Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept.

of Civil CPUT

Chapter 6

Table of Contents

6.1 Coagulation ...................................................................................................... 2

6.2 Flocculation ...................................................................................................... 2
6.3 Floc................................................................................................................... 2
6.4 Suspension....................................................................................................... 2
6.5 Colloids............................................................................................................. 2
6.5.1 Electrostatic potential ....................................................................................... 4
6.5.2 Van der Waals force ......................................................................................... 4
6.6 Common Coagulants ........................................................................................ 5
6.6.1 Aluminium Sulphate.......................................................................................... 5
6.6.2 Ferric Salts (Ferric Sulphate & Ferric Chloride) ................................................ 5
6.7 Coagulant aids (Poly-ectrolytes or polymers) ................................................... 5
6.7.1 Activated silica .................................................................................................. 5
6.7.2 Purified clays .................................................................................................... 6
6.7.3 Sodium Aluminate ............................................................................................ 6
6.8 Adsorption and charge neutralisation ............................................................... 6
6.9 Dosing of chemicals ......................................................................................... 7
6.9.1 Jar test.............................................................................................................. 7
6.9.2 Procedure ......................................................................................................... 7
6.10 Dosing Equipment (Chemo-feeders) ................................................................ 9
6.11 Rate of Dosing.................................................................................................. 9
6.12 Rapid Mixing................................................................................................... 10
6.13 Hydraulic mixing ............................................................................................. 10
6.15 Self Assessment Exercises ............................................................................ 15
6.16 References ..................................................................................................... 15

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

Chapter 6

COAGULATION

The pre-settlement discussed in Chapter 5 is only suitable for highly turbid

waters whereby the solids are bigger in size and settle down due to the force
of gravity. Small particles like colloids do not settle down without coagulation
and flocculation process due to their size which makes them stable.
Therefore coagulation and flocculation will be necessary to enable small
particles to settle down in the sedimentation tanks. Depending with the
quality of the raw water, coagulation and flocculation can be omitted and the
raw water is directly fed into the filters.

6.1 Coagulation
Coagulation is a process of making conditions favourable for colloidal
particles to join together to form flocs. It is a process directed towards
destabilisation of the colloidal particles. Normally coagulation it takes place in
coagulation channels which are illustrated in the rapid mixing section.

6.2 Flocculation

The growth of flocs

The process will be described in the flocculation section.

6.3 Floc
Collection of colloidal particles held together and has density closer to water

6.4 Suspension
Dispersion of solid particles in liquid

6.5 Colloids
Colloids are small particles 1 to 200x10-9m and are called stable if they do not
join together and hence form stable suspension. Colloids do not join together
because:

• Their molecular arrangement within crystals

• They lose electrons due to abrasion of surfaces
• They are small and therefore have a large surface to volume ration

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

• Because of the large surface area, colloidal particles accumulate a net

negative charge at the surface-water interface and hence colloidal
particles are negatively charged in water
• The net negative electrical charges at the particle surface result in
preferential adsorption of ions. The first layer of cations (+ve) is
attracted to the negatively charged surface to form the Stern layer (Fig.
6.1).
• The surface charge will contribute to stability and there will be no
coalescence due to the repelling by the like charge.

Fig.6.1 Guoy-Stern colloidal model

Source: Water Supply, Terence McGee

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

When two colloids come in close proximity, there are two forces acting on them:

• Electrostatic potential
• Van der Waals force

6.5.1 Electrostatic potential

• The electrostatic potential is created by counter ions surrounding each
colloid.
• It is a repelling force and hence colloids will repel each other.

6.5.2 Van der Waals force

• It supports contact and is an attraction force.
• It is inversely proportional to the 6th power of the distance between particles.
• It is more attractive force at close distances and repulsive at greater distances
• Once the forces become attractive, contact between the particles takes place.

A means of overcoming the energy barrier (repulsive forces) must be available

before agglomeration of particles can occur. Some of the means of overcoming this
energy barrier are outlined hereafter:

• Brownian movement random movement of smaller colloids because of

molecular bombardment may produce enough momentum for particles to
overcome the energy barrier for the colloidal particles to collide.

• Mechanical agitation mechanical agitation of the water may impart

enough momentum to larger particle to move them across the energy barrier

The above processes are too slow to be efficient in water treatment and therefore
other means of agglomeration must be used. Generally this is accomplished by
chemical coagulation with aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3 and ferric chloride (FeCl3).

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

6.6 Common Coagulants

• Aluminium Sulphate (Alum)

• Ferric Chloride
• Ferric sulphate
• Sodium Aluminate

6.6.1 Aluminium Sulphate

Commonly used in water treatment because it is cheap and readily available

in solid or liquid form. Solid aluminium is easy to handle, transport and store
at the treatment plant.

