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Masami Nanzyo
Hitoshi Kanno
Inorganic
Constituents
in Soil
Basics and Visuals
Inorganic Constituents in Soil
Masami Nanzyo • Hitoshi Kanno
Inorganic Constituents in Soil

Basics and Visuals
Masami Nanzyo Hitoshi Kanno
Graduate School of Agricultural Science Graduate School of Agricultural Science
Tohoku University Tohoku University
Sendai, Japan Sendai, Japan
ISBN 978-981-13-1213-7 ISBN 978-981-13-1214-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1214-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018951424
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018. This book is an open access publication
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Preface
There has been increasing interest in our environments, which consists mainly of air,
water, and soil environments. Organisms, including humans, live within and interact
with these environments. However, the degree of the interest about soil has not been
as high as those for air, water, and organisms because air pollution, changes of air
temperature, contamination of water, flooding, shortages of water, and increases and
decreases in the abundance and diversity of organisms tend to affect us more
directly. Changes in soil are less conspicuous because soil has buffering capabilities,
to some extent, against various impacts.
The buffering actions of soils, which are an outstanding aspect of soil, are due to
the sorption and release of various materials by soil constituents and to biological
activities. For example, the buffering action of soil against acids and bases is
primarily due to the surface properties of inorganic and organic constituents.
In addition, the biological buffering action of submerged soils can result in the
reduction of nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides added to soils by acid deposition.
Soil may appear very typical or similar when considering only the familiar
surface of soil. However, once one has an opportunity to observe a different soil,
he or she may become interested in the soil because of its unique aspects. To find a
different soil, one needs only to visit a place with a different landscape or dig into
soil to a depth of 0.5–1 m. Different soils often exist beneath different landscapes,
and as many soils show differentiation into various horizons, there may be differ-
ently colored horizons beneath the surface of the soil. These observations lead to
questions about the reasons for the differences between typical soil and the newly
found soil.
One answer to these questions is the difference in soil constituents between
various soils. Soil inorganic constituents are related to brown, red, yellow, black,
and white colors of soils, whereas soil organic constituents are related to dark or
dark-brown colors. Redox reactions of soil inorganic constituents are also related to
blue color and brown mottling in soils. The feel and consistence of soils also depend
on the properties and composition of soil constituents.
v
vi Preface
For our discussions of soil inorganic constituents that provide distinctive proper-
ties to soils, we consider noncrystalline materials and constituents sensitive to redox
reactions. We also discuss somewhat special events that exist in various places
including Japan, such as the effects of tsunamis and radiocesium pollution, because
these are related to the functions of soil inorganic constituents.
In this monograph, we introduce and identify the inorganic constituents in soil so
that readers can obtain an overview of them quickly. We list references for further
study at the end of each chapter. We hope that this monograph will contribute to an
understanding of soil, to efficient soil use, to conservation of soil, and to keeping our
environments comfortable.
Sendai, Japan Masami Nanzyo

March 2018 Hitoshi Kanno
Acknowledgments
We thank all those who provided advice and assistance toward completing this
monograph.
In relation to Chaps. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, many people assisted our soil sampling and
analytical work. The late Dr. T. Takahashi, project leader of the Soil Development
and Research Center, Japan International Cooperation Agency, provided us an
opportunity to survey and collect samples from Central Luzon, Philippines.
Dr. Tokutome collaborated with us during the soil sampling in the central plain of
Luzon, Philippines. Professor N. Mizuno of Rakuno Gakuen University provided a
sample of the Tarumae-a tephra, Hokkaido, Japan. Dr. Jae-Sung Shin, deputy
director general of the National Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology,
Korea, and his staff provided soil samples from Singun-ri, Republic of Korea.
Professor Manuel Casanova of the University of Chile provided Palexeralf sample
rich in kaolinite. Professor M. Nakagawa of Kochi University provided a chlorite
schist sample. Kunimine Industries Co., Ltd. provided a sample of Kunipia
F. Emeritus Professors S. Shoji and M. Saigusa and Dr. I. Yamada of Tohoku
University provided precious advice and samples of Andisols in Japan collected
through their research projects. Emeritus Professor S. Yamasaki provided analytical
data for 57 elements in Andisols in Japan. Professor H. Hirai of Utsunomiya
University collaborated with us during soil sampling at Kiwadashima, Tochigi
Prefecture, Japan. Emeritus Professor H. Takesako of Meiji University provided
soil samples from his study site at Hadano, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan.
Dr. N. Yasuda of the Mie Prefectural Agricultural Experiment Station assisted
with Andisol sampling in Suzuka, Mie Prefecture. Professor M. Watanabe provided
advice helpful for separating and identifying sclerotia grains. Professors R. A.
Dahlgren of the University of California, Davis, and Z. S. Chen of National Taiwan
University helped us to study Andisols in California and Taiwan, respectively. Drs.
K. Togami and K. Miura of Tohoku Agricultural Research Center cooperated with
us in the soil sampling of a paddy field in Miyagi Prefecture. Dr. S. Arai of
Mitsubishi Materials Corporation helped with soil sampling in Miyagi Prefecture
vii
viii Acknowledgments
and partially supported this study. Dr. B. Harms of the Department of Environment
and Resource Management, Brisbane, provided a natrojarosite sample.
In relation to Chap. 6, many people, agencies, local governments, and private
companies provided support and cooperation for our research projects. These
include Professors M. Saito, Y. Nakai, T. Ito, and T. Takahashi and Assistant
Professor M. Omura of Tohoku University; farmland owners Mrs. S. Hiratsuka
and H. Sasaki; Dr. H. Sugimoto of the Obayashi Corporation Technical Research
Institute; Sendai City staff; Miyagi Prefecture staff; the Japan Science and Technol-
ogy Agency; Asahi Industries Co., Ltd. and its subsidiary; the Naito Foundation; and
the Kureha Corporation. Professors T. Nakanishi and K. Tanoi and Dr. N. Kobayashi
of the Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Tokyo University, con-
tributed to the survey of radioactive particles in sidebar deposits using the imaging
plate. Dr. A. Takeda of the Institute for Environmental Sciences of Japan cooperated
with us in the imaging plate procedure. Mr. A. Hio of Tohoku University operated
the γ-ray spectrometer. Mrs. K. Kurita and T. Yamaguchi of the Japan Broadcasting
Corporation collaborated on soil sampling. The National Institute for Materials
Science and the Japan Atomic Energy Agency supported the radiocesium studies
in Miyagi, Fukushima, and Niigata Prefectures. The former National Institute of
Agro-Environmental Sciences, Japan, provided the apatite samples.
Regarding the whole monograph, students and staff of the Soil Science Labora-
tory, Tohoku University, collaborated on sampling and analyses of soils, and
Ms. K. Ito and the late Mr. T. Sato of Tohoku University helped operate the electron
microscopes. Dr. Mei Hann Lee of Springer Japan offered fine support and technical
assistance that facilitated the publishing of this monograph. This work was partly
supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 17K07693.
Graduate School of Agricultural Science Masami Nanzyo

Tohoku University Hitoshi Kanno
Sendai, Japan
March 2018
Contents
1 Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Ecosystem Services as an Embodiment of Soil Functions . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Elements Important for Ecosystem Services and Environmental
Factors Affecting the Behavior of Inorganic Constituents in Soil . . 2
1.2.1 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Environmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Primary Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Average Mineral Composition of the Earth’s Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Silicate and Silica Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Grouping of Silicate and Silica Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.2 Examples of Silicate and Silica Minerals in Soil . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Other Minerals in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.1 Titanomagnetite and Ilmenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Mineral Samples in Soil Derived from
a Weathered Granitic Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Secondary Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Construction of Layer Aluminosilicate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.1 Brucite Sheet and Gibbsite Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.2 Construction of Gibbsite Sheet and 1:1 Layer
Aluminosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.3 Major Layer Aluminosilicates in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.4 Dioctahedral and Trioctahedral Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
ix
x Contents
3.3 Oxides, Hydroxides, and Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4 Non-crystalline Inorganic Constituents of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Volcanic Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.1 Chemical Composition of Volcanic Glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.2 Sponge-Like Volcanic Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.3 Bubble-Wall Type Volcanic Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.4 Fibrous Volcanic Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2.5 Berry-Like Volcanic Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Secondary Non-crystalline Inorganic Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3.1 Allophane and Imogolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.2 Laminar Opaline Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3.3 Phytoliths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3.4 Al-Humus Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.4 Andisols: Soils Dominated by Non-crystalline Inorganic
Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.4.1 Fresh Pumice Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4.2 Partially Weathered Pumice Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.3 A Horizon Soil with Andic Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.4 B Horizon Soil with Andic Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.5 Changes in Elemental Composition with
Andisol Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.6 Volcanic Ash Soils Under Various Drainage Conditions . . . 91
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5 Inorganic Soil Constituents Sensitive to Varying
Redox Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1.1 Alternating Oxidized and Reducing Conditions
in Paddy Field Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.1.2 Redox Reactions in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.1.3 Water Management and Characteristics
of a Paddy Field Soil Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2 Hydrated Iron Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.3 Vivianite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.1 Detection of Vivianite in Paddy Field Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.2 Effect of Water Management on Vivianite
in Paddy Field Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3.3 P Accumulation at Redox Interfaces of Rice Roots . . . . . . . 115
5.3.4 Vivianite Formation in Bulk Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3.5 P Cycle in Irrigated Lowland Paddy Field Soil . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.4 Siderite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Contents xi
5.5 Pyrite and Related Sulfur-Containing Inorganic Constituents . . . . . 124

