aStructure of Lignocellulosic Biomass

Lignocellulosic biomass (LB) is an abundant and renewable

resource from plants mainly composed of polysaccharides
(cellulose and hemicelluloses) and an aromatic polymer
(lignin). LB has a high potential as an alternative to fossil
resources to produce second-generation biofuels and
bioresourced chemicals and materials without
compromising global food security.

Lignocelluloses are the most abundant renewable carbon

resource in the world and they are mainly composed of
cellulose (60%), hemicelluloses (10%), and lignin (30%) . By
hydrolysis, cellulose and hemicellulose can be degraded into
sugars, which are further processed into value-added
products, such as biochemicals, biofuels, and biopolymers .

One of the major limitations of LB valorisation is its

recalcitrance to enzymatic hydrolysis caused by the
heterogeneous multi-scale structure of plant cell walls.
Factors affecting LB recalcitrance are strongly
interconnected and difficult to dissociate.

Molecular Structure and Characterization of Lignocellulose

Lignocellulosic biomass contains primary and secondary

plant cell walls. The primary cell wall is composed mainly of
cellulose and pectin, while the secondary wall is composed
primarily of a complex polymeric matrix, known as
lignocellulose

Chemical structure of lignocellulosic material; (A) Building blocks/units of

Lignin; (B) Xylose unit of hemicellulose; and (C) Cellulose

Chemical characteristics Impacting Enzymatic Hydrolysis/ nutritional

characteristics

Cellulose

Cellulose, the most abundant LB polymer, representing 60% in weight , consists

of ß-D-glucopyranose units linked via ß-(1,4) glycosidic bonds, with cellobiose as
the fundamental repeating unit.The cellulose chains made up of 500–1400 D-
glucose units are arranged together to form microfibrils, which are packed
together to form cellulose fibrils. Cellulose fibrils are embedded in a
lignocellulosic matrix that makes it very resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis. The
cellulose content was positively correlated with the glucose release . It is assumed
that long cellulose chains contain more hydrogen bonds and are difficult to
hydrolyze, whereas shorter cellulose chains contain a weaker hydrogen-bonding
system and therefore are believed to facilitate enzyme accessibility again it is s
linear polymer composed of the various glucose monomers mentioned above , it
give structural supports to plants and a complex carbohydrate, it is highly
crystalline and insoluble substance

Its proximate characteristics include high tensile strength, resistance to

hydrolysis, and low reactivity.

Hemicelluloses and Acetyl Groups

Hemicelluloses are heterogeneous groups of biopolymers, representing 10% of

the biomass weight ). It contains various monosaccharide subunits to form xylans,
xyloglucan, mannans and glucomannans, and others . The DP of hemicelluloses is
in the range of 100–200 units , which is much lower than that of cellulose, but it
can present a high degree of more or less complex substitutions. Hemicellulose is
amorphous, with little physical strength. It is readily hydrolysed by dilute acids or
bases, as well as hemicellulase enzymes . Hemicelluloses act as a physical barrier
limiting the accessibility of enzymes. Again, it is a heterogeneous group of
polysaccharides, composed of various monosaccharides , such as xylose ,
arabinose , and galactose.

ITS PROXIMATE CHARACTERISTICS COMPOSE OF

 LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT

 SOLUBILITY IN WATER
 AND REACTIVITY WITH BASE AND ACID.

Lignin

Lignin is the second most abundant polymer in LB after cellulose, corresponding

to 30% of dry weight . It is a very complex amorphous heteropolymer of
phenylpropanoid building units (p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohol . Lignin
is responsible for hydrophobicity and structural rigidity. It binds hemicelluloses to
cellulose in the cell wall. It is well-known that lignin plays a negative role in the
conversion of cellulose influenced by several factors such as total lignin content,
lignin composition/structure (in particular hydroxyl groups content and S and G
units content) . First of all, lignin can physically limit polysaccharide accessibility:
it plays a role as physical barrier that blocks the access of enzymes to cellulose. It
is a complex polymer of aromatic monomer such as phenylpropanoida, it is an
amorphous substance .

Its PROXIMATE CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE

 High molecular weight

 Insolubility in water and resistance to chemical and biological degradation.

The precursors of lignin (p-coumaric acid, p-coumaroyl-CoA, p-

coumaraldehyde) and its monomers (monolignols p-coumaryl alcohol,
coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol) have also been suggested to have
antimicrobial properties the fundamentals of why lignocellulose is
recalcitrant to enzymatic hydrolysis. Structure seen below

There is a need to find out how interactions between them increase the
recalcitrance of the cell walls to the enzymatic hydrolysis. Cellulose and
hemicelluloses are intimately associated together through hydrogen bonds
meanwhile lignin are covalently linked to hemicelluloses to form lignin-
carbohydrate complex .