6.6.2 Ferric Salts (Ferric Sulphate & Ferric Chloride)

They have the following advantages:

• Cheap but not widely available compared to alum

• Low solubility under a wide range of pH (4-11)
• Produce heavy flocs which have better settling velocities than
aluminium sulphate
• Has water softening properties (Removal of iron and manganese)
• Flocs do not redissolve at high pH
• Remove colour at high pH

6.7 Coagulant aids (Poly-ectrolytes or polymers)

They make flocs larger, tougher and denser thereby reducing floc breaking.
The quantities of chemicals is reduced. However, overdosing with
electrolytes may clog filters and promotes growth of algae and fungi in filter
media and in the distribution (Thiart, 2012). They have longer molecules with
charged site which link small flocs together (inter-particle bridging). There are
three groups: cationic, anionic and non ionic (ampholytic). Common types
include:

• activated silica
• purified clays
• sodium aluminate

6.7.1 Activated silica

It is prepared from sodium silicate and it has the following benefits:
• Increases the rate of coagulation and flocculation
• Reduces coagulant dosage

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

• Broaden pH range for effective coagulation

• Produces large and tougher floc particles
• Increases removal of both colour and colloidal particles

6.7.2 Purified clays

May be added to water with low turbidity to add weight to the flocs and reduce
coagulant requirement e.g. bentonite clay.

6.7.3 Sodium Aluminate

Is a coagulant aid and produce better flocs at low water temperatures and can
also correct pH.

6.8 Adsorption and charge neutralisation

Adsorption and charge neutralisation is the mechanism involved in

coagulation. The Adsorption and charge neutralisation is through the use
of aluminium sulphate and ionisation of the aluminium sulphate in water
producing sulphate anions and aluminium cations:

Ionisation

Al 2 (S 0 4 )3 → S 0 24− + Al 3+

Hydrolysis
During hydrolysis Al 3+ react immediately with water to form a variety of
aquometallic ions and hydrogen, a process called hydrolysis

Al 3+ + H 2 O → AlOH 2+ + H +

Al 3+ + 2 H 2 O → Al (OH 2 ) + 2 H +
+

7 Al 3+ + 17 H 2 O → Al 7 (OH 17 ) + 17 H +
4+

aquometallic ions

• The aquometallic ions become part of the ionic cloud surrounding the colloid
i.e. large, insoluble positively charged particles
• They are adsorbed onto the surface of the colloid where they neutralise the
net negative charge surface of the particle
• Once the surface charge has been neutralised, the ionic cloud dissipates and
the electrostatic potential disappears and contact occurs
• Overdosing with a coagulant can result in restabilising the suspension.

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

Conditions for optimum coagulation

• For optimum formulation of flocs, the pH should be between 6-8.
• An optimum dosage of coagulant is required and is determined by the jar test
• too high or too low dosages are ineffective
• Acid is formed when alum reacts with water, so it is necessary to maintain the
desired pH range. To achieve a satisfactory final pH, it’s usually necessary to
add an alkali and rapid mixing will be important.
• Hydrated lime is often added for pH correction on cost grounds

Disadvantage of lime
• Low solubility i.e. needs constant agitation
• Blocks pipes

As an alternative sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used or sodium hydroxide

(caustic soda). But caustic soda is more expensive and dangerous

6.9 Dosing of chemicals

6.9.1 Jar test

Selection of an appropriate coagulant is through experiments and taking into
consideration costs, sludge management and the Jar test is mostly used.
Overdosing may lead to filter clogging.

The required dose cannot be calculated because water chemistry is too

complex. The right dose is found by comparing the effects of different doses
of coagulant on water, and choosing the lowest dose that gives a satisfactory
result (Jar test). If too low a dose is used, little treatment is achieved and
money is wasted, and a high residual goes into supply. If too much is dosed,
the turbidity removal is below the optimum. This result in the filters clogging
quickly and a high residual goes into supply and this is a health hazard.

6.9.2 Procedure
• Normally six jars (1000ml graduated cylinder) are used one for control
(Fig. 5.3)
• The other five jars are dosed with different doses of aluminium
sulphate (stock solution)
• Stock solutions are prepared by dissolving 10.0 grams of alum (or
other coagulant) into 1000 mL distilled water. Each 1.0 mL of this
Stock solution will equal 10 mg\L (ppm) when added to 1,000 mL of
water to be tested.
• Initial turbidity, pH and alkalinity of sample should be known
• One minute flash mix at 200 rpm
• This is followed by 10 to 30 min flocculation period at between 20 to 70
rpm (i.e. water is being allowed to settle).