5.5.1 Noncrystalline Iron(II) Sulfide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.5.2 Pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.5.3 Jarosite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6 Role of Inorganic Soil Constituents in Selected Topics . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Effects of Tsunami on Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2.1 Survey and Analyses of the Tsunami–Affected Soils
in Miyagi Prefecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2.2 Origin of the Muddy Tsunami Deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.2.3 Relationships Between TOC, TN, and TS of the Tsunami
Deposits and the Original Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2.4 Evaporites on the Tsunami Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.2.5 Salinization and Sodification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2.6 Variation in pH of Tsunami Deposits and Original Soils . . . 147
6.2.7 Desalinization and Restoration of the Tsunami–Affected
Farmland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.3 Radiocesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.3.1 Horizontal Distribution of Radiocesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.3.2 Vertical Distribution of Radiocesium in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.3.3 Fixation of Cesium Ion by Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.3.4 Transportation of Radiocesium in Rivers Estimated
from Side Bar Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.4 Phosphates Related to Soil-Plant Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.4.1 Apatite and Related Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.4.2 Reactions of Phosphate with Active Al
and Fe Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.4.3 Struvite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.4.4 Phosphorus Management in Farmlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Chapter 1
Purpose and Scope
Abstract Soil plays a major role in ecosystem services (an ecological term referring
to the benefits granted to humans by ecosystems). Among the various ecosystem
services, provisioning services are important providers of foods, fibers, wood, and
other naturally sourced materials. To increase biological production while
maintaining sustainable soil and ecosystems, we must understand element cycling
in soils and ecosystems and its high dependence on inorganic constituents. This
monograph describes the fundamentals, along with visual aids, of inorganic soil
constituents for beginning students of soil science, environmental science, biogeo-
chemistry, and interested readers in other disciplines. The visual aids include optical
photographs, electron microscope images, and element maps acquired by energy
dispersive X-ray analyses.
1.1 Ecosystem Services as an Embodiment of Soil Functions
An ecosystem is characterized by a wide variety of organisms, and soil is essential

for the survival and activities of terrestrial organisms. Ecosystems are strongly
dependent on, and also affect, the properties of their soils. Under these conditions,
ecosystems provide various services to humans (known as ecosystem services). The
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) report describes four main classes of
ecosystem services:
1. Provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fiber.
2. Regulating services that affect climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality
3. Cultural services that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits
4. Supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling
Among the supporting services is “soil formation,” which includes the functions
of biota and organic and inorganic constituents in the soil. Digestion of biogenic
residues and reuse of nutrient elements constitute “photosynthesis and nutrient
cycling.” Soil supports the digestion of biogenic residues and the reuse of nutrient
elements, and it plays a nutrient-retention role, at least temporarily. Humans utilize
the supporting services to obtain provisioning-service products, such as foods,
© The Author(s) 2018 1

M. Nanzyo, H. Kanno, Inorganic Constituents in Soil,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1214-4_1
2 1 Purpose and Scope
fibers, and woods, although agricultural production is often enhanced by the appli-
cation of fertilizer.
Related to ecosystem services, soils are also involved in landscapes. A landscape
is formed by the interactions among soil, topography, climate, and communities of
organisms (plants and animals). The ecosystem services provided by landscapes may
be recognized as cultural services, for example, areas for recreation and motifs in
paintings. Different landscapes are often underlain by different soils. The regulating
services offered by soils include the holding and movement of water, maintenance of
water quality, and adsorption and desorption of solutes.
Soil-supported ecosystem services contribute greatly to our survival and to
environmental sustainability. To maintain and improve our physical and cultural
health, we must understand the roles of soil in ecosystem services and develop
methods that conserve and facilitate soil functions.
1.2 Elements Important for Ecosystem Services

and Environmental Factors Affecting the Behavior
of Inorganic Constituents in Soil
As the primary producers in ecosystems, plants absorb inorganic nutrients from soil.
Plants and animals occupy the natural, agricultural, and urban landscapes formed by
soils. Hence, the behavior and cycling of nutrient elements in soils and ecosystems is
critically important. Nutrient elements (elements that are essential or beneficial to
plants and/or animals) are transferred to animals from plants through the food chain.
Therefore, feed production must meet the nutrient-element demands of animals.
Cycling of these nutrient elements is affected by environmental factors such as soil
properties, temperature, water, redox condition, carbon dioxide, and light.
1.2.1 Elements
Concentrations of more than 50 soil elements can now be determined by atomic

absorption photometry, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry, and other techniques (Yamasaki 1996, Takeda et al.
2004). Concentrations of the major soil elements, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Mn, Ti,
and P, are frequently measured. Other major elements, O, H, C, N, S, F, and Cl, exist
in soils as oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, nitrates, sulfates, sulfides, fluorides,
chlorides, and other compound forms depending on the soil properties. The major
elements in soil organic matter are C, N, S, O, and H.
The major essential elements for plants are C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and
S. Plants also require trace amounts of Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, and Cl (Fig. 1.1)
(Marshner 1995). Ni is another essential trace element for plants (Asher 1991), and
1.2 Elements Important for Ecosystem Services and Environmental Factors. . . 3
Light，CO2 and
Temperature
Product
H Fertilizers
Decomposition B C O N F
Nutrients
Na Mg Water Soil Si P S Cl
K Ca CｒMn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Se
Mo I
Fig. 1.1 Essential nutrient elements for plants and animals (underlined and italicized elements are
essential only to plants or animals, respectively; all others are essential to both plants and animals).
Animals receive some of their essential elements through plants, which absorb them from soil
Si and Na are beneficial to some plants. In agricultural plant production, it is essential

to provide these elements to plants in appropriate amounts from the viewpoints of
both economics and environmental conservation. Excessive application, especially
of N and P, must be avoided because these elements cause eutrophication problems
when released into rivers, lakes, or bays.
Essential elements for animals include F, Cr, Co, Se, and I (Nielsen 1984;
Haenleina and Ankeb 2011). For example, animals in New Zealand have been
reported as Co deficient in the case that their animal feeds were produced in
Co-deficient soil (Lee 1974).
When present in appropriate abundances, the essential and beneficial elements in
soil confer positive effects on ecosystem services. In contrast, excessive concentra-
tions of Cd, Cu, As, Hg, Zn, Cr, and other heavy metals in soils are detrimental to
ecosystem health. Excessive concentrations of labile Al (Adams 1984) and Ni have
negative effects on sensitive plants.
1.2.2 Environmental Factors
The essential, beneficial, and other elements in soil exist as organic or inorganic
constituents with various stabilities. The chemical forms, and quantities of these soil
constituents depend on environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, activ-
ities of organisms, topography, time, and redox conditions (which are themselves
dependent on moisture, topography, drainage, and activities of organisms). The

environmental factors also include the properties of soil constituents, because each
soil constituent interacts with other soil constituents and the reactivity of soil
constituents is highly variable. The abundance of some soil constituents (such as
allophane and imogolite) is related to the parent materials and the weathering
conditions. The formation of allophane and imogolite from volcanic ash is favored
by moist climate and good drainage conditions and impeded by dry climate and
submerged conditions (as also described in Chap. 4). The first half of this monograph
concisely describes the major inorganic soil constituents with visual aids. The latter
chapters describe the behaviors of inorganic constituents under various soil envi-
ronmental conditions.
Chapter 2 focuses mainly on the primary minerals in soil, that is, minerals that
have not been chemically altered since their deposition and crystallization from
molten lava. Primary minerals are abundant in the silt-and-sand fraction (particle-
size fraction with diameter > 2 μm) of soil. The primary minerals provide physical
strength to soil and contribute to soil formation through dissolution or weathering at
various speeds. The elements released by the weathering of primary minerals include
nutrients for organisms.
Chapter 3 introduces the secondary minerals, which are more active in soil than
the primary minerals. Exchangeable cations are a subset of secondary minerals with
changeable composition and soil-dependent characteristics. For example, acidic
soils contain exchangeable Al, whereas some alkaline soils include exchangeable
Na. The composition of exchangeable cations is easily affected by solute changes in
soil water, although it is not easily affected by simple dilution using pure water. The
composition of exchangeable cations also affects the physical properties of soil
(Baver 1928). The retention of nutrient cations contributes to plant production.
Types of these minerals can be identified by changes in the basal spacing with
exchangeable cations and accommodation of organic molecules at the interlayer site.
Chapter 4 discusses the non-crystalline soil constituents that characterize many
areas of volcanic activity. Under good drainage conditions, volcanic glasses alter to
non-crystalline materials such as allophane, imogolite, and Al–humus complexes.
All of these materials are highly reactive with phosphate, show variable charge
properties, and have characteristic physical properties. Phytoliths are another
non-crystalline silica material frequently found in humus-rich horizon soils.
Phytoliths are a possible source of Si for plants.
Reducing conditions result from submergence of soil and microbial activity. The
chemical forms of redox-sensitive elements, including many nutrient elements,
differ under reducing and oxidizing conditions. Redox-sensitive inorganic soil
constituents are discussed in Chap. 5.
Chapter 6 introduces three topics related to inorganic constituents in soil, namely,
tsunami-affected soils, Cs-affected soils, and phosphate reactions in the soil–plant
system. The huge tsunami that struck the Pacific coast of eastern Japan in March of
2011 inundated coastal areas with a large volume of seawater. Tsunamis affect soil
mainly by erosion, deposition, and by increasing the salt concentration in soil water
and the exchangeable Na. Although exchangeable cations are a part of silicate
1.4 Methods 5
minerals, they are highly sensitive to solute changes in soil water. The 2011 tsunami
also destroyed the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, depositing large
amounts of radioactive elements on the soil surface. The behavior of radiocesium
in the soil–water system is described. Finally, this chapter discusses the phosphates
related to soil–plant systems. The behavior of phosphates, whether inherited from
parent materials or applied as fertilizers, is closely related to the inorganic constit-
uents of the soil.
1.3 Purpose
This monograph serves two purposes. Accompanied by visual aids, it first introduces
the simplified fundamentals of inorganic soil constituents for students of soil science
and interested researchers in other disciplines. Scientific information pertaining to
inorganic soil constituents has become increasingly important as concern for the
environment has increased. The second purpose of the monograph is to update topics
on non-crystalline inorganic soil constituents, the effects of redox reactions, and the
effects of disasters on the inorganic constituents of soil. These topics appear in the
latter chapters.
Many complete texts and references about minerals in soil are already available
(Dixon and Weed 1989; Dixon and Schulze 2002; Huang et al. 2012; Deer et al.
2013). These materials systematically describe the crystallography, properties, for-
mation, and occurrence of the mineral constituents and are recommended for further
study.
1.4 Methods
This section, except for the final paragraph, describes the various methods mainly
used to collect the results presented in succeeding chapters. Particle size fraction-
ation is effective for studying the inorganic constituents in soil. Primary and sec-
ondary minerals were prepared by routine treatments of soil samples, such as
air-drying, gentle grinding with a mortar, dry sieving, H2O2 digestion, and ultrasonic
treatment (Gee and Bauder 1986). After dispersion, the particle sizes were fraction-
ated by wet sieving and siphoning. Dispersion was maximized by adjusting the
pH. Alkaline conditions (pH ¼ 10.5) are effective for crystalline clays. Primary
minerals were treated with dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate (DCB) when necessary.
DCB treatment was also used for X-ray diffraction analysis of the clay fraction
(Harris and White 2008). Heavy and light minerals were separated using a heavy
liquid. This method is effective, but it is affected by composite mineral particles,
which are not rare in soils.
The landscapes and soil profiles at the sampling sites of inorganic constituents
were photographed, microphotographs of the inorganic constituents in soil were
taken through a Leica M 205C stereomicroscope, and the isotropic or anisotropic

