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 TH I R D E DI T ION

Hazardous
Materials
Chemistry
Armando S. Bevelacqua, RPM, BS
Laurie A. Norman, PhD
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Names: Bevelacqua, Armando S., 1956- author. | Norman, Laurie A., author.
Title: Hazardous materials chemistry / Armando S. Bevelacqua and Laurie A.
Norman.
Description: Third edition. | Burlington, MA : Jones & Bartlett Learning,
[2018]
Identifiers: LCCN 2018005730 | ISBN 9781284041996
Subjects: LCSH: Chemistry. | Hazardous substances. | Chemicals--Safety
measures.
Classification: LCC QD33 .B48 2018 | DDC 604.7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018005730

6048
Printed in the United States of America
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 BRIEF CONTENTS
SECTION 1 Guiding Chemical Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1 Applied Scene Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 2 Properties and Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 3 The Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 4 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Chapter 5 Intermolecular Interactions and Predicting Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Chapter 6 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Chapter 7 Reaction Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

SECTION 2 Chemical Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Chapter 8 Inorganic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Chapter 9 Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Chapter 10 Substituted Hydrocarbon Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

SECTION 3 Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Chapter 11 Tools of the Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Chapter 12 Risk-Based Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Chapter 13 Weapons of Mass Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Chapter 14 Science Officers’ Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Appendix A FESHE Correlation Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 Guiding Chemical
Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1
Applied Scene Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Gamma Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Benner’s Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Behavior Event: Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Behavior Event: Breach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Behavior Event: Release. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Behavior Event: Engulfing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Behavior Event: Impingement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Behavior Event: Harm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Converting Between Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Scientific Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Significant Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Scientific Method and Decision Making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Scientific Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 2
Properties and Toxicology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Properties of Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Pure Substances Versus Non-Pure Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Physical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chemical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
pH Ion Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Routes of Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Types of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Exposure Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Reducing Potential Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Toxicological Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Reactions in the Body. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Testing for Exposure Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Chapter 3
The Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Structure of Atoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Periodic Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Families and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Electronic Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Electronic Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Periodic Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bonding Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
General Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Alpha Particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Beta Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
69
Understanding Radioactivity and Radiation Absorbed Dose. . . . . . . . . . 70
Radiation Hazard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Protective Action Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Stay Time Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Chapter 4
Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Chemical Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Valence Electrons and Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
The Ionic Bond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
The Covalent Bond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Ionization of Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Lewis Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Rules for Drawing Lewis Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Resonance Structures and Formal Charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Valence-Shell, Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR):
Predicting Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Molecular Shape and Polarity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Chapter 5
Intermolecular Interactions and Predicting
Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Intermolecular Forces in Pure Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Dispersion Forces (Van der Waals). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Dipole-Dipole Interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Hydrogen Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
The Ionic Bond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Physical Properties of Pure Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Phases of Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Boiling Points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Vapor Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Phase Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Intermolecular Forces in Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
The Ion-Dipole Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Energetics of Solution Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Physical Properties of Liquid Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Vapor Pressure Lowering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Boiling-Point Elevation and Freeze-Point Depression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
 Contents v

Inorganic Peroxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Chapter 6 Metal Hydroxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Hydrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Polyatomic Ions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 OxySalts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Introduction: Materials That Are Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 OxyAcids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Binary Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Binary NonSalts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Expansion Ratios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Nonmetal Oxides (Fire Gases) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Charles’ Law: Temperature Volume Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Avogadro’s Law: The Relationship Between Quantity and Volume . . . . 118
The Ideal Gas Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Gas Laws Revisited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Boyle’s Law Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Chapter 9
Charles’ Law Revisited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
The Relationship Between Temperature and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . 172
Elevated Temperatures and Dangerous Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
The Combined Gas Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Molar Masses and Gas Densities and Molecular Speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Organic Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Catastrophic Release of Condensed Liquefied
Gases: Jack Rabbit Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Review of General IUPAC Naming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Cyclo Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Aromatics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 7 Branching and Its Effects on Physical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Petroleum Derivatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Reaction Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Chemical Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Chapter 10
Coefficients Versus Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Law of Conservation of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Enthalpies of Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Substituted Hydrocarbon Compounds. . . . . . . . 194
State Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Bond Enthalpies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Halogenated Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Rate of Reaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Halons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Activation Energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Methyl Chloride (Chloromethane). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Types of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Methylene Chloride (Dichloromethane). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Precipitation Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Trichloromethane (Chloroform). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Acid/Base Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Tetrachloromethane (Carbon Tetrachloride). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Oxidation/Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Oxygen-Containing Functional Groups: Alcohols, Phenols,
and Their Sulfur Analogs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Alcohols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

SECTION 2 Chemical Nomenclature . . . . . 149 Alcohol Analogs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Phenols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
199
200
Sulfur Analogs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Thiols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Chapter 8 Functional Groups with a Carbonyl Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Aldehydes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Ketones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Inorganic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Ester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Organic Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Chemical Icons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Ethers and Epoxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Binary Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Ethers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Metal Oxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Organic Peroxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
vi Contents

Nitrogen-Containing Functional Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Amines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Chapter 13
Amides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Diazonium Salts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Mustard Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Weapons of Mass Destruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Nitro Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Nitriles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Chemical Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Isocyanates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Activity and Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Chemical Precursors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
SECTION 3 Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Triage Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Decontamination Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Corrosive Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Chapter 11 Activity and Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Chemical Precursors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Decontamination Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Tools of the Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Chemical Asphyxiants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Tools of the Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Activity and Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Placarding and Containers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Chemical Precursors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
The Street Approach to the DOT Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Decontamination Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Class 1: Explosives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Incapacitating Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Class 2: Gases and Class 3: Flammable Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Class 4: Flammable Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Activity and Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Class 5: Oxidizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Decontamination Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Class 6: Poison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Riot Control Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Class 7: Radioactive Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Lacrimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Class 8: Corrosive Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Vomiting Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Class 9: Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Use of CWAs or Weapons of Mass Destruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Resource and Referencing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Emergency Response Guidebook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
NIOSH Guide Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Physiology and Medical Ethics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Safety Data Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Biological Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
General Monitoring and Detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Decontamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Detection, Monitoring, and Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Current Detection Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

Chapter 14
Chapter 12
Science Officers’ Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Risk-Based Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 The Decision-Making Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
History of Models for Hazardous Materials Incidents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Effective Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
DECIDE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Applying Knowledge at a Hazardous Materials Event. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
General Hazardous Materials Behavior Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 A.P.I.E. Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Using Detection Devices in Risk-Based Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Analyze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
RBR Profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Detection of Unidentified Materials and Sampling Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Systematic Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Comparing the Decision-Making Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Analyze the Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Tactical Worksheet Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Plan the Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Scene Considerations and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Implement the Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Monitoring and Detection Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Evaluate Progress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Environmental Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
 Contents vii

