremes (see Fig. 140, A).
In Chaetoderma there is but one tooth. In Aeolis coronata there
are about 17, in A. papillosa and Elysia viridis about 19, in Glaucus
atlanticus about 21, in Fiona nobilis about 28. In the common whelk
(Buccinum undatum) there are from 220 to 250, in the common
periwinkle about 3500. As many as 8343 have been counted in