properties (Lynn et al. 2008) of the constituents were analyzed in optical micro-
graphs taken under a Nikon ECLIPSE E600 POL microscopic system.
The micro-scale morphological properties of soil inorganic constituents were
revealed in scanning electron microscope (SEM) (White 2008) and transmission
electron microscope (TEM) (Elsass et al. 2008) images. For SEM observation,
air-dried sample particles were held on double-sided sticky tape. Polished sections
were used to reveal the two-dimensional structures of inorganic soil particles, soil
clods, and rice–root bundles. To avoid charging, the samples were coated with
vacuum-evaporated carbon. Alternatively, Pt–Pd coating was applied if the carbon
coating was insufficient. For TEM observation, sample particles were supported on a
copper mesh by a collodion membrane. Allophane and imogolite were observed on a
TEM microgrid. TEM photographs were obtained by a Quemesa digital camera.
Both the SEM and TEM observations were carried out under high vacuum. For
morphological observation and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses
(Guillemette 2008), the accelerating voltage of the SEM was typically set to
15 kV, but it was sometimes set to 3 kV for detailed morphological observations.
Most of the SEM and TEM observations were performed on Hitachi SU8000 and
H-7650 instruments, respectively.
The elemental compositions of inorganic constituent particles and the distribution
of elements can effectively identify the particles and may reveal chemical reaction
products. This monograph presents many EDX spectra as visual examples of the
element abundances of inorganic soil constituents. Elemental compositions were
analyzed from the characteristic X-ray spectra of the samples (Fig. 1.2) obtained by
EDX. Metals heavier than Fe are rare among the inorganic constituents of most soils.
The relative abundances of the elements can be roughly estimated from the heights
of the peaks of the characteristic X-rays in the spectra although the elemental
composition is accurately calculated in quantitative analysis using an equipped
software. In early work, EDX analyses were usually performed on a Kevex appara-
tus, but more recent analyses were performed using an EDAX Apollo XV.
Points of attention for EDX analytical results include overlapping of characteris-
tic X-rays, the position of the X-ray detector, and some others. Among the
overlapping of characteristic X-rays mentioned in the EDX manual, FKα – FeLα
and PKα – ZrLα may sometimes be encountered when observing inorganic constit-
uents in soil. As the X-ray detector is installed diagonally upward from the sample,
unevenness in the sample surface affects the effectiveness of the detector for
detecting characteristic X-rays, and the X-ray intensity from the opposite side of
the sample is weak. Also, shadows are formed in the element maps of particle
samples of soil inorganic constituents. To avoid the effects of uneven samples, it
is necessary to use adequately flat or polished sections with soil inorganic constit-
uents embedded in resin.
X-ray diffraction patterns of powder samples were acquired by a Rigaku
MiniFlex X-ray diffractometer using the CuKα (30 kV, 15 mA) line at a scanning
speed of 2 per minute. For this purpose, oriented samples were prepared on glass
slides using Mg2+- and K+-saturated samples at room temperature, and their X-ray
1.4 Methods 7
e- a
Kβ1
Kα1
K Lα1
Si Characteristic
O X-ray L
C
M
Fe
Al K
P Ca Mn
Mg
Na S
Cl Ti V Cr
b
0 2 4 6 8
Energy (keV)
Fig. 1.2 Energy dispersive X-ray spectrum. (a) Schematic of an atom struck by an electron beam,
(b) a model EDX spectrum in which each element peak (Kα) is at its specific energy but the peak
height is arbitrary
diffraction patterns were obtained. Changes in basal spacing of layer silicates were
recorded after solvation of the Mg2+-saturated samples with glycerin and heating of
the K+-saturated samples at 300 and 550 C for 1 h. The clay mineral composition
was evaluated from the basal-spacing changes of the layered silicates (Harris and
White 2008).
The element concentrations in digested or extracted solutions were determined by
colorimetric spectroscopy, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and inductively coupled
plasma spectroscopy. Radiocesium concentrations in soil were determined by
gamma-ray spectrometry (ORTEC, GEM, and DSPEC jr 2.0, 2000s). The radioac-
tivity of soil mineral particles and cross sections of muddy tsunami deposits embed-
ded in resin were detected by an imaging plate (BAS-5000, FUJIFILM Co., Ltd.).
Synchrotron radiation reveals the chemical forms of elements by X-ray absorp-
tion near edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure
(EXAFS) (Kelly et al. 2008). Originally employed for heavy-element analysis,
XANES and EXAFS are increasingly being applied to lighter elements. High-
resolution X-ray ptychography (accurate to 10 nm), X-ray computed tomography,
XANES and EXAFS are expected to become the methods of choice in future
analyses of lighter elements (Ajiboye et al. 2008; Trinh et al. 2017) in soil-plant
systems.
References
Adams F (ed) (1984) Soil acidity and liming, 2nd edn. Agronomy; no.12, ASA-CSSA-SSSA,
Madison
Ajiboye B, Akinremi OO, Hu Y, Jurgensen A (2008) XANES speciation of phosphorus in
organically amended and fertilized vertisol and mollisol. Soil Sci Soc Am J 72:1256–1262
Asher CJ (1991) Beneficial elements, functional nutrients, and possible new essential elements. In:
Mortvedt JJ, Cox FR, Shuman LM, Welch RM (eds) Micronutrients in agriculture, SSSA book
series, no. 4, 2nd edn. SSSA, Madison, pp 703–723
Baver LD (1928) The relation of exchangeable cations to the physical properties of soils. Agron J
20:921–941
Deer WA, Howie RA, Zussman J (2013) An introduction to the rock-forming minerals, 3rd edn.
Mineralogical Society, London
Dixon JB, Schulze DG (eds) (2002) Soil mineralogy with environmental applications. SSSA book
series, no. 7. SSSA, Madison
Dixon JB, Weed SB (eds) (1989) Minerals in soil environment. SSSA book series no. 1. SSSA,
Madison
Elsass F, Chenu C, Tessier D (2008) Transmission electron microscopy for soil samples: prepara-
tion methods and use. In: Ulery A, Vepraskas M, Wilding L (eds) Methods of soil analysis. Part
5. Mineralogical methods. SSSA book series, no. 5. SSSA, Madison, pp 235–268
Gee GW, Bauder JW (1986) Particle-size analysis. In: Klute A (ed) Methods of soil analysis: part
1 – physical and mineralogical methods, Agronomy monograph no. 9, 2nd edn. SSSA,
Madison, pp 383–411
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book series, no. 5. SSSA, Madison, pp 81–115
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2nd edn. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton/London/New York
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spectroscopy. In: Methods of soil analysis part 5 – mineralogical methods, SSSA book series
no.5. SSSA, Madison, pp 387–463
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elements in soil-plant-animals systems. Academic, New York/San Fransisco/London, pp 39–54
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minerals in grain mounts. In: Ulery A, Vepraskas M, Wilding L (eds) Methods of soil analysis.
Part 5. Mineralogical methods. SSSA book series, no. 5. SSSA, Madison, pp 161–190
Marschner H (1995) Mineral nutrition of higher plants. Academic, London
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Chapter 2
Primary Minerals
Abstract This chapter introduces the primary minerals that are relatively common
in soils. It first presents the accepted views on the elemental compositions of the
Earth’s crust, rocks, and minerals. Soils at the top of the Earth’s crust are also within
the rock cycle. Silicate and silica minerals, which constitute more than 90% of the
minerals in the Earth’ crust, are outlined. Samples of relatively un-weathered and
weathered primary minerals were obtained from new volcanic ash and soils derived
from granitic rocks, respectively. Quartz is highly resistant to weathering, whereas
biotite in soil is altered in moist climates. The composition of primary minerals in
soils is affected by the types of parent rocks, weathering, sorting, and other soil-
forming factors, resulting in mineral compositions that deviate from the average
mineral composition of the Earth’s crust.
2.1 Introduction
Ranging from clay to rock fragment, soil particles have a wide size distribution.
Minerals in soils are divided conceptually into primary and secondary minerals.
According to the Glossary of Soil Science Terms (Glossary of soil science terms
committee 2008), a primary mineral is a mineral that has not been altered chemically
since its crystallization from molten lava and deposition. A mineral is defined as an
inorganically formed, naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite chem-
ical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. These definitions are followed
in this monograph.
Soils form by widely different processes, and their states range from
un-weathered to highly weathered. They thus show various compositions of primary
and secondary materials. The particle-size fraction of most primary minerals is
the larger than 2 μm fraction, which includes silt, sand, and gravel. Primary minerals
can be separated from soil by the particle-size fractionation method described in the
Sect. 1.4.
The major primary minerals in soil are silicate and silica minerals. Other minerals
include titanomagnetite, other iron minerals, and apatite. The sand fraction of soils
© The Author(s) 2018 11