Understanding Tactical Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Appendix A
Damming, Diking, and Diverting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Retention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Vapor Dispersion and Suppression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 FESHE Correlation Guide..................................................... 329
Pressure and Containment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Personal Protective Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Glossary.............................................................................................................. 333
Decontamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Index................................................................................................................... 341
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Armando S. Bevelacqua is a Laurie A. Norman is an Associ-
37-plus-year veteran of the fire ate Professor in the Department
service and the recipient of the of Science and Mathematics at
2010 “In the Zone Award” and the the Massachusetts Maritime
“Level A Award” for leadership, Academy in Buzzards Bay, MA,
service, and support in education where she teaches chemistry
of the hazardous materials first classes. Her favorite class to
response community, and the teach is Organic Chemistry/
Dieter Heinz 2016 instructor The Chemistry of Hazardous
of the year award. Retired from Materials, a required course for
City of Orlando Fire Department, students majoring in Emergency
Orlando, FL, where he served as Chief of Special Operations, Management and Marine Safety & Environmental Protection.
Homeland Security, EMS, and USAR, Armando lectures to fire She earned her bachelor’s degree in chemistry at Bowdoin
departments throughout North America, Canada, and Europe. College and her Ph.D. at the University of North Carolina at
Chief Bevelacqua serves on several federal, state, and local Chapel Hill. Upon completion of her studies, she worked as a
committees. He holds membership to the Inter-Agency Board research scientist for Honeywell’s Consumer Products Group,
(IAB) for Training and Exercise member to the NFPA 472, 473, where she formulated products used in the car care industry.
and 475 Technical Committees, along with representation on She is listed as an inventor on four patents related to her work
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) stan- in this field. She taught at Western Connecticut State University
dards development committee for emergency response. Chief and Bridgewater State University before accepting her position
Bevelacqua has assisted in the development of standards and at Massachusetts Maritime Academy.
protocols, such as with the Rocky Mountain Poison Control for
the development of a standardized medical protocol for weapons
of mass destruction (WMD) event and for the State Department
for WMD training of embassy delegates.
His latest endeavor is to create educational videos for the first
response community, educating new and seasoned responders
to the ever-advancing technologies that are entering the first
response arena.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Perhaps the hardest part of writing a book is writing the ac-
knowledgments. It’s not about the collection of facts that the
manuscript offers but rather a collection of ideas and thoughts, and
the ideas and concepts that are grown out of many discussions.
It is a culmination of the years of study and, more important,
the instruction of these concepts, the scenes that we have been
involved with, and the people that we have interacted with. It
is the teaching of students, discussion groups, conferences, and
of course the bar napkins (many bar napkins) that really, truly
provides the basis of a book like this.
When we as responders started our journey into the world
of hazmat response and started to learn the basics of chemistry,
we really did not pay much attention to the nuances that are
embedded within the chemistry discipline. We soon found out
that some of the calls that we go on are beyond the basics of
what we learned in our initial hazmat class, and therefore found
ourselves in a chemistry course that was hopefully geared towards
emergency response to answer our questions. Hopefully; but
most of the time the class was geared towards a chemistry major
or some life science discipline, and not emergency response. It
is for this reason this book was written, and it is for all of our
students past, present, and future who will take the time to read
and learn from each other’s experiences.
This concept of street-level application within this book,
sprinkled with scientific fact and chemical theory along with the
experiences of many, has not come just from us, the authors, but
rather is truly a collective effort of extremely smart and experienced
individuals who make up the hazardous materials response and
scientific community. It is to this group, the hazmat responders
at large and the traditional chemists, who have contributed to
this body of work over the many years of response.
Over the years, my acquaintances have become friendships,
and it is from here that the opportunity to learn, discuss, and more
importantly hone the body of knowledge that we understand, as
hazardous materials responders, becomes contributions to this
discipline and the understanding thereof. We cannot discount
the thousands of students that we have had over the years; for
it is for these responders (and future responders) that this book
was started, and it is for this reason that several iterations of this
book have occurred over the last 20-plus years and will continue
into the future.
So, I would like to start with a heartfelt thank you to my
coauthor Laurie. Over the course of this development, reorgani-
zation, and writing, she has taught me that units matter, and that
the descriptive terms must be precise. This is something that the
fire service is very lazy with but means much to a chemist. I must
say it has been a great pleasure to know Laurie and work with
her on this project and truly look forward to our next project.
It is the many conversations surrounding the chemistry and the
field application, how we in the fire service view a topic and
how we think. Your questioning and degree of inquisitiveness
are something to be admired. I will truly miss these lengthy,
sometimes hours on end discussions. Thanks to you, Laurie, for
putting up with my street-level look at the chemistry and lack
of unit discipline; I will try to be better at that!
I would be remiss if a few of those that have contributed
their ideas and thoughts to this work are not mentioned and
greatly appreciated; including Ludwig Benner Jr.—having lunch
with Ludwig on several occasions is a remarkable experience,
and we thank him for his initial review of the manuscript and
insightful forward. I am grateful for Ludwig’s words of encour-
agement. Thank you, sir. Richard Stilp, a close friend for over
30 years; we worked together on the original heavy rescue with
Orlando Fire Department as the first HazMat Medics. A call
out to his friendship and foundational research for the chapter
case studies; thanks Rick. Eugene Ngai—introduced through a
mutual friend, Eugene is the go-to guy when it comes to com-
pressed gases, the inventor of many tank coffins, and tactics
used today. Eugene has been an invaluable consult on many
occasions and his input to the gas chapter was instrumental.
Chris Hawley, a friend and a colleague. Thanks for his input on
the risk-based response chapter. Chris helped us get through
some truly serious writer’s block; thanks for the help, my friend.
It is greatly appreciated—a little payback from years past. Glen
Rudner, someone we have known for a long time; thanks for the
review of select chapters concepts and ideas. As always, your
insight to field work and application was much needed during
the long hours of writing and research. Matt Marshall, with his
input about preplanning and the tools that can assist with that
process; thanks for your input.
Richard Stilp RN, BA, MA
Fire Chief St Cloud, FL
Eugene Ngai BS, MEng
President
Chemically Speaking LLC
Chris Hawley
Glen Rudner
Hazardous Materials Compliance Officer
Norfolk Southern Railway
Matt Marshall
Battalion Chief
Cape Coral Fire Department, FL
Last but not least is my wife, Michelle, for the times that we
didn’t go to the beach, or take that bike ride, or take a walk;
thanks for putting up with my obsession to get this edition done
and the long hours on the phone or in meetings. Now that it is
done, let’s go to the beach and take that long walk!
Dedication to my littles—Noah, Declan, Aria, Theo, and
Elle. Hopefully, one day they will read this book!
Armando S. Bevelacqua
x Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to thank my husband, Mark
Norman. If it were not for Mark and his roles at companies
that provide emergency responders with advanced chemical
detection technologies, I would never have met Toby Bevelac-
qua. My career path eventually led me to the Massachusetts
Maritime Academy, a state college where some of my students
are interested in careers within emergency response.
I owe a huge amount of gratitude to Toby. When tasked
with teaching the chemistry class most relevant to Emergency
Management majors, I learned from him what the most import-
ant chemical principles were for the emergency responder. My
interactions with him have greatly improved my understanding,
not only of “street chemistry,” but also of foundational chem-
ical principles, because thinking about the situations faced by
the emergency responder allowed me to apply basic chemical
principles to a greater number of applications.
Although most of my lengthy chemistry discussions involv-
ing hazardous materials response were with Toby, there were
many other interactions that have increased my understanding
of this field. Talking and taking classes with Chris Weber, Rick
Dufek, Tony Mussorfiti, Chris Hawley, Glen Rudner, Dave
­Matthew, Kristina Kreutzer, Michelle Murphy, Marty Greene,
Frank ­Docimo, Pauline Leary, along with others, helped me to
grow in my understanding of emergency response.
Finally, I would like to thank my students and colleagues at the
Massachusetts Maritime Academy. I would like to give a special
thank you to Michael Montigny. More than once, he came to my
office looking for coaching in chemistry only to find me trying
to take a photograph for this book. He ended up taking the best
shot. Two photographs taken by him are included in this book.
I would also like to thank my colleague in physics, Professor
Matthew Loomis, for reviewing the sections of this book that
are related to radiological materials, a subject I am deficient in.
Like Toby, I would like to dedicate this work to my little
ones (or maybe not so little anymore). They’re both going to
make a positive difference in this world in their own way. Andy
and Dan: Mom loves you so much, and she’s so proud of you.
Laurie A. Norman
 Acknowledgments xi

Reviewers Ruben Lopez, FF/AEMT

Lieutenant, Bulverde Spring Branch Fire & EMS
Bill Arsenault Spring Branch, Texas
Idaho Falls Fire Department
Nampa, Idaho Mathew Marshall
Battalion Chief, Cape Coral Fire Department
Lieutenant John C. Berna Cape Coral, Florida
Fire Department, City of New York
New York, New York Jim O’Connor
Columbus Ohio Division of Fire
Andrew Byrnes, MEd, EFO Logan, Ohio
Utah Valley University—Emergency Services
Provo, Utah Kevin O’Hara, MS, EMT-P
Stony Brook Medicine
Deputy Chief Jim Campbell Suffolk Community College
Pike Township Fire Department New York, New York
Indianapolis, Indiana
Michele Parsons
Daniel Casner Cumberland County Department of Public Safety
CalOES/CSTI Carlisle, Pennsylvania
Upland, California
Sean F. Peck, MEd, FO, NRP
Tobias Frost Arizona Western College
Lafayette Fire Department Yuma, Arizona
Lafayette, Indiana
David Probo
Joseph Guarnera Spartanburg County Fire
Hazmat Specialist/Branch Manager Marshal’s Division
USAR Massachusetts Task Force One Spartanburg, South Carolina
Beverly, Massachusetts
Louie Robinson
C.J. Haberkorn HealthNet Aeromedical Service Charleston, West Virginia
Denver Fire Department
Denver, Colorado Captain Rich Saalsaa
Philomath Fire and Rescue
Chief Larry Hansen Philomath, Oregon
Oklahoma City Fire Department
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Robert Salvesen
FDNY Hazmat 1 Specialist, Co-host of
Michael E. Hanuscin, BS, NREMT The HazMat Guys Podcast
Battalion Chief, Charleston Fire Department East Meadow, New York
Charleston, South Carolina
Robert “Les” Smith
Gordon Haynes Charleston Fire Department
South Plains College, Fire Technology Program Charleston, West Virginia
Lubbock, Texas
Allan Wickline
Chad Landis Chief, Allegheny County Haz-Mat 440
Chief of Training Penn Hills, Pennsylvania
Town of Ball Fire Department
Ball, Louisiana Travis Witt
St. Petersburg Fire Rescue
St. Petersburg, Florida
FOREWORD
Many years ago, while with the National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB), I investigated a hazardous materials accident in
which the training officer of a large fire department was killed
by a sudden explosion. Our findings—hazardous materials
training was seriously flawed at the time—had a profound effect
on me personally. The closer I looked, the more deficiencies I
discovered, including study resources. It wasn’t long before I was
able to engage others to look with me for ways to reduce risks to
responders and the public in these emergencies. The efforts of
many have contributed to a dramatic reduction in those risks over
the years, along many avenues. As I reflect on the changes, it is
gratifying to see how far the field has progressed, in large measure
because of improved approaches, study materials, and training.
However, hazardous materials or “hazmats” as they are widely
known, remain a large part of our everyday lives and economy.
They are made, stored, transported, and used throughout our
society. Occasionally, hazmats still become involved in unintended
and sometimes dangerous situations. When such situations
arise, emergency responders are still expected to cope with any
threats they pose and produce the safest possible outcomes.
Because of the variety of materials and almost infinite variety of
circumstances in which they can become threats, coping with
them successfully in any crisis can be a daunting challenge for
emergency responders.
These circumstances actually pose two kinds of challenges
for responders: planning and preparing for responses to hazmat
incidents, and reacting to hazmat threats in incidents when
they occur.
One task common to both challenges is the need to predict
what the hazardous material is likely to do next in a specific
crisis and the resultant threats that will pose to exposed peo-
ple, property, and the environment. That task requires special
knowledge about hazmat chemistry and skills in applying that
knowledge to help ensure successful response decisions and
outcomes.
The hazmat knowledge required includes hazardous material
names and categories; their nature and properties; characteristic
behaviors when they are confined, stressed or released, or come
in contact with nearby exposures; and the kinds of harm they
can inflict.
The required skills for applying that knowledge in specific
situations mature with study, training, and experience. This in-
volves learning the language of hazmat chemistry, the principles
for application of hazmat knowledge, and the relevant tools in
specific evolving situations to help define and deal realistically
with the changing threats and risks.
New responders keep entering the service. This book will
help all responders acquire or refresh the knowledge and skills
needed to meet both planning and response challenges suc-
cessfully. I endorse its careful study without reservation and
commend Toby and Laurie for creating this resource to fulfill
an ongoing need.
Ludwig Benner
Oakton, VA