There are five different types of lignin-carbohydrate bonds, phenyl glycosides

(PG), benzyl ethers (BE), γ-esters esters (GE), ferulate/coumarate esters (FE/CE)
and hemiacetal/acetal linkages that are linked to lignin at 4-OH and 4-O positions.

Physical Factors Impacting Enzymatic Hydrolysis

Crystallinity

Crystallinity has been identified as one of the most extensively studied

supramolecular properties of cellulose. It represents the proportion of crystalline
regions to amorphous regions. Crystalline cellulose fibers are closely related to
each other by non-covalent hydrogen bonds that make their enzymatic hydrolysis
3–30 times lower than in amorphous zones . But the impact of crystallinity on
hydrolysis differs. Some studies reported that crystallinity correlated negatively
with enzymatic hydrolysis especially at the initial hydrolysis rate on pre-treated
wheat straw , on pre-treated corn stover and on hybrid polar, switchgrass, and
bagasse .

Looking at the structure of lignocellulosic matter, we can see that a

skeleton is formed out of cellulose and by hemicellulose and lignin, similar
to a matrix, and binding materials The high resistance of lignocellulose to
biological degradation is linked to a high degree of refractory lignin
presence . An amorphous matrix material is formed by hemicellulose since
it is non-covalently bonded to the external area of the surface of cellulose
fibrils . Even though it is the compound that has the weakest bond
compound and it has a high chemical sensitivity, it plays a crucial role in
strengthening the structure of lignocellulose. Lignin is a macromolecule that
is crosslinked and relatively hydrophobic and aromatic, but it has a high
resistance to biological degradation . Cellulose is hydrophilic, because of
the existence of groups R-OH, and internal hydrogen bonds, but not highly
soluble in water because its large

To better illustrate the way LC biomass is structured, we can observe . The

molecules for lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose are presented, as well as
the three lignin monomers, coniferyl (G) alcohols, coumaryl (H) and sinapyl
(S), and, with a detailed image of the crystallinity of cellulose as seen
below.
The three main precursors of lignin
(monolignols) and their corresponding
structures in lignin polymers
Particle Size

Particle size was identified as a key parameter affecting cellulose hydrolysis potential . The reduction of
particle size through milling, grinding, and extrusion could enhance the affinity between cellulose and
enzymes, deconstruct lignocellulose compact structure and thus increase the rate of hydrolysis .

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS

CELLULOSE;

 Cellulose is the most abundant carbohydrate present in nature

 It is insoluble in water
 Cellulose is a crystalline solid having a white powdery appearance
 It has high tensile strength due to firm hydrogen bonds between the
individual chains in cellulose microfibrils. The tensile strength of cellulose
microfibrils is comparable to that of steel
 The alternate arrangement of glucose molecules in cellulose also
contributes to the high tensile strength of cellulose
 It is soluble in organic solvents

 Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on earth with a

chemical formula (C6H10O5)n.
 Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate consisting of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. It is
chiral, tasteless and has no odour. oxygen (37%), carbon 60%), and hydrogen (3%).

LIGNIN;

 Lignin contains five hydroxyl and five methoxyl groups per building unit.
 Lignin has a glass transition temperature of about 90°C and melting temperature
of about 170°C.
 It is soluble in hot alkali, easily oxidizable, and condensable with phenol but
does not hydrolyze by acids.

 Natural lignin mainly consists of three elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, of which
the carbon content is much higher than carbohydrate. The carbon content of softwood
and hardwood lignin is 60%–65% and 56%–60%, respectively, and the carbon content
of cellulose is only 44.4%.
 Lignin is a highly aromatic polymer found in all plant cell wall alongside cellulose and
hemicellulose. It provides structural support as well as a defense mechanism against
parasites and diseases.

HEMICELLULOSE;
 Hemicelluloses are not soluble in water but can be solubilized by aqueous alkali. This
character is often used as a distinguishing feature between typical gums and
hemicelluloses.
 Hemicellulose is the predominant carbohydrate in the middle lamella of plant .
Generally, they are found in abundant quantities in seeds, husks, straws,
leaves and wood (hard and soft).
 Hemicelluloses can be classified into four classes based on the sugar
composition of the backbone [. The classes are as follows: xylans, mannans,
xylogalactans and xyloglucans

 Hemicellulose is a natural polymer like cellulose, consisting of carbohydrate monomers.

mannose, galactose, glucose.

SUMARILY THE ABOVE TABLE SHOWS THE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE, THE PHYSICAL COMPONENTS
OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS AND THEIR STRUCTURAL FORMATION.