M. Nanzyo, H. Kanno, Inorganic Constituents in Soil,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1214-4_2
12 2 Primary Minerals
includes non-crystalline inorganic constituents, such as volcanic glasses. Volcanic

glasses and apatite are introduced in Chap. 4 and Sect. 6.3, respectively.
Particles larger than silt includes fine rock fragments, complex particles of
different minerals, and partially weathered minerals. After introducing the major
primary minerals in soils, this chapter exemplifies the mineral composition of fine
rock fragments on a polished section, and partially weathered minerals.
2.2 Average Mineral Composition of the Earth’s Crust
Earth’s surface is naturally mobile. The mobile layer is made up of plates comprising
the Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle. On average, the Earth’s crust is 40 km thick
on continents and 6 km thick in the oceans. The upper mantle consists mainly of
peridotite, whereas the crust consists of igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and
metamorphic rocks (Fig. 2.1). These three rock families of the Earth’s crust can
interchange through diastrophism (the rock cycle, Fig. 2.2) (Skinner and Mruck
2011). The phases of the rock cycle can undertake various shortcuts. The rock cycle
is active in the subduction zone of a plate and in the collision zones of continents, but
it is relatively inactive in stable continental crust. However, on the surface of the
continental crust, soil formation processes are continuously active.
According to the estimated average element composition of the Earth’s crust,
oxygen is the most abundant element, followed by Si and Al (see Fig. 2.1). The crust
consists of 65% igneous rocks, 27% metamorphic rocks, and 8% sedimentary rocks
(Fig. 2.1). Approximately two-thirds of the igneous rocks are basic rocks; neutral
and acidic rocks constitute approximately one-sixth each. The very surface of the
Earth’s crust is dominated by sedimentary rocks, which are strongly affected by
weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition (Fig. 2.2).
The rocks of the Earth’s crust are dominated by plagioclase, followed by quartz,
alkali feldspar, and other silicates. Collectively, these minerals constitute approxi-
mately 92% of the rock material (Fig. 2.1). Other minerals are non-silicate minerals
such as carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, sulfides, fluorides, and chlorides. The
alteration of rocks and minerals depends on the soil formation factors, which vary
across the surface of the Earth.
2.3 Silicate and Silica Minerals
2.3.1 Grouping of Silicate and Silica Minerals
Silicate and silica minerals are grouped into six types based on the bonding structure
of their silicate tetrahedrons. Examples and the ideal chemical formulas of the six
types of silicates are summarized in Table 2.1. The model structures of five silicate
types are shown in Fig. 2.3. Nesosilicates are characterized by single SiO4 tetrahedra
2.3 Silicate and Silica Minerals 13
Composition %
0 20 40 60 80 100
Mg Ca Na K
Fe Others
Element O Si Al
46.6 27.7 8.1 5.0

3.6 2.8 2.6 2.1 1.9
Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary

Felsic Intermediate Ultramafic
Mafic
Rock
10.4 11.6 42.5 0.2 27.4 7.9
Amphiboles
Micas Olivines
Alkali feldspar Clay minerals
Others
Mineral Pyrox-
Plagioclase Quartz
enes
39 12 12 11 5 5
3 4.6 8.4
Fig. 2.1 Average element and rock and mineral (Wyllie 1971) compositions of the Earth’s crust
Weathering
Aeolian dust Soil formation
Soil formation Transportation
Sedimentary rocks
Continental Oceanic crust

crust
Magma
Metamorphic rocks
Igneous rocks
Fig. 2.2 Schematic of the rock cycle. Various shortcuts are possible in this cycle
with no Si–O–Si bonding. Other silicates are constructed from units of two or more
connected SiO4 tetrahedra. Sorosilicates are dimers of SiO4 tetrahedra.
Cyclosilicates have a ring structure composed of 3–6 SiO4 tetrahedra. Inosilicates
Table 2.1 Grouping of silicate and silica minerals

Subclass
name Characteristics Example Ideal formula
1 Nesosilicates Lone [SiO4]4 Olivine (Mg, Fe2+)2SiO4
tetrahedron
2 Sorosilicates Double [Si2O7]6 Vesuvianite Ca19(Al, Fe)10(Mg,
tetrahedra Fe)3(Si2O7)4(SiO4)10(O,
OH, F)10
3 Cyclosilicates Ring silicates [SinO3n]2n- Tourmaline NaMg3Al6(Si6O18)
(BO3)3(OH)3(OH, F)
(dravite)
4 Inosilicates Single chain [SinO3n]2n Pyroxene (Ca, Mg, Fe2+, Al)2(Si,
silicates Al)2O6 (augite)
Double chain [Si4nO11n]6n Amphibole Ca2(Mg, Fe2+)4 Al
silicates [Si7Al]O22(OH)2
(magnesiohornblende)
5 Phyllosilicates Sheet silicates [Si2nO5n]2n Muscovite K2Al4(Si6Al2)O20(OH)4
Biotite K2(Mg, Fe)6(Si6Al2)
O20(OH)4
Clay See Chap. 3
minerals
6 Tectosilicates 3D framework [AlxSiyO2(x + y)]x Quartz SiO2
Feldspar NaAlSi3O8 (albite)
consist of linear chains of SiO4 tetrahedra. The chains may be single or double. In
phyllosilicates, the SiO4 tetrahedra are assembled into 6-membered rings, which
connect and spread two-dimensionally into a sheet-like structure. Tectosilicates are
three-dimensional assemblages of SiO4 tetrahedra. In soils, nesosilicates,
inosilicates, phyllosilicates, and tectosilicates are common to abundant and present
as primary and clay minerals. Allophane and imogolite are also grouped in the
nesosilicates, although these two are non-crystalline.
2.3.2 Examples of Silicate and Silica Minerals in Soil
This section presents examples of the silicate and silica minerals frequently found in
soils. Several examples of un-weathered mineral particles were taken from new
volcanic ash deposits. Partially weathered minerals are so common in soils that a few
examples of them are also included in this section.
2.3.2.1 Silicate Minerals
Silicate minerals are various salts of silicate anions (Fig. 2.3). The cations are Al,
Mg, Fe, Ti, Na, K, Ca, and other elements. In the following discussion, the silicate
minerals are introduced in order of increasing complexity of their silicate framework.
O
O
Si =
O O
Silica SiO44- Si2O76-