Some 40 years have passed since the inception of hazardous
materials response. In the early days, a general understanding
of commonly used chemicals and their chemical and physical
properties was the extent of the responder’s education. Back
then, there were no training manuals, no training classes, and
few experiences to draw from. We were writing the tactics as
we went along. In the early days, commanders wanted us to
memorize these common chemicals so that we could quickly
attack a problem involving one of them. Since these early days,
the frequency of hazmat incidents has increased, and we also
learned that a quick attack is not always the best approach. A
more systematic approach was reinforced through the work of
Ludwig Benner in the 1970s. With the increase of events and
because of limited education, fire fighter injuries and deaths
began increasing in the emergency response community. The
importance of chemistry classes was starting to be recognized,
along with the importance of understanding air monitoring,
mitigation strategies, personal protective equipment usage,
decontamination strategies, and so on. With this influx of ed-
ucation, one component that should be a part of the education
cycle is a street-level application of well-understood scientific
principles. For many classes and presentations, this is not the
case and hence why this book was written. It is this concept that
has remained in the forefront during the long hours of research
and writing of this text.
During emergency response situations, we are technicians.
We act as the bridge between what is known in the chemical
industry and what happens when things go badly. When these
two worlds collide, the technician and the scientist must use a
common language. We also see this in the emergency medical
services (EMS). Lifesaving techniques are learned, but more
important, it is when a common language between the techni-
cian and the physician are used that rescue situations are most
effective. Hazmat response is no different than EMS, in that you
have to speak and converse with the chemist in the language
of chemistry for the situation to be resolved most effectively.
It’s not that you will know or understand chemical principles
at the same level as the chemist, but rather you are the ears and
eyes of the scientist who is not on scene. You must be able to
identify and communicate the issues effectively to the chemist for
INTRODUCTION
the best advice when an incident occurs. That is the perspective
from which this edition was written; from both the eyes and
ears of the first responder and the eyes and ears of the chemist.
It is a melding of the two worlds—the principles of chemistry
with the hard facts of emergency response.
In this third edition of Hazardous Materials Chemistry, we have
broken down the discipline into three distinct areas of study.
Within each chapter, you will find an incident that highlights
the principles that are taught within that chapter and a way to
look at the chemistry through the lens of emergency response.
The first section contains the guiding chemical principles that
surround anything you do in chemistry and thus emergency
response. These are the foundational principles from which
strategy and tactics should originate. We spend time in this area
to give you, the reader, the facts and principles of chemistry
and to show you how to apply these within the emergency
response arena.
In section two, we explore the nomenclature of chemicals
and the associated hazards with these families. We have placed
these into three categories for naming. Each chapter provides
the emergency responder with the background to recognize
a chemical name and then translate that name into potential
hazards, for the name of the chemical can provide clues to your
incident. Additionally, if you know the hazards, then during
detection and analysis, you can work backward and come up
with a potential list of chemical families that may be the culprit.
Within these chapters, we have provided practical application
of the guiding principles and in some cases a glimpse into the
third section, which is application.
In the third section, we review the chemistry in terms of
applications, because hazardous materials response is chemistry
gone bad. It is, for many within our communities, the day that is
considered to be not so good. Here we explore the fundamentals
of strategies, recognition, and initial detection and how they relate
to the chemical principles. We combine the first two sections
into practical application of the principles and nomenclature. As
with any book, this is only the beginning of your studies; it is
the foundation of what is termed hazardous materials response
and provides a direction towards incident termination. This is
hazardous materials chemistry.
© sandyman/Shutterstock, Inc.

SECTION

1
Guiding Chemical
Principles
CHAPTER 1 Applied Scene Chemistry

CHAPTER 2 Properties and Toxicology

CHAPTER 3 The Atom

CHAPTER 4 Bonding

CHAPTER 5 Intermolecular Interactions and Predicting

Physical Properties

CHAPTER 6 Gases

CHAPTER 7 Reaction Basics

 CHAPTER

1
© Aiken County Sheriff's Dept/AP Photos.

Applied Scene
Chemistry
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Summarize observations through the use of appropriate measurement.
• Differentiate between the behavior model events.
• Describe the GEneral hazardous materials Behavior MOdel (GEBMO).
• Integrate GEBMO observations such as thermal, radiological, asphyxiants, chemical,
etiological, and mechanical (TRACEM) behaviors with chemical/physical properties.
• Compare the units of measurement.
• Recognize error in measurement.
• Describe the use of the scientific method.
• Describe the Systeme Internationale (SI) units of measurement.
• Describe standard temperature and pressure (STP).
• Identify the use of scientific notation.

NFPA Citations and Competencies

Citation or Competency Heading
Risk-Based Response
General Behavior Model
General Behavior Model – Thermal
General Behavior Model – Radiological
General Behavior Model – Chemical
General Behavior Model – Etiological
General Behavior Model – Mechanical
NFPA 472 Reference
3.3.57, 7.1.11, 11.1.2.2, 11.2.1, 11.3.2.1, A.5.2.4 (4), E.1.3
9.3.2.2, 20.3.2 (9), A.5.2.3 (3)
9.3.2.2, 20.3.2 (9), A.5.2.3 (2), A.5.2.3 (3), A.5.2.3 (7)
3.3.68.1, 5.2.1.6.6, 6.2.3.1, 6.11.2.2, 7.3.2.2, 8.2.2, 18.4.1,
20.2.8, 20.4.1, 24.2.1, A.5.2.3 (3), A.5.2.3 (7), A.5.3.3 (1)
3.3.16, 3.3.58, 4.4.1, 5.2.1.1.2, 5.2.1.6.2, 5.2.1.6.3, 5.2.2,
5.2.3, 6.4.5.1, 6.11.2.2, 7.2.2.2, 7.2.4
6.2.3.1, 7.3.2.1
3.3.21, 5.2.3, 6.11.2.3, 7.3.2.2, 11.3.3 (2), 13.2.1, A.4.4.1
(3)(C), A.5.2.3 (3), A.5.2.3 (7), A.8.3.4.5.5 (2), A.11.3.3 (2)
 Case Study
On February 22, 1978, at 10:30 pm, 24 freight cars derailed in the downtown corridor of Waverly, Tennessee.
Weather conditions that night were a light snow on the ground and temperatures in the mid-20s Fahrenheit.
The Louisville and Nashville railroad was traveling through Waverly at the speed limit of 35 mph. The rear
Courtesy of Bill Hand.
brakeman, who was in the front of the train, noticed a brake application that was an automatic application for
emergencies. He saw that the train had separated when cars 17 through 39 had derailed.
Included in the derailed set of cars were two liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) tank cars, UTLX–83013 and UTLX–81467, respectively. Upon inspection,
neither tank car displayed leaks, but these cars were heavily damaged. It was declared that the tank car would be moved so that the contents of the
cars could be placed into highway trailers. Several freight cars obstructing the LPG tank cars were moved, and a cable sling was placed on one end of
the LPG tank car with the other end used as a pivot point. A wooden support was used at the end in which the cable was attached. The other cars
were moved in a similar fashion. Relocations of the tanks were completed by 2:15 pm on February 23. Gas monitoring showed no indication of a leak.
The wrecking crew continued to work to remove cars and wreckage, which concluded at 8:00 pm on February 23. The tank car at the south end of
the incident, because of the level of damage to the container, was the first car to unload to highway tankers. The second LPG tank car was scheduled
for unloading the next day on February 24.
By 1:00 pm on February 24, the highway tanker arrived for the transfer. On February 24, at approximately 2:53 pm, the north car ruptured and
allowed LPG into the environment; ignition occurred a few moments later from an undetermined ignition source. Weather temperature conditions by
this time had increased into the 50s Fahrenheit without cloud cover.
Using the principles set forth in this section, answer the following questions:
1. What has happened?
2. What will or could happen?
3. What can you change?