Generaly, lignocellulosic biomass is nutritionally composed of carbohydrates, generally

cellulose 60% and hemicellulose 10%, and lignin 30%, which are associated in a hetero-
matrix and whose relative composition depends on the species, type or source of biomass.
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LIGNOCELLULOSIC WATSE

Lignocellulosic wastes are low-cost, renewable, plentiful, and are a good natural resource for bioenergy
and many other useful products. The cost of conversion is high; therefore, scientists are trying to
develop cost-effective methods to transform these tough to degrade raw materials into value-added
products having different applications. Large amounts of lignocellulosic wastes are produced as residues
from agriculture and agroforestry sectors. The global annual generation of lignocellulosic wastes is in the
order of 140 gigatons and presents significant management problems. They are generally burnt or left as
garbage leading to air pollution and deterioration of soil and water quality. Value addition of these
wastes using cost-effective techniques would lead to better utilization of these wastes. The
bioconversion of lignocellulosic wastes through mushroom cultivation offers an ecologically sound
alternative to convert these wastes into protein-rich foods and thus reduce pollution. Mushrooms are
good sources of crude soluble fiber, protein, vitamins, minerals, and contain no starch, and have low
calorific value.

Lignocellulosic wastes created by agriculture, the industry as well as forests might become major
pollutants of the environment if not utilized properly. They are now being realized as a prospective
resource that can be used as a feedstock for the generation of various value-added chemicals, bio
products, as well as biofuel, owing to their abundance, easy availability, renewability, and cost‐effective
characteristics.
TYPES OF FOOD BI PRODUCTS
ACCORDING TO THE VARIOUS FOOD
INDUSTRIES;

MEAT PROCESSING INDUSTRY;lidbgdbdj b kf lbd ghe idehf hdbuis

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 . Gelatin and Glue;

made from skins or hides, connective tissues, cartilage, and bones of cattle and
calves. Cooking in water converts the collagen in these materials to gelatin. Glue
-- made from the same items as gelatin, but is extracted from these materials by
successive heating's in water under specific temperature conditions.

 Pharmaceuticals;
Glands , Adrenal -- epinephrine is extracted from the adrenal medulla and
adrenocortical extract from the adrenal cortex. And Ovaries -- used as a
source of estrogens and progesterone. And Pancreas -- yields insulin and
trypsin.
 Animal Feeds and Fertilizers; made by coagulating fresh blood with steam,
draining off the liquid, and drying the coagulum. Meat meal -- made from
the proteinaceous materials from the inedible rendering process.
Steamed bone meal -- made by cooking bones with steam, under a high
pressure, in order to remove any fat and meat that may be left on them.
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During beer production, three main types of by-products are

generated, i.e. brewer’s spent grain,( BSG) spent hops/hot trub, and
residual brewer’s yeast.
 Brewer’s spent grain, which accounts for approx. 85% of all
residues produced by the brewing industry, is the major
waste generated during beer production. BSG is formed in the
mashing process and removed before the boiling step of the
brewing process. This solid residue from wort production is
composed of barley. BSG is a heterogeneous material
consisting of lignocellulose biomass and is rich in proteins
(20-30%), fiber (30–70%), lipids, vitamins, and minerals. It
contains ca. 12–28% of lignin, 12–25% of cellulose, and 28%
of non-cellulosic polysaccharides, mainly arabinoxylans .
 It is generally used as animal feed.

 Considering its high lignin and cellulose content, another logical

application for BSG is energy production.

DAIRY INDUSTRY;

Main productBy-product

Cream Skim milk

Butter Butter milk

Ghee
 Ghee residue

Whey
Cheese
Casein

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health, and sport supplements), normally in dry form, whey items have pertinent nutritious (e.g., high
content of essential amino acids), functional (e.g., gelation, foaming, and emulsifying agent), and
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GRAIN PROCESSING INDUSTRY;

 The production of biodiesel produced from a renewable resources such as virgin oils
from( soya beans , canola palm , this by product significantly reduces the effect of green
house gases , biodiesel is simple to use , biodegradable and nontoxic.

 Rice bran is a by-product of rice processing industry and constitutes around 10% of the
aggregate weight of unpleasant rice the by-products comprising of 20% husk, 8% bran and
2% germ .the Rice bran is rich in antioxidant compounds like polyphenols, vitamin E,
tocotrienols and carotenoids that help prevent the oxidative damage to DNA and other
body tissues. Rice bran being high in dietary fiber and in view of its therapeutic potential

 Rice bran is used for oil extraction and many by-products are produced during
processing of rice bran oil, viz., wax sludge, gum sludge, soap stock sludge, fatty
acid distillate and deodorizer distillate.

TUBER PROCESSING INDUSTRY;

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 Ethanol production from potatoes peels


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