tetrahedron
Nesosilicates Sorosilicates
Si3O96- Si4O128- Si6O1812-

Cyclosilicates
Single chain Si2O64-
Si4O104-
Phyllosilicates
Double chain
Si4O116-
Inosilicates
Fig. 2.3 Model structures of silicate and silica minerals. For tectosilicates, refer to Deer et al.
(2013)
The minerals are characterized by their EDX spectra and the X-ray diffraction
(XRD) patterns of their powder samples. These data are presented along with an
optical micrograph and an SEM image of each mineral. The SEM images show the
detailed morphological properties of the material. Reference EDX spectra-mimic
graphs showing the reference elemental compositions (atomic number ratios) of each
mineral are also provided. The horizontal axes of the EDX spectra-mimic graphs are
matched with those of the EDX spectra so that readers can easily compare the
exemplified mineral with the reference data.
Olivine
Olivine is a light-yellow to yellow-brown or olive-green nesosilicate (Fig. 2.4a). It is
sometimes found in basic rocks or scoria. For every Si atom, there are two atoms of
Mg or Fe and four atoms of oxygen. The highest and lowest Mg end-members are
Mg2SiO4 and Fe(II)2SiO4, respectively. Panels (d), (e), and (f) of Fig. 2.4 show the
chemical compositions of the olivine members with the maximum, intermediate, and
minimum number of Mg atoms, respectively, from among the 115 analytical data for
the Earth presented in Deer et al. (1997a), who reviewed the mineralogical properties
of olivine. Huang (1989) detailed the structural properties, natural occurrences,
equilibrium environment, and physicochemical properties of olivine in soil.
The olivine particles shown in panels (a) and (b) of Fig. 2.4 were picked by
tweezers from the 0.5–0.2 mm fraction of the 2A1 horizon of the pedon shown in
Fig. 4.5a. The EDX spectrum in Fig. 2.4c is similar to that of Fig. 2.4e, suggesting
that this example has a composition close to the intermediate chemical composition
of olivine. The powder XRD pattern (Fig. 2.4g) approximates the reference pattern
(Fig. 2.4h, from Brindley and Brown 1980).
Fig. 2.4 Olivine particles from a scoria deposit from Mt. Fuji. (a) Optical photograph, (b) SEM
image, (c) EDX spectrum. (d, e, and f) the elemental compositions of the olivine group minerals
having the maximum, intermediate, and minimum number of Mg atoms, respectively, shown to
mimic EDX spectra, (g) the powder XRD pattern of the olivine particles, (h) the reference powder
XRD pattern (Brindley and Brown 1980). These olivine samples were separated from the soil
profile shown in Fig. 4.5a
Pyroxene
Pyroxenes are single chain silicates that are linked laterally by cations such as Mg,
Fe, Ca, and others. Pyroxenes are grouped by their chemical compositions into Mg–
Fe pyroxene, Ca pyroxene, Na pyroxene, and others. Pyroxenes are also grouped
into orthopyroxenes and clinopyroxenes according to their crystal system. As major
pyroxenes, Mg–Fe pyroxene (enstatite–ferrosilite) of the orthopyroxenes and augite
of the clinopyroxenes are introduced. According to its grouping by chemical com-
position, augite is one of the Ca pyroxenes. Deer et al. (1997b, 2013) described
details of the pyroxenes.
Panels (f), (g), and (h) of Fig. 2.5 show the chemical compositions of the
orthopyroxene members having the maximum, intermediate, and minimum number
of Mg atoms, respectively, from among the 73 examples listed by Deer et al.
(1997b). The vertical axis shows the number of cations per 6 oxygens. The maxi-
mum Mg member contains a small number of Fe atoms. The minimum Mg member
contains a large number of Fe atoms and a small number of Ca atoms. The example
shown in Fig. 2.5c corresponds to an orthopyroxene member between that of
Fig. 2.5f and that of Fig. 2.5g. The powder X-ray diffraction pattern of the
orthopyroxene sample is close to the reference, 31–634 (Hypersthene) of Joint
committee on powder diffraction standards (1986).
The orthopyroxene shown in Fig. 2.5c was separated from the 2–0.25 mm
fraction of the Tarumae-a (Ta-a) tephra sampled at Oiwake (Iburi Subprefecture,
Hokkaido, Japan) (Mizuno et al. 2008) near the pedon site shown in Fig. 2.5a. The
Ta-a tephra, erupted in 1739 from Mt. Tarumae, corresponds to the C horizon
labeled as H5–2 of the soil profile shown in Fig. 2.5a. The soil color of the H5–2
horizon is whitish and the soil texture is sand, indicating that weathering is weak.
Figure 2.5b shows not only light brown orthopyroxene but also light green augite,
beige pumice-like volcanic glass, whitish feldspar, and some other grains from the
tephra. Many of the crystalline minerals are partly or almost wholly covered with
colorless volcanic glass.
Figure 2.6a shows augite, one of the clinopyroxenes, separated from the same
fraction of the Ta-a tephra as the above-mentioned orthopyroxene. The color of the
augite is light-green, and the grains are partly covered with colorless volcanic glass.
The EDX spectra-mimic graphs Fig. 2.6d–f show the number of cations per 6 oxygen
atoms of the augite members having the maximum, intermediate, and minimum
number of Mg atoms, respectively, from among the 101 samples shown by Deer
et al. (1997b). With a decrease in the Mg concentration, the concentration of Fe tends
to increase. The number of Ca ions does not change very much compared with those
of Mg and Fe among these members. The EDX spectrum (Fig. 2.6c) is close to
Fig. 2.6e.
Fig. 2.5 Orthopyroxene of the Tarumae-a (Ta-a) tephra. (a) Ta-a tephra labeled as H5–2 in the soil
profile, (b) optical micrograph of the 2–0.25 mm fraction separated from the Ta-a tephra, (c and d)
optical micrograph and SEM image of an orthopyroxene particle, respectively, (e) EDX spectrum of
the dashed area of (d), (f, g, and h) EDX spectra-mimic graphs showing the elemental compositions
of orthopyroxenes with the maximum, intermediate, and minimum number of Mg atoms (Deer et al.
1997b), (i and j) powder XRD pattern of the orthopyroxene particles and reference powder XRD
pattern, respectively (Joint committee on powder diffraction standards 1986)
Fig. 2.6 Augite separated from the Ta-a tephra. (a) Optical micrograph, (b) SEM image of the
augite, (c): EDX spectrum of the dashed area in (b), (d, e, and f) elemental compositions of augites
with the maximum, intermediate, and minimum number of Mg ions, respectively (Deer et al.
1997b). (g) Powder XRD pattern of the augite particles, (h) reference powder XRD pattern
(24-203 of Joint committee on powder diffraction standards 1986)
Amphibole
Amphiboles are double chain silicates (Table 2.1). Between the double chains,
several cations link the double chain silicates. The general chemical composition
is formulated as follows:
A0-1B2C5T8O22(OH)2
For example, in the Ca-rich amphiboles,
A: Na, K, or vacant
B: Ca, Na, Mn
C: Mg, Fe2+, Fe3+, Al, Ti, Mn, Cr or other
T: Si, Al
The cations at the A, B, C, and T sites play their own roles. The C site cations are
sandwiched with two double chain silicates. The sandwiched double chain silicates
are laterally linked by the B site cations. The OH group, which is bound to C site
cations, can be partially or wholly replaced by F and Cl. In the case of
oxyhornblende, the OH group is replaced by oxygen. The T site is the silicate chain.
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In 1770 Kennett Meeting’s committee performed [Sidenote: Visit
a general visit to all possessed of slaves and found performed to all
there was not the desired willingness to manumit slave holders]
them which they had expected.[1267] From the
report made seven years later, we must judge the situation had not
changed very considerably since we find one member signified to
them that he did not incline to release his Negroes from bondage,
nor did he know that ever he should.[1268]
It does not, however, seem that the occasional stubborn brother
had a discouraging effect on the rest of the meeting. In 1779 the
records stated,
It is desired that Friends attend to the circumstances and the
situation of such negroes as have been set free, that we may fully
discharge our duty to them, by endeavoring to instruct them, both for
their spiritual and temporal good....[1269]
A committee of three men was immediately appointed to perform
the service. This work with committees continued constantly, with the
result that nine years later (1788) the meeting reported “none held as
slaves amongst us” and that attention was given to education.[1270]
The registration of 1780 showed only three held as slaves in the
whole township.[1271]
In New Garden attention was early called to the [Sidenote: New
Negroes,[1272] and a committee appointed then Garden]
reported in 1781 that most of them were living
among Friends and were generally well provided for.[1273] That
committee was released,[1274] and a new one reported in 1785 the
following state of affairs:
[Sidenote: Most
We have paid some attention to the case of Negroes reported
free negroes, and find there are but few able to read and
amongst us, most of whom we have visited write]
where they reside.... They are generally well provided for with
the necessaries of life and some care taken of their religious
education, in which we believe there may be an improvement.
We also inspected their school education and find most of
them can read and some write.[1275]
In 1789 one case of holding a slave came before the meeting, but
at its direction a writ of manumission was immediately secured for
the same.[1276] The registration in 1780 for New Garden township
returned one slave only, held by a Scotchman.[1277]
Uwchlan Monthly Meeting (Caln Quarterly), as [Sidenote:
early as 1765, received a report from a delegation Uwchlan]
sent from the quarterly meeting stating it as their
opinion that Friends ought to inspect into the care [Sidenote: No
Negro school]
which Friends who had Negroes, extended toward
them with regard to their education.[1278] A [Sidenote: Aid
solicited to school
committee was accordingly appointed by the poor Negroes]
monthly meeting to serve in that capacity. How
considerable was their activity in the interval elapsing between their
appointment and their first formal report of conditions which was
returned to the meeting in 1779, one cannot judge accurately. We
may judge from the report above mentioned that there was no Negro
school, for that race alone; it was perhaps not demanded by the
numbers who would have been eligible.[1279] It appears the
committee had visited all (Wilmington excepted) who had been
freed, and found all generally in a very satisfactory state. Some are
reported not able to give their children schooling, and for them aid is
solicited;[1280] for others advice is requested to guide them in their
outward affairs. The direction of the Negroes’ education, as nearly as
can be made out, was of the most practical nature, laying emphasis
on the industrial side, at that time an apprentice type of education.
[1281] The interest in the apprentice did not stop as soon as he was
placed, but continued, for it was customary to place him with
Friends, if possible, and the member of Friends was responsible to
his meeting for the fulfilment of his contract with the apprenticed. The
following extract from the Middletown records will serve to show the
general regulation by which the apprenticing was carried on among
members of the society.
... and his sonnes giving security to the orphans court, and to
pay interest for the money that belongs to the said ... ever
since the time it became due, and also the said Thomas do
abide at Robert Heaton’s house for his table and to be kept to
school for a year, or so long as the Meeting may think fit.[1282]
Sadsbury, 1782, reported they had visited the [Sidenote:

free Negroes, who were situated nearly as before. Sadsbury report
[1283] No statement was given of the entire number on situation of
Negroes]
within this locality, but five were listed as having no
trade.[1284] It appears, however, in spite of that fact, they were not
dependent on the community for support. One woman owned a
house and lot, “her own purchase”; a man with family rented a small
tenement; and the other three worked as common laborers.[1285]
The Bradford minutes (also of Cain Quarterly) [Sidenote:
devote almost no space to the status of the Negro Bradford reported
in their vicinity. This may have been because there few slaves]
were few slaves there. At the registration of slaves,
compelled by law in 1780,[1286] the townships of East and West
Bradford returned none whatever.[1287]
In the discussion of Concord Quarterly there will [Sidenote:
be material presented from Chester, Concord and Concord
Goshen. In 1779 Chester Monthly Meeting reported Quarterly]
they had made a visit to all freed Negroes, of whom [Sidenote: Poor
it was said, some were quite poor and unable to Negroes to be put
school their children.[1288] The visiting committee to trades]
recommended that the poor should be put out to [Sidenote:
trades and given schooling, and suggested that a Negroes sent to
subscription should be raised for that purpose. The school and books
sent among then]
meeting was heartily in favor of this and at once
appointed a committee to look after the subscriptions and their
application.[1289] Two years later (1781) after a similar visitation by
committee, it was reported that they had been advised of their
temporal and religious duties, many sent to school and books
distributed among them.[1290] At these dates no special schools for
Negroes were mentioned, and the date of their establishment is not
found, but in 1785 the report of the committee on Negroes,
requesting a new subscription for supporting Negro schools,
indicated that there were special schools established for them.[1291]
The situation at Concord Meeting was very [Sidenote:
similar to that of Chester, as appears by their report Concord]
of 1779. Following the customary visitation, it was
stated that the visit was satisfactory in many [Sidenote: 8
children reported
places, but in some families were found small of school age but
children, eight of whom were of school age, but not in school]
whose parents were unable to school them.[1292]
The meeting was asked to give its attention to the matter, but nothing
was found in the minutes to indicate what they did further to remedy
the matter.
The Goshen Meeting seems from its answers to [Sidenote:
the queries in 1756 to be in a very satisfactory Goshen]
state with regard to slaveholding, “none having
been purchased of late years,” though they consider they are not
careful enough in educating them in Christian principles.[1293] They
were, however, careful to deal individually with those few who were
engaged in any manner in holding slaves in bondage.[1294] In 1758
the record stated:
Those few negroes amongst us we believe are provided