Introduction
When responding to a hazardous materials event, whether a frequent
occurrence or an event that is more unusual, it is important to have
a systematic approach. The diversity of the chemical threats that
may be encountered and the variety of tools at your disposal for
detection and monitoring indicate a need for specialized training.
This chapter will look at the tactical level decision-making process
or what is currently being referred to as risk-based response
(RBR). RBR is a practical approach, utilizing the appropriate
level of resources for the hazard that is presented, and it applies
to a variety of situations and environmental conditions across
the hazardous materials response spectrum Figure 1-1 . It is
useful to implement this method of response due to the financial
constraints of the emergency services, but more important, it saves
time and other valuable resources.
Today, our society demands answers and quick responses
to emergencies. Our communities are burdened with ever-­
increasing traffic loads, which in turn demand a quick and
efficient “cleanup” of the event. By developing and designing
an approach toward this quick and efficient method of looking Figure 1-1 Hazardous materials events can be complex; however, under-
at risk and controlling the hazard, you have further educated standing the science allows the responder to utilize only the equipment and
resources required to manage the response.
your forces to deliver a controlled and informed response.
© Ric Feld/AP Photos.
Many have stated that RBR is something that is directly against
the associated standards that hazardous materials (hazmat)
response embraces. However, if you look deeper at this type of
response, you see that the intent of the standards and regulations actions is needed. Additionally, RBR provides the responder the
are covered in greater detail with this type of response. When framework by which an informed decision can be made.
hazmat events occur, a cookbook actionable approach cannot RBR truly gives new meaning to the recognition-primed
be made. Instead, a process that is systematic toward mitigating decision-making (RPDM) process. RPDM is a concept that
4 Hazardous Materials Chemistry, Third Edition
identifies what you think by matching previous events to the
currently presented problem. If the situation has not been ex-
perienced previously, the decision may not be the best solution.
By applying a well-developed RBR system, the first-response
community has been provided “movie” scenarios from which
one can draw from (this topic will be explored in further detail
in Chapter 12, Risk-Based Response). RBR conserves the resources
applied to an event while avoiding unnecessary risk and looks
at options that are based in factual information, thus giving an
informed decision-making process.
Any discussion on hazardous materials chemistry should
begin with a conversation on the critical information, i.e., the
recognition and the prediction of harm. In order to do this, re-
sponders must be able to utilize data from a variety of sources,
each time evaluating the validity and authenticity of that in-
formation. Therefore, it is the management of this information
that becomes the challenge. One should look at an incident and
prioritize what you need right now, what can be done a half hour
from now, and what can wait an hour or two. In other words,
a progression of needs should start to develop, based upon
the known and the anticipated chemistry. In prioritizing these
challenges, the responder should be thinking and anticipating:
• What has happened?
• What will or could happen?
• What can I change, now and 30 minutes from now?
It is with the knowledge of chemicals and their reactions and
interactions that you can anticipate what may happen, which
is the basis of this discussion and the point behind learning
street-level chemistry.
Years ago, Ludwig Benner, an engineer by trade, discovered
that all events—all hazmat events—have a distinctive pattern,
and it is up to the responder to recognize this pattern and act
accordingly. Benner proposed that people see and manage events
as little movies based upon previous experiences. Everyone has
had an experience in which common elements from a previous
experience are recognized. A current action or experience can
mimic the last experience. If the last time the outcome was
positive, then you move toward that action, which was previ-
ously done, with positive results. However, an analysis of the
previous experience along with the present one must be done
to insure that these are the same and that a simple nuance is
not the difference, which could provide a negative outcome (see
Chapter 12, Risk-Based Response).
Therefore, in order to organize these recognizable patterns,
Benner came up with a mnemonic that organizes the potential
harm responders may encounter. This became the TRACEM
acronym for thermal, radiation, asphyxiation, chemical, etio-
logical, and mechanical harm. Associated with the event model,
responders now have a structure of events.
It is important to remember that every hazmat incident has
three basic elements:
1. Product
2. Container
3. Environment
It is these three elements that formulate the incident and
the events that either have or will unfold. It is up to the first
responder to identify these elements using the GEneral haz-
ardous materials Behavior MOdel (GEBMO) and TRACEM to
see where you are in the event timeline and what can you do to
prevent a negative outcome.
It is the interrelationship between the product, the container,
and the environment that either maintains the hazardous sub-
stance in the transportation vessel or allows it to leak out. This
chapter is a detailed discussion on the issues of evaluation of risk,
measurement, and chemical, physical, and toxicological studies.
Benner’s Model
GEBMO is a description of a sequence of events that occurs at
all hazardous materials incidents. It enables us to visualize the
potential probabilities. Combine this model with the knowledge
of chemistry and understanding of your surroundings and you
have all three factors that affect the event: product, container,
and environment. Benner’s model identifies the event type with
potential principles to change outcomes Table 1-1 .
In all states of matter, energy is stored within the bonds and
between molecules of the material. This stored energy may be
released in a hazardous manner under certain conditions. These
conditions, associated with the container and the environment,
are what are observed to predict event outcomes.
It is important to understand that each factor has a distinct
relationship. Product deals with the chemical, chemical family,
and potential chemical hazards. It is the state of matter or the
inherent conditions of the chemical that give rise to some of the
hazards at an incident. Chemicals may exist in three common
states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. These phases all behave
very differently.
The state of matter is an important factor for the first re-
sponder’s assessment. It is important to understand the state of
matter and how it relates to the container and the environment
that gives rise to the potential hazards. Compare this with the
environment, for example, fire impingement on a container hold-
ing a liquefied gas, and you can predict the outcome. Therefore,
understanding the product’s state of matter, chemical family, and
the chemical hazards of that family has a direct bearing on the
visual identification of where you may be in the GEBMO, and
the potential hazards that can occur.
When you look at containers, look at each container with
the GEBMO in mind. That container may be a compressed gas
cylinder found in an auto repair shop or a tanker traveling down
the interstate. Understand that rooms within buildings can also
present a distinct set of circumstances, and thus can act like and
should be thought of as a container.
The state of matter and the potential hazards can be pre-
dicted when given a set of environmental conditions. Product
and container are not mutually exclusive, but rather if one
understands the product, then one will understand how it
interacts with the container. Understanding this simple fact
will lead the responder to a reasonable understanding of the
air monitoring data gained.
 Chapter 1 Applied Scene Chemistry 5

Table 1-1 General Hazardous Materials Behavior Model©

Behavior Event
Stress Breach Release Engulf Impinge Harm
Thermal Disintegration Detonation Cloud Short term Thermal
Radiation Runaway cracking Violent rupture Plume Medium term Radiation reactive
Attachments/openings Rapid relief Cone Long term Asphyxiation
Chemical Punctures Leak Stream Chemical
Mechanical Splits or tears Spill Irregular deposit Etiologic
Mechanical
Event Interruption Principles
Influences Applied Influences Breach Influences Quantity Influences Size Influences Exposure Influences Severity
Stresses Size Released of Danger Zone Impinged of Injury
Redirect impingement Chill contents Change container Initiate controlled Provide shielding Rinse off contamination
position ignition
Shield stressed system Limit stress level Minimize pressure Erect dikes or dams Begin evacuation Increase distance from
differential source
Move stresses system Activate venting devices Cap off breach Dilute Provide shielding

Ludwig Benner, Jr., 1978. Hazardous Materials Emergencies, Second Edition, Oakton, VA.

actionable response from the actionable information that has

Technical Note
The phase of matter of a substance is a reflection of the strength
of the forces that exist between molecules of that substance.
A substance that exists as a gas does so because the interactions
that exist between molecules of that substance are negligi-
ble. If the interactions were stronger between molecules, that
­substance would be a liquid. Liquid substances have intermolec-
ular forces that are strong enough to hold molecules together,
but weak enough that molecules can still tumble over each
other. Finally, solids exhibit very strong intermolecular forces.
In any environment, the surroundings of the event can be
thought of as potential influencing forces on the container,
and therefore on the product as well. Flame impingement
is the environmental force or environmental factor that is
influencing the container, which in turn has a direct impact
on the product. It is this thought process that is the basis for
the GEBMO.
Within GEBMO there are six basic event categories,
each having a set of event outcomes and each have an event
interruption principle that the responder must address. In
the flame impingement example, if the impingement has
been short term, then shielding the tank may be a response
option, and/or redirecting the thermal stress, or moving the
tank. The interruption principles should be thought of as
been presented to the responders. Every event has clues or
observable links toward the potential outcomes. It is up to the
responder to identify these clues and use these observations
toward scene stabilization.
During the 1970s, while Ludwig Benner was at the N ­ ational
Transportation and Safety Board, he created a new way of
addressing a hazmat incident. He found that between 1969
and 1979, 268 fire fighters and police officers were killed and
that their deaths were due in part to their training at the time
(i.e., RPDM). Benner’s model, which describes the GEBMO,
saw that traditional fire attack and extinguishment do not
work for the hazardous materials incident. Additionally, he
identified that, due to the complexity of the subject, many
training experiences and events drove a cookbook approach
to this type of incident or event and when applied, negative
outcomes usually ensued. What Benner proposed was a
­sequence of events that will occur during the incident such
that if one were to study these incident occurrences, one could
predict the outcome.
Behavior Event: Stress
Chemicals are everywhere. To use them, one must be able to
transport them. This means that containers are the transport
systems used for chemicals. It may be a 5-gallon bottle or a
4500-gallon (or larger) tanker. The container could be pressurized
or non-pressurized, bulk or non-bulk, cryogenic or atmospheric
temperatures. Even a pipeline should be viewed as a container.
Whatever the container, once the product within the container
6 Hazardous Materials Chemistry, Third Edition
is disturbed, the container stressed, and its contents released, a
stress event has occurred.
A stress event is defined as a situation that causes a force
or pressure that will cause the container to release its contents.
This may be an external force that would change the shape of
the container or an external force that would provide internal
pressures the container was not designed to withstand. There
are five stresses that can affect a container:
1. Thermal event: Describes an increase or a decrease of
temperature. This can affect the container itself or the
contents, causing the container to fail.
2. Mechanical event: Describes when a container has been
dropped, overturned, or otherwise has collided with
­another object, causing a loss of container integrity.
3. Chemical event: Describes a reaction that is taking place
within the container. This could be a problem with the
transport of organic peroxides, which require an inhibitor.
4. Radiological event: Describes when radiation within
or external to the container is such that it either heats
the contents or causes failure of the container in such a
manner that the material is released.
5. Etiological event: Describes an event in which bacteria
or microbes slowly destroy the integrity of the container,
thus releasing its contents, or the container itself becomes
so fragile that any movement or disturbance can cause a
rupture or failure of the container.
Although radiological and etiological stresses are less
common, potential of their occurrence still exists and must be
considered. Upon arrival to the incident you may have one or
more of these stressors applied to the container Figure 1-2 .
Figure 1-2 Upon arrival to the incident, you may have one or more of the
five possible stressors applied to the container.
Behavior Event: Breach
Breach event is defined as a condition in which the material or
energy is released through an opening (natural or man-made
through covers, bung holes, or produced through stress-splits
or tears). If the stress is not greater than the container’s ability
to maintain its contents, then the stress or potential breach is
averted for the time being. However, if the stress has caused the
integrity of the container to fail or become so fragile that any
movement or disturbing procedure can cause loss of container
integrity, then a breach event occurs Figure 1-3 . The breach
event can be a slow occurrence or as fast as a blink of an eye.
The speed is dependent on the state of matter and the type of
material involved. Types of breach events include:
• Disintegration: Describes a catastrophic loss of the con-
tainer’s integrity.
• Runaway cracking: Describes development of a small tear
or split in the outer shell of the container that can progress
into a catastrophic event, depending on the state of matter.
• Attachment openings: Describes the failure of the con-
tainer’s apparatus (such as fusible plugs, relief valves,
discharge valves). This may be due to a stress event or a
mechanical event on the container.
• Punctures: Describes holes to the container that are a
mechanical stress, which have given the material within
the container another route of exit.
• Splits or tears: Describes holes to the container that
have given the material within the container another
route of exit.
Figure 1-3 A breach event occurs when a stress causes the integrity
of a container to fail or become so fragile that any movement or disturbing
procedure results in the loss of the container’s integrity.
© FIORENTINI MASSIMO/Shutterstock, Inc.
Behavior Event: Release
Release event is defined as a condition when matter (solid,
liquid, gas) and/or energy (energy may be produced by the chem-
ical or the event itself or a combination) escapes the container.