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

• The time of appearance of the flocs, the size of floc and the turbidities
of the treated water should be noted
• The jar with the minimum dose but with the lowest final turbidity gives
the optimum dose e.g. beaker 3 in Table 5.1 gives the optimum dose of
5ml of aluminium sulphate solution.
• A jar test is performed every shift

Table 5.1: Jar test results to determine optimum dosage

Beaker 1 2 3 4 5 6
Alum stoke added (ml) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 2.5 3
Alum dosage (mg/l) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Final turbidity (NTU) 17 6 2 2 4 9

Fig. 6.2 (a): Schematic illustration of a jar-test equipment

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

Fig. 6.2 (b): Schematic illustration of a jar-test equipment

6.10 Dosing Equipment (Chemo-feeders)

This is the equipment used to introduce the coagulant in the chamber. The
coagulant can be fed in solid form (dry) to a mixing chamber with water or wet
dosing (the chemical is ready made and directly dosed). The coagulant can
be dosed by:

• Gravity
• Dosing pumps

In small plants, and when the power requirements or degree of complexity of

the plat are to be kept to a minimum, the coagulant can be dosed by gravity.
The tank in which the coagulant is mixed and stored should be at a high level
to allow the prepared solution to flow under gravity through a flow controller.
A float valve can also be used in gravity systems to maintain head constant.

6.11 Rate of Dosing

A mass balance equation can be used to establish the constant rate of dosing
the concentration of the coagulant established by the jar test

q1C1 = (q1 + Q2 )C2

q1 =Flow rate of coagulant, l/s

C1 =Concentration of coagulant from the supplier (chemical feed), mg/l
Q2 =Flow rate of water, l/s
C2 =Desired chemical dose (jar test dose), mg/l
Co =Background concentration of coagulant (Co=0

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

q 1; C1

Q2; CO q1+Q2; C2

6.12 Rapid Mixing

• The desired reactions between the coagulant and water are irreversible and
take place in fraction of a second. Therefore mixing must be fast (Rapid
mixing) to avoid formation of undesired products. The one minute flash mix at
200 rpm in the Jar Test simulates rapid mixing.

6.13 Hydraulic mixing

The coagulant should be injected just upstream for the maximum turbulence.

Types of hydraulic mixers

(a) Rectangular weir: coagulant should be injected at several points

across the width of channel

Fig. 6.3: Rectangular weir

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

Fig. 6.3: Rectangular weir

(b) Vee notch

A plate just downstream helps to spread the coagulant across the width.

Fig. 6.4:- Vee Notch

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

(c) Hydraulic jump

The jump must be in the same position whatever the flow rate. This can be
achieved by using a flume such as the Parshall flume (Fig. 7.3). At low flows
much of the may by-pass the turbulent “roller”.

Fig. 6.5 Hydraulic jump

Fig. 6.5 Hydraulic jump

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

(d) Pipe lines orifices

In a pipeline an orifice or an in-line mixer may be used.

Fig. 6.6 (a): Pipe lines orifices

Fig. 6.6 (b): Pipe lines orifices

6.14 Mechanical Mixing

They are available in a variety of designs to suit any plant. Principal elements
are agitator impellers, drive motors, speed controllers, reducers etc (Fig. 6
and 7).

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

Coagulation
Basin

Fig. 6.7 Schematic illustration of mechanical mixers

Example:

1. A dosing pump for a coagulant is rated at 0.014 m³/sec; the aluminium sulphate
dose from the jar test is 45 mg/l and the concentration of the supplied aluminium
sulphate is 250 mg/l.
Compute the flow rate (m³/day) to the plant to match the chemical dosage rate.
Answer:
Given: Unknown: Q₁
q₂ = 0.014 m³/sec
C₂ = 250 mg/l
C₃ = 45 mg/l
Solution:
C₁ Q₁ + C₂q₂ = C₃(Q₁ + q₂)
0 + C₂q₂ = C₃(Q₁ + q₂)
0 +250 x 0.014 m³/sec = 45 (Q₁ + 0.014) ,
Q₁ = 0.0638m³/sec = 229.6m³/h = 573.9m³/ day

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Remy Tshibangu: Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. of Civil CPUT

6.15 Self Assessment

i. Define the term coagulation.

ii. Outline the reasons why colloids in their natural state do not join together to
form bigger flocs
iii. Why is aluminium sulphate commonly used as a coagulant in water
treatment?
iv. Why is the coagulant injected at the point of turbulence?
v. Describe how a jar-test is conducted
vi. What are the optimum conditions for formation of flocs during coagulation
vii. Using data in Table 5.1, compute the flow rate of the coagulate (l/s) for a plant
treating water at 15000m3/day. The concentration of the aluminium sulphate
delivered to the plant has a concentration of 500mg/l.
viii. A dosing pump for a coagulant is rated at 120l/min, the aluminium sulphate
dose from the jar test is 20mg/l and the concentration of the supplied
aluminium sulphate is 550mg/l. Compute the flow rate (m3/day) to the plant to
match the chemical dosage rate.

6.16 References

1. Peavy H. S., Rowe D. R., and Tchobanoglous G., (1985), Environmental

Engineering, McGraw Hill, New York, USA
2. Terrence McGhee Water supply
3. Thiart A. (2012), Water and Wastewater Treatment, CPUT, SAGT-MEDIA,
Cape Town
4. Peavy H. S., Rowe D. R., and Tchobanoglous G., (1985), Environmental
Engineering, McGraw Hill, New York, USA

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