with a sufficiency of food and clothing, but doubt some are too
careless in affording them religious instruction.[1295]
Four years later conditions were somewhat improved, and their

report stated:
[Sidenote:
No purchase since our last account that we Endeavors to
know of. Those amongst us who keep negro teach negroes to
read, reported]
slaves, we believe afford them a sufficiency of
food and clothing and endeavors are used with some to learn
them to read.[1296]
If we read a little further the records for the same [Sidenote:

year, we are informed that some were sent to Negroes sent to
school, supposedly to a “White school” due to the school]
small number of Negroes among Friends.[1297]
From the above references, then, taken in connection with one of the
second month, 1764, we are led to infer that the education of the
Negroes under Friends’ care was carried on in a school and not in
the home, under individual instructors, whoever might be able to do
it. The reference of 1764 stated “some are sent to school to learn to
read.”[1298]
Simultaneously with this care in their education, [Sidenote:
the meeting was working on each individual case, Manumission
among the members, to convince them of the continually urged]
propriety of the manumission practice. In 1776
Randle Mailin manumitted his Negro man Peter Cuff, and produced
his record of the same to the meeting to have it recorded on their
books.[1299] The next year (1777) Nathan Hoop manumitted a Negro
woman, 18 years old, and her two mulatto boys as soon as they
should become 21 years of age.[1300] The following brief extract is
illustrative of the many cases where pressure was brought to bear in
a kindly way, to the end that this or that person might set Negroes
free.
[Sidenote:
Complaint is brought against Thomas Discipline of
Pennington for buying and selling a negro members guilty of
woman. Joseph Thomas and Randle Mailin are slave dealing]
appointed to deal with him as our discipline directs.[1301]
In 1778 the Goshen Meeting appointed a [Sidenote:

committee, Randle Mailin and Caleb Maris, to join Schooling of
with a committee appointed by the Quarterly Negroes under
care]
Meeting (Concord) to advise together concerning
the education of the Negroes.[1302] This is a very [Sidenote: Low
good indication that organized action was taken, return in Quaker
townships in 1780
educationally, and that it was not left to individual registrations]
choice. In 1780 the monthly meeting reported to
the yearly meeting that its committee (the one formerly appointed)
had been “advising Negroes” on their religious education and had
their “schooling under care.”[1303] The registry of slaves in 1780
showed thirteen as the full quota for Goshen township.[1304] As a
general rule very few were returned from the Quaker townships while
the vast majority came from those of the Welsh (Charlestown,
Tredyffrin and East Nantmeal) and the Scotch-Irish (Newtown,
Londonderry, Oxford and East Nottingham.)[1305]
From the meeting records in the Abington [Sidenote:
Quarter there will be presented some of the Abington Quarter]
material relating to Horsham, Byberry (not
established a monthly meeting till 1810),[1306] and Gwynedd, which
may be taken as representative of that quarterly meeting.
Though there is scant evidence in the Horsham [Sidenote:
Monthly Meeting minutes to indicate what they did Horsham Monthly]
in reference to the Negroes’ education, we are not
left entirely in the dark. The Horsham School [Sidenote:
Negroes schooled
Committee, which made a report of its own after at expense of
1783, made occasional reference thereto, and it school committee]
must be understood from these reports that the
Negroes were schooled at the expense of the school committee. The
only proof of this statement, given in the records, is found in
statements like the following:
An account of Thomas Hallowell for schooling Griffith

Camel’s and negro Caesar’s children was produced and
considered, and the treasurer ordered to pay him grant given.
That of Caesar’s lies for inspection.[1307]
This makes clear that cases of Negro schooling were taken before
the same committee as cases of poor Whites and were investigated
and disposed of in the same manner.
Byberry Preparative Meeting makes no reference [Sidenote:
during the early years to the status of the Negro in Byberry]
its limits. Martindale, in a History of Byberry and
Moreland, states that slavery came into Byberry [Sidenote:
in 1721]
Slaves
about 1721,[1308] the slaves being employed by the

more opulent class to do the roughest work. The [Sidenote: 1727]
inventory of a Friends’ property (1727) showed that
he possessed “one negro girl, £20, and one negro boy, £30.”[1309] Of
their intervening history little is recorded, though the Negroes were
set free by many members of Friends, and in 1779 the meeting
authorized Silas Walmsley and William Walmsley to provide a
suitable burying ground for the use of Negroes who had been freed.
[1310] What was done for their education is not known.
It is noticeable that in the earliest answers to the [Sidenote:

query concerning Negroes (about 1756) the Records not
majority of the monthly meetings usually answered always to be
relied upon]
in an offhand manner that they were “clear” or there
were “none to be charged with that breech,” or something to that
effect. The writer believes these reports first sent in were perhaps
made from only a general knowledge of the situation, and not the
result of an exact knowledge of their members’ practices. This
statement is not capable of an exact proof, but the remarkable
similarity in all the meeting records for the first few reports, certainly
indicate that such was the case. Quite frequently, yes, in most cases,
the “clear” reports are followed after a few months or years by
statements that some are imported, a few held as slaves, or one
Negro sold and similar reports. This was true in the case of
Gwynedd. In 1756 the meeting reported “we have not to charge
any,”[1311] and three months following, “Friends think themselves
clear in this respect”;[1312] the nature of the wording in the last would
imply it was based more on implicit faith than explicit judgment.
Eleven years thereafter we have more definite reports, such as:
... clear of importing negroes; the few possessed by Friends
are well used, their slavery excepted,[1313] and none bought
or sold that we know of; those that have them use them well
as to the necessities of life and some are brought to meetings
at times.[1314]
From that time forward the reports made to the monthly meeting
were very definite. In 1775 a report was brought in which purported
to cover the entire compass of the meeting. It stated the number
held, their status, and what was done for their benefit. It is interesting
to note that a few enjoyed some educational opportunities, limited to
be sure, the details of which are presented here, as they appeared in
the minutes of the meeting.
[Sidenote: Report
We of the committee appointed by the on Negroes in
Monthly Meeting to visit such of our members 1775]
as are possessed of slaves, and detaining them
in bondage, contrary ... visited all such of our members that
are under that circumstance as we know of, which are eight in
number, who are possessed of sixteen negroes and one
mulatto, viz.: 1st possesses one negro girl about 17 years of
age and appeared in a disposition rather to justify the practice
of detaining her in bondage during life than otherwise. 2d,
possesses five negroes one of which is a man about 35 years
of age, who he said he intended to set free at the next quarter
sessions. The other four—three boys and a girl, are young,
whom he said he intended to set free as they came of age,
the boys at 21 and the girl at 18, giving them learning to fit
them for business. 3rd, two negroes, a man and a woman, the
man about 30 years of age, who was in the possession of a
Friend, lately deceased, now in his executors, who said he
intended they should soon enjoy their liberty. 4th, possessor
of three negroes, one a woman 20 years old, who he said he
expected should have her liberty in a short time—the other
two, a man and a woman about 20 years of age, both as we
thought, incapable of freedom. 5th, possessor of 2 negroes, a
woman about 32 years old, who he said should have her
liberty, when she earned him thirty pounds. The girl about ten
years old who he said is to be set free by his last will when
she arrives at the age of 30 years. 6th. Possessor of two
negroes, both women, one about 34, the other about 19 years
old; the said Friend not in a capacity of giving any account of
what might be done for them. 7th. Possessor of a mulatto girl
about 11 years old, bound to him till she is 31, who he said he
intended to set at liberty at the age of 21, with endeavors to
learn her to read. 8th. Possessor of a negro girl about 17
years old, who her mistress said she intended to do the best
she could by.[1315]
In 1779 it is reported that the affairs of Negroes [Sidenote:

are still in the hands of the committee for that Members
purpose, but that not much more has been disciplined for
failure to manumit
accomplished than was last reported.[1316] It would slaves]
seem though that the committee was decidedly
active in dealing with individual cases of discipline both at that time
and in the years following. Especially did they urge first the freedom
of the slave, and when this was refused, as it occasionally was, they
did not hesitate to eject the recalcitrant member.[1317] So effective
was their service that by 1790 there were none held as slaves by
Friends and in regard to their education they reported: “Some care
and labor is extended towards the instruction and education of such
Negroes as are under Friends’ care.”[1318]
It would be interesting to compare the Friends’ own account of
their activity with that of an outsider who merely looked on, but the
writer has been unable to find any opinion on the subject by any
contemporary, either through this investigation or from those made
by others. Many, it is true, comment on their social and economic
status but little mention is ever made of their education.[1319]
The Warrington and Fairfax Quarterly Meeting [Sidenote:
(Baltimore Yearly Meeting) reported in 1776 that Warrington and
their Negroes were well taken care of, but their Fairfax Quarterly]
education was “much neglected.”[1320] Three years later they
reported:
[Sidenote: Some
By the accounts now received it appears that care taken in their
the religious education of such negroes and education]
their children as have been restored to freedom
has been attended to and a visit performed to most of them to
good satisfaction, and there appears to be a hopeful prospect
that those who have been under their immediate care will
comply with Friends’ advice with respect to the school
education. Some care has been taken therein.[1321]
ATTITUDE TOWARD THE INDIANS