Figure 1-4 The chemical family and state of matter can provide clues on
the rate of the release event.
© TFoxFoto/Shutterstock, Inc.
The container has had some level of stress placed on it, which
in turn has caused it to open up through a breach, allowing the
container’s material to be released and free to escape. The release
event is dependent on the state of matter. Gases tend to release
at higher rates than liquids or solids. Additionally, the chemical
family can give you a clue on the rate of release Figure 1-4 .
Types of release events include:
• Detonation: Describes an explosive catastrophic event,
which occurs over a millisecond, in which chemical
or nuclear energy creates a shock wave that travels at
supersonic speeds.
• Violent rupture: Describes a catastrophic event, which
occurs over a few milliseconds, in which chemical or nu-
clear energy creates a shock wave that travels at subsonic
speeds (i.e., deflagration).
• Rapid relief: Describes the material releases over time,
depending on volume of the container and/or pressure
and/or size of the opening within the container; may be
a few seconds to minutes.
• Spills or leaks: Describes release rates from minutes to
hours; these are low pressure but can have enormous
volumes.
Behavior Event: Engulfing
Engulfing event is defined as a condition when a solid, liquid,
or gas (energy such as radiation should be considered as well) is
released forming a danger zone around the event. This is what
the plume modeling, Emergency Response Guide (ERG) isolation
distances, and As Low As Reasonably Allowable (ALARA)
principles are suggesting. It is the identification of the pathway
Chapter 1 Applied Scene Chemistry 7
Figure 1-5 Dependent on the state of matter, the temperature, wind, and
topography, a chemical can migrate and engulf an area.
that a material will follow once released from its container.
Temperature differentials, wind, topography, materials state of
matter, and chemical and physical properties all have a bearing
on the behavior of the event Figure 1-5 . Types of engulfing
events include:
• Cloud or plume: Describes the gas event that can have
somewhat predictable outcomes.
• Cone: Describes any geometric shape that describes the
pathway the dispersion could follow.
• Stream: Describes the release of a material over an extended
period of time that follows gravity and the contours of
the land (topography).
• Irregular deposits: Describe a very slow release, which
may be unnoticed for extended periods of time.
Technical Note
Cryogenic liquids, when catastrophically released, are thought
to move into the environment fairly quickly. Interestingly
enough, when cryogenic material is released into the environ-
ment through a breach of an opening, it builds in the general
area until the temperature differential equalizes, then it moves
out into the environment depending on the wind, humidity,
and natural obstructions. At the epicenter of the release, water
vapor becomes frozen, and as the differential becomes less, the
frozen water vapor pops, causing additional “explosions” of
vapor to occur.
Behavior Event: Impingement
Impingement, or exposure to a chemical, describes the contact
of the chemical with a container and/or people. It is the human
exposure that you are primarily concerned about; however, a
secondary impingement, which can cause your event to grow
8 Hazardous Materials Chemistry, Third Edition

• Mechanical: Describes damage and/or injury from high

pressure release, such as fragmentation or movement of
an object.

Figure 1-6 Impingement is dependent on the duration of the event,

­chemical characteristics, concentration of the material, and the state of
­matter to name a few.
© Mike Meadows.

larger, is also a worry. From a human exposure standpoint, you

should be concerned with the toxicology and the mechanisms
that surround the toxic exposure Figure 1-6 . It is the event
that causes the secondary injury (remember, the release event
may be the cause of the primary injury due to pressure release, Figure 1-7 Understanding the harm that a chemical can present is the first
as an example). Impingement or exposure to a chemical can step toward understanding the stabilization process of the incident.
be described as: Courtesy of Rob Schnepp.

• Short term: What can occur over the next few minutes
to several hours.
• Medium term: What can occur over the next few days, The Department of Transportation (DOT) placarding system
weeks, and months. can give clues to the type of harm a chemical can give Figure 1-8
• Long term: What can occur over the next few years and
possibly generations.

Behavior Event: Harm

Harm is the injury or damage that an engulfment may produce
due to the nature of the hazardous substance’s state of matter
Figure 1-7 . Without an appreciation of the factors that sur-
round the incident’s potential harm, response personnel may Figure 1-8 A placard for corrosives; both acids and bases are identified by
encounter a negative impact from the event. Types of harm this symbol. Bases are sometimes referred to as caustics or alkali.
caused by hazardous materials include: Courtesy of the U.S. Department of Transportation.

• Thermal: Describes either hot or cold temperatures; this

may be in the form of flame, radiant heat, or cryogenic
liquids.
• Radiation: Describes the damage from radiological energy
and/or particles.
• Asphyxiation: Describes the injury that can result from
either simple (ones that displace oxygen) or chemical
asphyxiants (ones that combine in the body to stop or
inhibit respiration).
• Chemical: Describes the injury resulting from contact to
liquid/vapors from chemicals.
• Etiologic: Describes injury that is caused by bacterial,
viral, rickettsia, and/or biological toxins.
Technical Note
TRACEM is a mnemonic to help remember the variety of harms
that can be present at a hazardous materials event. It is the use
of a system that identifies actionable information that one must
address at the scene of an event. TRACEM can be thought of
as a mechanism of injury. This mechanism is dependent on the
state of matter and the chemical family. These are the harms
that you are trying to predict when analyzing the incident, using
detection equipment, and considering your mitigation options.
 Chapter 1 Applied Scene Chemistry 9

All hazmat incidents have a beginning and an end that will
self-correct if given enough time. You are trying to change the
impact of these incidents, either from an immediate public
safety standpoint or from a community viewpoint. It is the
impact that you are trying to predict and mitigate by applying
a countermeasure to turn that impact in a positive direction.
Every incident will follow a logical sequence of events, and it
is up to the initial responder to recognize where in the process
you are Figure 1-9 .

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS EMERGENCY MODEL

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6 Stage 7 Stage 8 Stage 9

NORMAL STRESSING REACTIVE ESCALATE UNSTABLE OVER- INITIAL SUBSIDING STABILIZED
STRESSING INJURY

ACTIVITY NO OVER-
NO INJURY NO INJURY
ADAPTS TO STRESSES
OCCURS OCCURS
STRESSES OCCUR

STRESSING
EVENT
OCCURS

NORMAL STRESS
ACTIVITY IN INFLUENCES
PROGRESS ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY ACTIVITY
FAILS TO BECOMES
ADAPT UNSTABLE

ELEMENT OF SUCCESSIVE SUBSEQUENT

ACTIVITY IS ELEMENTS STRESSES EVENTS
OVER- OVER- ACCOMMO- STABILIZE
STRESSED STRESSED DATED

ACTIVITY FURTHER
BECOMES INJURY
UNSTABLE OCURS

EMERGENCY RESPONSE COUNTERMEASURES APPLIED TO INFLUENCE

PROGRESSION OF EMERGENCY EVENTS

Figure 1-9 The Hazardous Materials Emergency Model: All emergencies consist of a series of events that occur in a logical sequence.
Ludwig Benner, Jr., 1978. Hazardous Materials Emergencies, Second Edition, Oakton, VA.
10 Hazardous Materials Chemistry, Third Edition

Each measurement has its own unit. Example conversion

Problem Set 1-1
1. What are the six events in the GEBMO?
2. Which type(s) of breach behaviors give(s) the responder time
to react, and what state of matter is the chemical in?
3. Asphyxiation is a result from what harm?
4. In the case study, which components of the model occurred?
Measurement
At times you need to research chemical processes, read facility
documents, and gather information about an incident. During
times of intense pressure, you may only recognize things that
you know and understand. It is for this reason you are review-
ing some of the measurements that one may find in reference
materials or facilities documentation.
Units of Measurement
Units are a defined magnitude or scale that represent the result of
the measurement Figure 1-10 . There are two common systems
of measurements: the English system and the metric system. In
the English system, pounds are used for weight, and gallons
are used for volume. In the metric system, grams are used for
weight, and liters are used for volume. A gallon of water in the
English system is 3.79 liters in the metric system. Even though
they are shown as different values with different units, they
represent the exact same quantity of water. The metric system is
preferred for most scientific work, and thus the numbers that are
reported in the reference materials that are used by technicians
are often in metric units.
factors follow:
Length = Meter 1 yard = 0.9144 meter
Volume = Meter cubed 1 gallon = 4546.09 cubic
centimeter
Mass = Kilogram 1 pound = 0.4535
kilograms
Temperature = Kelvin 1 ºF = 255.93 ºK
(−17.22 ºC)
Mole = Amount of substance 1 kilogram of oxygen =
31.25 moles
Pressure = Pascal 1 mm Hg = 6894.75
Pascal (0.0689 bars)
Technical Note
In most reference books, computer programs, and reference
­materials, the country of origin determines the system of
­measurement that is being used within the documentation. It is
handy to have a conversion chart to move the number into a unit
that is familiar to you. Do not count on the Safety Data Sheet (SDS;
formerly known as Material Safety Data Sheets, or MSDS), a refer-
ence book, or computer program to have these conversions for you.
In 1960, an international agreement on an international sys-
tem was implemented. This convention comes from the metric
system of measurement and is identified as SI (or le Systeme
Internationale). In this system of measurement, the SI system
uses prefixes to change the scale of the unit.

Technical Note

Commonly used prefixes in the SI system

Peta (P) 1015 1,000,000,000,000,000
Tera (T) 1012 1,000,000,000,000
Giga (G) 109 1,000,000,000
Mega (M) 106 1,000,000
Kilo (k) 103 1000
Hecto (h) 102 100
Deka (da) 101 10
Deci (d) 10−1 0.1
Centa (c) 10−2 0.01
Milli (m) 10−3 0.001
Micro (µ) 10−6 0.000001
Nano (n) 10−9 0.000000001
Pico (p) 10−12 0.000000000001

The SI unit for length is the meter, which is a little larger than
the US yard (1 meter = 39.37 inches). The variations of the metric
system are in powers of 10. Therefore, 1 meter is equivalent to
Figure 1-10 The size of the container relates to the amount of the product 100 centimeters or 1000 millimeters. The prefix “milli” means
in volume or weight. 10−3, or that a mL is 1000 times smaller than a liter. Therefore,
Courtesy of The DuPont Company. the appropriate conversion factor to use when converting between
milliliters and liters is 1000 mL = 1 L Figure 1-11 .
 Chapter 1 Applied Scene Chemistry 11

which is also known as a liter. This liter can then be broken down
Converting metric units is very simple. All that is necessary is
to change the position of the decimal point or add zeros.
into 1000 smaller units, which is called a milliliter or 1 cm3 or
Kilo cc, and is used in medicine as a unit for drug administration.
1000 To convert to a smaller
units 100 unit, move the decimal
to the right.
units
10 Mass
units
Base Mass is the fundamental measurement of the amount of matter,
unit
0.1 and the SI unit for mass is the kilogram. Fractions of this (smaller
units Centi
To convert to a 0.1 masses) are grams, milligrams, and micrograms:
larger unit, move units Milli
0.001
the decimal to the left. units 1 kg = 1000 g
1 g = 1000 mg
Micro 1 g = 1,000,000 µg

Temperature
Nano
Temperature scales are used in chemistry to identify the flow
of heat. Heat is required to change a material’s phase of matter
Figure 1-11 The prefixes used in the metric system indicate the magnitude
or ignite material. Therefore, boiling points and ignition tem-
by which the unit is bigger or smaller than a base unit.
peratures are often important to the first responder. The Celsius
© Jones & Bartlett Learning.
and Kelvin temperature scales are mostly used in the scientific
community, while Fahrenheit is mostly used in the US outside
The appropriate conversion factors to use within the metric of the scientific world. Although related, the responder must
system are as follows (using the meter as the base unit): recognize the scale and adjust appropriately so that he or she
understands the temperature reference Figure 1-12 .
1015 m = 1 Pm (petameter) The Celsius scale is based on the freezing and boiling point
1012 m = 1 Tm (terameter) of water, with the freezing point defined as 0°C, and the boiling
109 m = 1 Gm (gigameter) point defined as 100°C. Kelvin uses the same-sized units as the
106 m = 1 Mm (megameter) Celsius scale, but there is an absolute zero in the Kelvin scale.
1000 m = 1 km (kilometer) At this temperature, 0°K, theoretically, all molecular movement
100 m = 1 hm (hectometer) stops (−273.15°C). The temperature conversions are as follows:
10 m = 1 dam (decameter)
10 dm = 1 m; (decimeter, dm) °F = 1.8°C + 32
100 cm = 1 m; (centimeter, cm) °C = (°F – 32)/1.8
1000 mm = 1 m; (millimeter, mm) K = 273.15 + °C
106 μm = 1 m; (micrometer, μm) There is also an absolute temperature scale associated with
109 nm = 1 m; (nanometer, nm) the Fahrenheit scale. It is called the Rankin scale. In the Rankin
1012 pm = 1 m; (picometer, pm) scale, like the Kelvin scale, the lowest possible temperature is
zero. However, the size of the degree in the Rankin scale is the
same as the size of the degree in the Fahrenheit. The size of the
Celsius degree is 1.8 times bigger than the Fahrenheit degree.
Application Tip (Note equation above.)

An example of a metric application would be a response for
an inhalation injury that requires a hydrofluoric acid mixture of
6 milliliters (cc) sterile water into 3 milliliters (cc) of a 10 percent
calcium gluconate solution. This 9 cc of diluted drug would
then be administered via a nebulizer (updraft) with oxygen.
Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force exerted on the sides of the
container divided by the area of the container, and is often
measured and reported in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
Just like temperature, volume, and length, pressure also has a
variety of measurement units. You may be most familiar with
mm Hg; however, the Pascal is the SI unit.

Volume
Volume is the amount of space a material occupies and includes Technical Note
three length measurements; height, width and depth. Imagine a
box one meter wide, one meter high and one meter deep. The In medicine, the torr is used to describe pressures within blood
volume of that box is a cubic meter or a kilo liter. If this is di- gases and lung pressures. 1 torr = 1 mm Hg.
vided into a thousand smaller units, you have a decimeter (dm3),
12 Hazardous Materials Chemistry, Third Edition

Temperature Scales

100°C 212°F 373.15°K Boiling point

of water

0°C 32°F 273.15°K Freezing point

of water
-18°C 0°F 255°K

-273°C -460°F 0°K Absolute Zero

°Celsius °Fahrenheit °Kelvin

Figure 1-12 Comparing Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales, referencing boiling points, freezing
points, and absolute zero. In the laboratory, temperatures are normally measured in Celsius, while formulas for
some calculations require temperatures be in Kelvin.
© Jones & Bartlett Learning.

The definition of a Pascal is the force in Newtons divided by
the area in square meters (1 Pa = 1 Newton/m2). Each Pascal is
a very small unit of measurement, so pressures are frequently
described as kilo Pascals (kPa). Another unit of measurement
originating in London around 1900 as the formal unit of m ­ easure,
for meteorological pressure, the bar or millibar, is still used today
in reporting the weather.
1 atmosphere (ATM) = 760 mm Hg =
101.325 kPa = 1.013 bar
Avogadro’s Number
The unit of measurement under the SI system for an amount of
a substance is the mole. A mole is simply a counting unit that
means a certain number of items used by chemists. Because
atoms are so small, a large number of them are necessary to
obtain masses that can be measured. The mole to a chemist, is
not unlike the dozen to a baker. Instead of counting donuts by
ones, a baker will instead count donuts by 12s. Analogously,
instead of counting atoms (or molecules) by ones, a chemist will
count them by moles, which means 6.02214 × 1023 items. The
origin of this number comes from the fact that there are 6.02214
× 1023 atoms in 12 grams of carbon 12. This number is called
Avogadro’s number:
1 mole = 6.02214 × 1023
You can think of the mole as being used in the same way
as the other counting units you are familiar with. For example:
1 couple = 2 items
1 dozen = 12 items
1 score = 20 items
1 ream = 500 items
1 mole = 6.02214 × 1023 items
Consequently, the molar masses found on the periodic table
all correspond to the mass, in grams, of 6.02214 × 1023 atoms
of that particular element. Because a mole means the same thing
regardless of the material, a mole of different types of materials
will have different masses and volumes Figure 1-13 .
Standard Temperature and Pressure
Standard temperature and pressure is defined as 0°C (32°F)
with a pressure of 760 mm Hg (14.7 psi or 760 mm Hg or
101.325 kPa or 1 ATM). 1 mole of an ideal gas at STP occupies
22.41 liters (see Chapter 6, Gases).
Energy
The last units of measurement to discuss are units that describe
energy. The joule is the SI unit for energy. In the laboratory, only
changes in energy between two states can be measured and is

Content removed due to copyright restrictions
Figure 1-13 A mole means the same thing regardless of the material.
defined as the sum of heat and work. Just like the SI unit for
pressure, because the joule is very small, the kilojoule (1000
joules) is normally used to describe energy:
1 calorie = 4.184 joules (J)
Converting Between Units
Different types of physical measurements and different types of
units in which measurements can be expressed will be discussed
Table 1-2 . For example, the length of a road can be measured
in miles or in kilometers, and 1 mile is equal to 1.61 kilometers.
Because 1 mile = 1.61 kilometers, you can use the ratio of
those two numbers as a conversion factor. A conversion factor is
a ratio in which the numerator and the denominator are equal
to each other but are expressed in different units. Therefore,
multiplying a measurement by a conversion factor will not change
the amount of the measurement, but will change its units. Because
the numerator and denominator are equal, multiplying by a
conversion factor is like multiplying a measurement by 1 and
will not change the actual quantity, but allows it to be expressed
in a different unit.
If 1 mile = 1.61 kilometers, the ratio 1.61 km/1 mi is a con-
version factor, and the ratio 1 mi/1.61 km is also a conversion
factor. To use a conversion factor to convert between units, use
the form of the ratio that will cause your given units to cancel
and the desired unit to remain in the numerator. This process
of converting between units is called dimensional analysis.
Desired Unit
Given Unit × = Desired Unit
Given Unit
For example, if you wished to express the length of a road
in kilometers when you know that its length is 1.5 miles, you
would simply multiply the measurement 1.5 miles by the
Chapter 1 Applied Scene Chemistry 13
appropriate conversion factor. The appropriate conversion factor
is 1.61 km/1 mi, because it is the one for which the given units
will cancel and the desired value will remain in the numerator.
1.61 km
1.5 mi × = 2.4 km
1 mi
In every dimensional analysis problem, once you have set up
the appropriate conversion factor, you will simply complete the
math by multiplying the values in the numerators and dividing
by any values in the denominator.
Problem Set 1-2
1. During your research of a product while at the scene of a
hazmat incident, you find that the vapor pressure is noted in
the reference data as 1.283 bar. What is the vapor pressure in
mm Hg, psi, kPa, ATM?
2. How many gallons are there in one cubic meter?
3. What is the difference between tera and mega?
Scientific Notation
Several kinds of numerical measurements can be found in the
literature. Scientific notation is used to express very small and
very large numbers, and is a product of two numerical expres-
sions, where the first term is the digital identifier and the second
term is the exponential. This method of numerical expression
is widely used in scientific documentation, facility paperwork,
and transport documents.
Take, for example, the number 5280 is the number of feet
in a mile.
5280 feet = 1 mile
or
5.280 × 103 feet = 1 mile
In other words, you have taken 5.280 and multiplied it by
10 three times.
5280 feet = 5.280 × 101 × 101 × 101
= 5.280 × 103 feet
So, if a number is less than 1, say the weight of a quarter
(about 80 quarters make 2 rolls, which is 20 dollars, and
makes about a pound) is 1/80 of a pound, then it is 0.0125 or
in scientific notation:
1.25 × 10−2
From these two examples, you can see that when numbers
are greater than one (whole numbers), the shift is to the left and
the exponent is positive:
5280 = 5.280 × 103
When there is a number that is less than one (fractions), the
shift is to the right and the exponent is negative:
0.0125 = 1.25 × 10−2
Table 1-2 Conversion Table of Common Volumes, Lengths, and Weights