The uncommon relation existing from the time of [Sidenote:
the first settlement of Penn’s colony throughout the Friendly relation
entire colonial history, is well known to every of Quakers and
Indians]
schoolboy; such relations, between any possibly
antagonistic groups, have been without parallel in the history of this
country. Applegarth, speaking of this happy relationship, states that
the results of his study revealed but two instances in which Friends
had been massacred by Indians, and these cases were entirely the
results of misunderstanding.[1322]
It is aside from the point to relate at length the means employed by
Penn and the Quakers to cultivate the friendship of these people.
Nothing was more forceful than his immediate association with, and
travels among them, and the messages in which he explained that
he and his people were one with them and that they were all the
“Friends of Onas.”
Indian affairs were considered in a rational [Sidenote: No rum
manner and occupied much of the time of the to any but
Governor and Council. Instances of a solicitous chieftain
1701]
by law,
interest in the Indians[1323] are seen in the laws of

1701, forbidding the sale of rum to any but the chiefs, who should
distribute it as they thought best,[1324] and a still more restrictive law
in 1722, which prohibited the sale of liquor to Indians. Of still more
importance was the establishment of the principle that an abuse
committed by an Indian towards the Whites must be adjusted by the
Indian chief, not revenged by the Whites, which was given out in the
instructions to colonists; and the converse stated later (1728) by the
Governor, that if a White injured an Indian he should make complaint
to the Whites, who would then punish the offense under their own
laws.[1325]
Friends’ ministers were also active in the [Sidenote: Work
missionary work among the Indians, which was first of missionaries]
urged and practiced by George Fox. Not only the
numerous excursions of Penn, but also those of [Sidenote: Specific
Thomas Story, Thomas Turner, Chalkley and educational work]
others, evidence the ready spirit with which the
commands of Fox were received.[1326] Besides the general
missionary work and relief for the Indians, that from time to time is
mentioned in the several meetings, there is no evidence that
anything considerable towards a school education was attempted till
the latter part of the century. In a letter of the yearly meeting in 1796,
it is stated that Friends are,
engaged in an undertaking to furnish them with some of the

comforts of civilized life. A fund is raising to supply the
expense of instructing them in Agriculture, in mechanic arts,
and in some useful branches of learning.[1327]
An excellent illustration of this movement towards the education of

the Indian, and the naive friendly manner with which they made
known their needs is found in the following communications, which
are self-explanatory.
[Sidenote: The
To the children of the friends of Onas, who first Indians request
settled in Pennsylvania: aid]
Brothers, The request of Cornplanter, a chief of the Seneca
Nation.
The Seneca Nation sees that the Great Spirit intends that
they shall not continue to live by hunting, and they look
around on every side, and inquire who it is that shall teach
them what is best for them to do. Your fathers have dealt fairly
and honestly with our fathers, and they have charged us to
remember it; and we think it right to tell you that we wish our
children to be taught the same principles by which your
fathers were guided in their councils.
Brothers, we have too little wisdom among us, we cannot
teach our children what we perceive their situation requires
them to know, and we therefore ask you to instruct some of
them; we wish them to be instructed to read and write, and
such other things as you teach your own children; and
especially teach them to love peace.
Brothers, we desire of you to take under your care two
Seneca boys, and teach them as your own; and in order that
they may be satisfied to remain with you, and be easy in their
minds, that you will take with them the son of our interpreter,
and teach him according to his desire.
Brothers, you know it is not in our power to pay you for the
education of these three boys; and therefore you must, if you
do this thing, look up to God for your reward.
Brothers, You will consider of this request, and let us know
what you determine to do. If your hearts are inclined toward
us, and you will afford our nation this great advantage, I will
send my son as one of the boys to receive your instruction, at
the time which you shall appoint.[1328]
Cornplanter his mark
X
Signed 2-10-1791
In presence of Joseph Nichols.
To Cornplanter, The Seneca Chief: [Sidenote: His
request granted]
The written message of Cornplanter, dated at
Philadelphia, on the 10th of February last, was not received
by us until some weeks after. His request that we would take
under our care two Seneca boys, one of them his own son,
accompanied with the son of Joseph Nicholson, we have
considered, and do agree to receive them when they can
conveniently be sent to us; intending they shall be treated
with care and kindness and instructed in reading, writing and
husbandry as the other children of our Friends are taught; the
Governor of Pennsylvania, when informed of this proposal,
having expressed his approbation thereof, as did General
Knox.[1329]
Signed on behalf, and by appointment of a meeting of the
representatives, of the said people, on the second day of the
sixth month, called June, 1791. By several Friends.
In 1795 a committee was appointed by the Yearly [Sidenote:

Meeting of Pennsylvania and New Jersey for the Committee
promotion and improvement of the Indian natives. appointed by
yearly meeting in
[1330] Their first act was to attempt to learn the 1795]
Indian’s attitude towards such an activity on the
[Sidenote:
part of Friends.[1331] Accordingly a circular letter Oneidas and
was sent out to the various neighboring tribes, and Tuscaroras willing
also accompanied by a letter from the secretary of to accept
assistance]
state, signifying the government’s coöperation and
sanction.[1332] From the responses it appeared that [Sidenote: School
only the Oneidas and part of the Tuscaroras were established]
willing to accept any assistance, so the following [Sidenote:
summer of 1796, three Friends, approved by the Occupations
committee, were sent and settled among the taught]
Oneidas. In the winter of 1796 they established a
school, continued for several years, and taught by an Indian who had
been educated in New England.[1333] The Indians were found, at
first, to be quite averse to any continuous labor, and it was
necessary for the Friends to establish themselves, and to improve a
piece of land, in the hope that the Indians would see the results and
become interested in the process. This seems to have worked quite
satisfactorily, for in 1799 they report that the Indians have improved
some lands and “sowed them with wheat.”[1334] The various
occupations mentioned as being taught the boys were: smith work,
tilling soil, sewing, the preparation of lumber in sawmills, and the
details included therein. The girls were frequently instructed in
spinning, knitting, sewing, school learning, etc.[1335]
At this time (1799) the Oneidas became [Sidenote: Indians
distrustful of the motives of those in charge of the distrustful]
settlement, thinking that such an investment in
implements and the permanent nature of the farms laid out, indicated
an intention to seek after a time to take their territory from them. The
settlers became aware of this feeling and to prove their good faith,
decided to leave the settlement with all implements and
improvements in sole charge of the natives. The preparations to
leave were accomplished in a friendly conference, held in
September, 1799.[1336] The success of this work, for the Oneidas,
had been watched by the Seneca tribes, and resulted in an interest
in the same thing, culminating in the letters requesting the Friends’
assistance, which have already been presented.[1337]
SUMMARY
Though slavery had fixed itself, very early, as an [Sidenote: Slavery
institution in Pennsylvania, it was not destined to in Pennsylvania]
continue its growth unmolested. Some of the chief
factors working against it were: (1) The scruples of Friends, and
other sects, (2) the Germans and (3) the opposition of White labor.
Restrictive legislation was passed in 1700, 1705 and 1712, placing
an ever increasing duty upon those imported. Gradual abolition was
provided for by statutes of 1780 and 1788. Socially and economically
the condition of the Negro in Pennsylvania was more desirable than
in states of her latitude and further south.
To three Quakers, opposed to Negro slavery, [Sidenote: Quaker
some brief attention is given. Their expressions Antagonists of
also indicate a solicitous interest in the education of Slavery]
the Indian. Their influence was extended by
missionary journeys, speaking in public, and numerous pamphlets
published on that subject. This work was by no means limited to the
Quakers. Slavery was denounced as impracticable, unjust and
inconsistent with the ideals of a free nation.
(1) Not only individual leaders, but also the [Sidenote: The
organized meetings arrayed themselves to fight Quaker
against slavery. The first memorial to that effect organization
against slavery]
was on the part of Germantown Meeting in 1688.
This was sent to the Quarterly Meeting of Philadelphia, but at that
date they took no action in regard to it. In 1727 the Philadelphia
Yearly Meeting’s advisers censured the practice of trading in slaves.
A more extensive warning and reproof was administered in 1758.
Throughout the early half of the century efforts were made to secure
favor for the slaves’ freedom; it was necessary that in some measure
that should come first.
(2) After the active campaign for freedom, the [Sidenote:
interest in education increased, and, in the last half Schools for
of the century, there are frequent statements of that Negroes]
nature in records of meetings. Separate schools
were established for them where possible. One in Philadelphia was
set up by the meeting, though in large measure due to the active
personal influence of Benezet, who, after 1782, taught in the school
till his death. Moses Patterson was the first teacher; after 1786 two
schools are always mentioned in reports. In the five years preceding
1782 it is estimated that two hundred and fifty Negroes attended the
school.
Some attention is given to the Negroes and their [Sidenote: In
education, or lack of it, in each of the meetings. country and small
The care of this subject in those meetings was in towns]
the charge of a committee, the general character of
whose duties was indicated on page 247. The support of the Negro
schools and the education of the poor children was similar to that of
other schools.[1338] Reports on the progress in freeing, supporting,
and educating the Negro, were required by their superior meetings.
The relations between Friends and Indians were [Sidenote:
most cordial from the beginning. Though their Education of
education was preached early by missionaries and Indians]
practised in a smaller way, little organized effort
was made until 1795. In that year the yearly assembly took the
necessary steps to establish schools among neighboring tribes, the
first mentioned being for the Oneidas. The desire of the Indian for aid
in these matters is indicated by the quoted letter of Cornplanter, the
Seneca chief.
CHAPTER XII
CONCLUSION
The society, established by George Fox, near the [Sidenote: Society