Length Measurements
Statute Miles Meters Yards Feet Inches Centimeters
Statute Mile 1 1609.5 1760 5280 63,360
Kilometer 0.6214 1000 1094 3280.8 39,372
Nautical Mile 1.1516 1853 2027 6080.2 72,960
Meter 1 1.094 3.2281 39.57 182.9
Yard 0.9144 1 3 36 91.44
Foot 0.3048 0.3333 1 12 30.84
Inch 0.0254 0.0277 0.08333 1 2.54
Centimeter 0.0328 0.3937 1
Area Measurements
Square Miles Acres Square Meters Square Yards Square Feet
Square Mile 1 640 2,589,998 3,097,600
Square Kilometer 0.3861 247.1 1,000,000 1,195,985
Acre 0.00156 1 4046.9 4840 43,560
Square Yard 0.00021 0.8361 1 9
Square Foot 0.0929 0.1111 1
Volume Measurements
Cubic Inches Cubic Feet Cubic Yards
Cubic Inch 1 0.00058
Cubic Foot 1728 1 0.037
Cubic Yard 27 1
Cubic Meter 35.314 1.3079
Liquid Volume
Cubic Inches Liters U.S. Pints U.S. Quarts U.S. Gallons U.K. Pints U.K. Quarts U.K. Gallons
Liter 61.025 1 2.1134 1.0567 0.2642 1.76 0.88 0.22
U.S. Pint 28.875 0.473 1 0.5 0.125 0.8327 0.4164 0.1042
U.S. Quart 57.75 0.9643 2 1 0.25 1.665 0.8327 0.208
U.S. Gallon 231 3.785 8 4 1 6.66 3.33 0.8327
U.K. Pint 34.668 0.5688 1.201 0.6 0.15 1 0.5 0.125
U.K. Quart 69.335 1.1365 2.402 1.201 0.3 2 1 0.25
U.K. Gallon 277.34 4.546 9.616 4.808 1.201 8 4 1
Dry Measure
Cubic Inches Liters U.S. Pints U.S. Quarts U.S. Bushels U.K. Pints U.K. Quarts U.K. Bushels
Liter 61.025 1 1.8162 0.908 0.0284 1.759 0.8795 0.0275
U.S. Pint 33.6 0.55 1 0.5 0.156 0.969 0.4845 0.015
U.S. Quart 67.2 1.101 2 1 0.0313 1.938 0.969 0.03
U.S. Bushel 2150.42 35.238 64 32 1 62.016 31.01 0.969
U.S. Pint 34.68 0.5679 1.032 0.516 0.0164 1 0.5 0.0156
U.K. Quart 69.35 1.1359 2.064 1.032 0.0323 2 1 0.0313
U.K. Bushel 2219.34 36.367 66.052 33.052 1.032 64 32 1
Mass
Grams Kilograms Ounces Pounds Metric Tons Short Tons Long Tons
Gram 1 0.001 0.0353 0.0022
Kilogram 1000 1 35.274 2.2046
Ounce 28.349 0.0284 1 0.0625
Pound 435.59 0.4536 16 1
Metric Ton 1000 2204.6 1 1.1023 0.9842
Short Ton 907.2 2000 0.9072 1 0.8929
Long Ton 1016 2240 1.016 1.12 1
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 “Will Taft, what do you think we waked you up for? You can’t go
back to sleep. We want you to stay awake and comfort us!”
“All right, Maria,” said he, with the utmost good nature;
whereupon he sat up, changed his position to one more comfortable,
and proceeded to lapse again into peaceful slumber.
The next morning Maria and I drove down through the town to see
the effects of the typhoon. Three trees were uprooted in our own
garden, and across the street a house was flattened out. Groups of
Filipinos stood here and there talking and gesticulating in their usual
manner, but nobody seemed unduly excited. We saw many houses
unroofed, and once in a while we met a native with a piece of nipa or
tin roofing balanced on his head, quietly carrying it back where it
belonged.
We drove down through the Escolta and into the crowded Tondo
district beyond, and there we suddenly found ourselves hub-deep in
a flood. The below-the-sea-level quarters were under several feet of
water, and we got a sudden revelation as to why all the nipa houses
are built on such high and unsightly stilts. Crowds of Filipinos were
paddling through the flood, most of them carrying some part of a
house, or other belonging, and nearly all of them playing and
splashing like pleased children. Bancas—long canoes from the river
—were plying from house to house as if it were an everyday affair and
conditions were quite normal.
I had heard a great deal about the severity of typhoons, but as I
had passed a whole season in the East and had crossed the China Sea
during the typhoon season without encountering one, I began rather
to scoff at the general fear of them. But I never did after that; when
anybody said typhoon I knew exactly what it meant. The water
subsided rapidly and in a day or two Manila showed few signs of the
fury which had passed, but for several days the Commission
continued to receive reports pf the damage done and the lives lost
throughout the surrounding country. It was the worst and the last
storm of that year.
When we arrived in Manila we found the social atmosphere
somewhat peculiar. Members of our own party, who had crossed the
Pacific on the Hancock, welcomed us at once with dinners and teas
and other kinds of parties; also a number of Army ladies called
without delay, and our circle broadened rapidly. But General
MacArthur, who was the Military Governor and lived at Malacañan
Palace, did not entertain anybody except a select military circle. He
sent an aide with cards, of course, and he accepted our invitations to
dinner, but that was all. Not that we minded, except that it made it
rather awkward and added something to the “feeling” that all was not
well between the Army and the new civil government.
The Commission had been for three months busily engaged in
investigating conditions, as directed by the President, before they
assumed any authority, and then they acted with no haste. We were
impatiently awaiting news from America with regard to the
Presidential election. It was thought to be futile to take any definite
steps toward the establishment of local governments and the
inauguration of far-reaching reforms until the status of American
control should be settled. Mr. Bryan had promised political
independence, and if Mr. Bryan were elected all the Commission’s
plans would go for naught.
The provincial and municipal codes were completed; certain
important questions between the Church and the people were being
considered, and many open sessions were held for discussion, with
the purpose of advising the people that they would be listened to by a
civil government. In the meantime the insurrectos were keeping
things lively in a guerilla warfare with small squads of greatly
harassed and very much disgusted American soldiers. There were
occasional rumours about uprisings in Manila—when the guard at
our gate would be doubled—but Mr. Taft assured us that Manila was
as safe as New York or Chicago and we really had few fears.
General MacArthur continued to resent the coming of the
Commission and to consider himself personally humiliated by their
being appointed to divide his power. He was still in command of
about seventy thousand men and had the general executive control of
a large civil force, but this, apparently, was not enough. The tone he
adopted in his correspondence with the Commission kept them in a
constant state of controlled anger. They were very careful in return to
observe every courtesy and to manifest an earnest desire for
harmony and co-operation. They were tremendously interested in
their problems and wanted much to succeed, but their efforts at
conciliation did little good. The General objected to almost every
suggestion put forward by them and did not hesitate to tell them in
plain words that he did not welcome advice from them concerning
military or any other matters. It was really a very difficult situation.
The Commission thought General MacArthur took an entirely
erroneous view of the attitude of the Philippine people in general,
and that in everything he did he moved with an exasperating
slowness. They wanted a large native constabulary which they knew
could successfully be organised and relied upon to render great
assistance in the pacification of the Islands. He did not agree with
them and held the matter up for many months. He was not in
sympathy with any move they made, and his greatest cross was that
he had no power to veto their legislation. He saw military dangers in
all manner of things without being able to state just what they were,
and he was always calling for more troops, while the Commission
was entertaining hopes that it would not be a great length of time
before a large part of the troops already there could be recalled. I find
my husband writing at this time:
“General MacArthur, knowing that we differ from him as to the
condition of things in the Islands, makes it a point to send me an
account of each disaster as if it vindicated his view. This is not the
spirit of a man who is likely to succeed in giving energy to a
campaign which will bring about successful results, but the matters
will solve themselves in spite of his slowness of movement and lack
of enthusiasm....
“The minute the policy with respect to these Islands is settled by
Bryan’s defeat and the election of McKinley, the leniency which has
been almost too great towards ladrones and these murdering
generals will have to be changed. They must be given an opportunity
to come in and if they do not come in in a short time, they ought to
be deported from the country and sent to Guam. This will have an
effect so healthy that a short time will see accomplished what we
desire. There will be a great awakening for some of these men who
have come to rely on the supineness of the Americans, and who do
not understand that we can be severe when we choose....
“It was General Otis who inaugurated the plan of laughing at the
insurrection, of capturing men and letting them go, and the result is
that they have laughed at us, but with a little tightening of the reins
their laugh will cease....
 “They dread deportation more than anything else and I have
written to Secretary Root and asked him to have a prison constructed
at Guam to which we may send those whom we think worthy of a less
punishment than hanging. The insurrection must be suppressed for
the benefit of the United States and, still more, for the benefit of the
Filipino people. The lenient methods, having been tried for two
years, must be changed to those more severe....
“The insurrection, such as it is now, is nothing more than a
conspiracy against the sovereignty of the United States sustained by
murder and assassination of Filipinos by Filipinos....
“MacArthur is drawing the reins a little tighter, though not as tight
as we think he ought to draw them, and he has now imprisoned
about fifteen hundred insurgents. There have been a great many
arrests made in Manila, which has been the head centre of the
insurrection in the way of raising money. I should think there have
been fifty or sixty insurgent officers arrested in the city....
“I sent a telegram to the Secretary of War on Sunday night which
was signed by Buencamino and other prominent Filipinos, about a
dozen of them, in which they spoke out with emphasis about the
continuation of the insurrection. They propose to organise what they
call a counter-revolution; that is, they mean they will organise a
military movement among the Filipinos against Filipinos. They are
getting very tired and weary of this murder and assassination policy
without which the insurrection could not last a week....
“You could hardly believe the closeness with which the
Presidential matters are being watched by the Filipinos, and how
they follow the speeches made against the Republican cause. General
Smith, away down on the island of Negros, told me he had found
speeches by Hoar and Bryan, and other anti-expansionists and anti-
imperialists, in the most remote mountains of his district....
“Every one is waiting and it is not impossible that should Bryan be
elected there might be some riotous demonstration among the
natives. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Señor Arellano, has
made arrangements, should Bryan be elected, to leave the islands
three days after the announcement. He is the ablest Filipino in the
islands, by far the best lawyer and a man of the highest probity. He
says that much as he is interested in the success and prosperity of his
fellow citizens, he knows that they are utterly incapable of self-
government and should the guiding hand of the United States be
withdrawn, chaos, conscription and corruption would follow
inevitably....”
I have taken these excerpts at random from my husband’s letters
to his brother during the months of September and October, 1900,
and they serve to show the situation which existed and will illustrate
the fact that we were living in interesting times. But they deal only
with the insurrection, while the main body of his correspondence
shows that the Commissioners were engaged upon legislative
matters of the gravest import which would be rendered entirely
superfluous should Mr. Bryan be elected and his announced policies
be carried into effect. In that event they proposed immediately to
turn matters back to the military government and withdraw, leaving
Mr. Bryan to face the problems which they knew he would soon
discover had to be dealt with from the standpoint of constructive
statesmanship.
In the meantime the peace movement was rapidly gaining
adherents among the people in spite of the still active insurrectos, or
rather, because of them and their methods; while everybody seemed
to welcome the change from a strictly military to a partially civil
government.
The popularity of the Commission, as offering a change from the
strictness of military rule, was becoming every day more marked.
Juan de Juan, a Spaniard, and editor of the lively organ El Progreso,
which was always in opposition to anything American, said that on
the first of September when the Commission began to exercise its
authority, he intended to devote the whole front page of his paper to
just three words: “Gracias a Dios,”—Thanks to God! Juan de Juan
was a good deal of a Bohemian and really cared little what happened
so long as he got a sensation out of it. September first came and
went, and I don’t remember whether he made good this extravagant
threat or not. I presume he didn’t for, though I had been in Manila
less than a week, I surely would have remembered.
After the Commission had been in power for just a month, and
while the excited interest in events in the United States was at its
height, Juan de Juan broke out in a characteristic Spanish editorial, a
translation of which has been preserved. We had entertained Juan de
Juan at dinner, and he evidently was impressed. We made it a rule
from the beginning that neither politics nor race should influence
our hospitality in any way, and we came thus to have a very wide and
diverse acquaintance. The editorial in El Progreso gives such a
curious picture of attitude and conditions in general, as well as of my
husband, my family and my home, that I think I must quote it,—at
least in part. It is headed simply:
SEÑOR TAFT
The most uncompromising jingoes; the rabid partisans of militarism, as well as
the men of democratic sentiments who consider the occupation of the Philippines
as an odious Cæsarism, respect and venerate the President of the Civil
Commission, whose surname serves as the caption of these lines. Uprightness and
bonhommie always demand recognition.
Before the Hancock, bearing this statesman, had anchored in Manila Bay, the
echo of his reputation and the radiations of the brilliant aureole which his success
in the judiciary of his country had imposed upon him—and we underline the word
imposed because the characteristic trait of Mr. Taft is his modesty—had reached
the Philippines. The Filipinos awaited him with the same pleasing curiosity with
which a child opens a toy with a concealed surprise, and the foreigners as the
incarnation of those American patriarchal, democratic ideas with which Castelar
portrayed to his followers the country of Lincoln.
Behind that spacious brow of the thinker, between his liberal tendencies and the
incomparable exactions of the enormous burdens which his country undertook in
Paris, fierce struggles are waging. The President of the American Civil Commission
has broad shoulders, but the weight of a people whom patriotism endows with the
strength of a colossus is very great.
We must concede to all the leading authorities whom America has sent to the
Philippines the trait of being industrious. We know that General Otis worked more
than twelve hours a day; MacArthur, that Daban of the American Army through
the rapidity of his advancement, follows the same course as his predecessor, and
Mr. Taft leaves his house every morning at eight and, as unostentatiously as a
clerk, proceeds to become a part of his chair in the Ayuntamiento. There his first
occupation is glancing over the American press, and what is of interest in the
Spanish papers.
Then the show begins. Paterno, Macabulos, Montenegro, some envoy from Cebu,
for example, who come to sound him, as the slang saying goes, arrive. Mr. Taft has
the same respectful smile for all, the same courtesy, and addresses them all in the
same terms, which his athletic Secretary, Mr. Fergusson, repeats in Spanish with
the gravity of a Sphinx and the fidelity of a phonograph. When the matter warrants
it, Mr. Pepperman, the chief stenographer of the Commission, enters the office and
proceeds to take notes of the interview.
In this way the Americans are forming a luminous record which, united to what
were our archives, which they preserve through the terms of the Treaty of Paris,
will guide them well in the administration of the Philippines.
Later Mr. Taft becomes engulfed in the examination of the bills which the other
members of the Commission present for him to study; he discusses their text with
his colleagues, listens to all their observations, and judging them by a standard
most favorable to the interests of the Philippines, the most liberal within the
instructions from Washington—it is proper to say that Mr. Taft is the most
democratic element of the Commission—he expresses his opinion, generous, calm
and noble, which assuredly, in view of his personal prestige, must carry great
weight in the framing of the bills, whose execution is entrusted to the Military
governor.
To dissipate the gloomy smoke of the conflagration, to still the groans of those
who fall in this immense expoliarium into which fatality has converted the
Philippine fields, is the mission which the men composing the American
Commission desire to bring to a successful issue. To make peace. For this they
came, and if fortune does not reserve for them the happy chance of accomplishing
so beautiful an ideal, they will retire, and the factor they represent in the problem
to be solved, with its distinguishing traits of civil moderation, will be substituted as
a system that has failed, by another, wherein the martial power will prevail over
political wisdom.
As General MacArthur undoubtedly spends many hours over maps of the
Philippines, Mr. Taft also often rests his gaze on a map covering one of the walls of
his office, tracing, in mente, a railroad which, crossing the island, shall drown with
the cheery whistle of the locomotive the moans of the victims of war. Thus would
Mr. Taft like to pacify the Philippines.