middle of the seventeenth century, increased established]
rapidly in numbers, due very largely to the efforts of
its founder and the services of the men whom he [Sidenote:
Influence
associated with him in his work. This influence was extended by three
extended by means of (1) journeys made to foreign means]
parts; (2) letters; and (3) preaching out of doors to [Sidenote: Fox’s
all who would listen. Fox, from the first, was aims in education]
interested in education, particularly moral and
practical, and recommended the establishment of [Sidenote:
Organization
several schools. He was primarily interested in (1) devised by Fox]
moral training; (2) religious instruction; and (3) in
education of a practical sort which would fit every [Sidenote:
individual to earn a livelihood. These ends which Weakness in the
organization]
he strove for were likewise accepted as worthy to
be achieved, and consciously striven for by the society in its
organized meetings. This organization of meetings itself was devised
by Fox and regularly constituted in various parts before the time of
his death. It consisted of yearly, quarterly, monthly, and particular
meetings, whose relations were well defined. The functions of the
first were general and directive; those of the last were particular and
effective. The chief weakness, already pointed out in previous
chapters, was the lack of compulsory power in the yearly meeting. Its
recommendations gained results, but might be neglected in
communities desiring to do so.
An organization, of itself, performs nothing. Its [Sidenote:
accomplishments depend on men who have Leaders who
were interested in
purposes, and the determination and ability to education]
execute them. A considerable number of such men
were members of Friends, and expressed [Sidenote: Quaker
themselves definitely on education. Such leaders antipathy to
as Penn, Fothergill, Fox, Banks, Chalkley, Crisp, education
appears
Crouch, Pastorius, Benezet and others as unfounded]
important, were responsible for its educational
guidance and in the end, accomplishments. From a [Sidenote:
Education of
study of their expressions it appears that the Negroes and
criticisms, concerning the Quakers’ antipathy to Indians urged and
education, are without foundation, and arose, for effected]
the most part, from their statement that a classical
education was not essential for a minister. The life and the education
of most of them attest the fact that they sought a higher education for
themselves and promoted it for others. Not only for their own society,
but for the rich and poor of others, were efforts made to establish
schools. The education of Indians and Negroes was similarly urged
both on the part of individuals and the organization. The tangible
results of their efforts in this regard were seen in the various local
meetings.
In the establishment of schools, the direction lay [Sidenote:
in the hands of the yearly meeting. Philadelphia Schools
Yearly Meeting’s advices on that subject, for the established]
first half century, were very general in nature and [Sidenote: School
seemingly of little import to the various lower affairs in care of
meetings. A development is noticed, however, committees]
toward a definite plan for schools to be established.
[Sidenote:
The advices of 1746 and continuing thereafter, Number of
1750, 1751, 1753, 1755, 1778, and following, are schools in
definite in their ideas as to what should be done, Pennsylvania]
and the persistency with which they were urged in
the meetings, where all school affairs came to be attended to by
committees, seems to have effected tangible results. Committee
reports on educational conditions increased greatly in definiteness
after 1777, which allows a better estimate to be made of what was
done. From such reports it is estimated that by the end of the century
there were sixty or seventy schools established “according to
direction” given by the yearly meeting. Many others are reported in
various meetings, which did not measure up in any great degree to
the standards set.
These standards[1339] (stated elsewhere in this [Sidenote: The
work) demanded a high moral quality in masters Master]
and mistresses, as well as training in the subjects
to be taught. From a study of the manuscript records and
newspapers it appears that the moral standards, met by Quaker
masters, were as high, and, in Philadelphia, perhaps higher than
those of the other private school masters. The cases of open
lawlessness are at least more numerous in the latter case. The
degree of preparation for teaching ranged from the highest, the best
college trained men of the day, to the lowest, those who possessed a
most elementary education.
The opportunities offered for study, both in the [Sidenote:
lower and in the Classical School, were at all times Curriculum similar
equal at least to those of the other schools of the to that in private
schools]
day.
The Quakers established no system of public [Sidenote: No free
schools, though they were called such quite public schools]
frequently. As public school sentiment grew, and
the Quaker schools correspondingly declined in many places, they
often were taken over as public schools. In that sense they were,
truly enough, the foundation of public schools. Education was free to
the poor; in a few cases the funds might be applied to lower the rates
paid by the regular pay scholars, but such were exceptional.
In 1750 there were about fifty particular meetings [Sidenote:
in the territory covered by this study; those were Number of
under the direction of seventeen monthly meetings. schools about
1750]
[1340] With the exception of nine of them we know
from their reports that they had schools then, or established them in
the period following 1750, in which the increased activity and interest
of the yearly meeting brought the subject more fully to their notice.
From the nature of the reports, it is often impossible to determine the
date of establishing such a school, and because of the irregularity of
reports it is not known how long a school may have been in
operation before reported. For these reasons any estimate such as
made above is very unsatisfactory.
It is not to be understood that at the time above mentioned the
schools were in all cases “according to the plan” of the yearly
meeting. Many reports have been quoted wherein schools were
mentioned which did not measure up to the standards.[1341] Some
lacked buildings, grounds, Friends as masters, masters’
accommodations, and so forth.
Assuming the nine meetings, for which no [Sidenote: Quaker
schools were reported in the minutes, did not have population one-
them, there were about forty schools under control third of total]
of the Quakers, who at that date constituted one- [Sidenote:
third of the entire population.[1342] The population Proportionate
estimated by Oldmixon was about 100,000 in 1741. numberQuakers
of
[1343] Though the colony increased rapidly by decreases]
immigration,[1344] the Quaker increase was not

proportionate to their numbers stated above.[1345] In 1795 it is stated
that the Episcopalians and Quakers together constituted but one-
third of the whole population, which then numbered about 434,373.
[1346] The number of regularly established Quaker schools at that
date was between sixty and seventy.
If in 1741 we estimate the number of school age [Sidenote:
children of Quaker parentage between six and Number of
seven thousand, which is probably a less number regularly
established
than there actually were, it is apparent that the schools
schools regularly established were in no way inadequate for
adequate to the school population. The remainder their population]
were doubtless cared for in the frequently
mentioned mixed schools and neighborhood schools, which are
known to have been common. These were sometimes under partial
control of the Quaker meetings. What proportion the number of
Quaker schools bears to those established by other agencies is not
known. No studies made up to the present time have attempted to
estimate the number of schools established by all or particular
agencies. Any comparison is impossible until such a study is made.

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Textbook Inorganic Constituents in Soil Basics and Visuals Masami Nanzyo Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Inorganic Constituents in Soil Basics

and Visuals Masami Nanzyo

Japanese LGBT Diasporas Gender Immigration Policy and

Inorganic Chemistry Duward Shriver

Ligand Design in Medicinal Inorganic Chemistry 1st

Microbes and Enzymes in Soil Health and Bioremediation

Practical Grammar of Modern Chinese III Sentence

Chemical Constituents of Bryophytes Bio and Chemical

Inorganic Chemistry 4th Edition Catherine Housecroft

Inorganic Chemistry 7th Edition Mark Weller

Inorganic Constituents in Soil

ISBN 978-981-13-1213-7 ISBN 978-981-13-1214-4 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018951424

Printed on acid-free paper

Sendai, Japan Masami Nanzyo

Graduate School of Agricultural Science Masami Nanzyo

1 Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3.3 Oxides, Hydroxides, and Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5.5 Pyrite and Related Sulfur-Containing Inorganic Constituents . . . . . 124

1.1 Ecosystem Services as an Embodiment of Soil Functions

An ecosystem is characterized by a wide variety of organisms, and soil is essential

© The Author(s) 2018 1

1.2 Elements Important for Ecosystem Services

Concentrations of more than 50 soil elements can now be determined by atomic

Si and Na are beneﬁcial to some plants. In agricultural plant production, it is essential

1.2.2 Environmental Factors

dependent on moisture, topography, drainage, and activities of organisms). The

taken through a Leica M 205C stereomicroscope, and the isotropic or anisotropic

© The Author(s) 2018 11

includes non-crystalline inorganic constituents, such as volcanic glasses. Volcanic

2.2 Average Mineral Composition of the Earth’s Crust

2.3 Silicate and Silica Minerals

2.3.1 Grouping of Silicate and Silica Minerals

46.6 27.7 8.1 5.0

Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary

10.4 11.6 42.5 0.2 27.4 7.9

Soil formation Transportation

Continental Oceanic crust

Table 2.1 Grouping of silicate and silica minerals

2.3.2 Examples of Silicate and Silica Minerals in Soil

2.3.2.1 Silicate Minerals

Silica SiO44- Si2O76-

Si3O96- Si4O128- Si6O1812-

Single chain Si2O64-

Sadsbury, 1782, reported they had visited the [Sidenote:

Those few negroes amongst us we believe are provided

Four years later conditions were somewhat improved, and their

If we read a little further the records for the same [Sidenote:

In 1778 the Goshen Meeting appointed a [Sidenote:

An account of Thomas Hallowell for schooling Griffith

about 1721,[1308] the slaves being employed by the

It is noticeable that in the earliest answers to the [Sidenote:

In 1779 it is reported that the affairs of Negroes [Sidenote:

ATTITUDE TOWARD THE INDIANS

interest in the Indians[1323] are seen in the laws of

engaged in an undertaking to furnish them with some of the

An excellent illustration of this movement towards the education of

In 1795 a committee was appointed by the Yearly [Sidenote:

The society, established by George Fox, near the [Sidenote: Society

immigration,[1344] the Quaker increase was not

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