It is now one o’clock P.M. and Mr. Taft is at home, where this personage stands
out more boldly before us, since the trials through which the country is passing do
not permit us yet to judge him politically.
The President of the Commission, in his private life, has many points of
similarity with Count de Caspe, that stainless gentleman the Filipinos still recall
with veneration. Excepting the brilliancy of those splendid entertainments with
which he endeavoured to blot out all racial differences by mingling in fraternal
embrace Filipinos and Spaniards at the Malacañan villa, there ordinarily reigned in
the governor’s mansion the placid silence of the home of a well-to-do retired
merchant. The Countess, who on Thursdays did the honours of her salon with
exquisite tact, was during the other days of the week a housekeeper who did not
disdain to go to a grocery store to make purchases, or to look over the laundry list.
The same thing happens in the elegant chalet at Malate where Mr. Taft lives.
This is a quiet and peaceful home, a temple erected to the affections, under whose
roof Mr. Taft rests some hours after the efforts which his political work demands.
His table reflects his modest character. Four courses, two kinds of fruit, a dessert
and sauterne compose the menu of the luncheon where Mr. Taft is always
accompanied by some guest, either Filipino, American or Spanish. During the meal
politics are banished; if the guest is a Filipino who speaks French Mrs. Taft
interrogates him on the customs of the archipelago; if he is Spanish, as to the
toilettes worn in Manila by the ladies at the most brilliant receptions held here; as
to the favourite musical composer of the Hispano-Filipino society; and this
conversation increases in attraction when Miss Herron, sister-in-law of Mr. Taft
and the incarnation of the modern woman’s education, takes part therein. Miss
Herron speaks French correctly, has travelled much, and journeyed through Spain
like an intelligent tourist. The architectural lace-work of the Alhambra charmed
her, and she went into ecstasies over the orange blossoms growing along the banks
of the Guadalquivir. With what Miss Herron was not in harmony, and she berates
them like an unsubsidised journalist, were the Spanish railroads. Miss Herron is
right.
The children, Robert, about eleven years old; Helen, a girl of nine, and Charles, a
baby of three, who is the king of the household:—the McKinley, as it were, of this
patriarchal republic—do not come to the table; they eat with the governess.
After the meal, in the fine gallery overlooking the sea, sipping the coffee, Mr.
Taft talks of the education of his children, of the difficulties met in the Philippines
in the solution of so interesting a problem; and his wife converses of the charitable
work she expects to undertake when she shall have assumed a more permanent
place in the Archipelago, which Magellan discovered for Spain, and which, through
a horrible fatality, is no longer ours. Politics are also eschewed on the gallery.
Needless to say this extraordinary editorial afforded us all
boundless amusement; we began to caution Mr. Taft frequently
about the careful preservation of his “aureole” and Maria and I
decided that we would have to walk warily indeed, if we were
destined to be so minutely reported.
 CHAPTER VI
A STRANGE ENVIRONMENT

In the Far East one meets certain expressions the significance of

which may be described as adamantine. Each represents a racial
attitude against which it is useless to contend. In Japan it is the
equivalent of it cannot be helped; a verbal shrug of the shoulders
with which the Japanese tosses off all minor and many grave
annoyances. “Masqui,” down the China coast, has the same import,
but with the added meaning of “what difference does it make.” In the
Philippines the phrase which must be met and which cannot be
overcome by any system of reform is “el costumbre del pais”—the
custom of the country.
If it is el costumbre del pais it has to be done and there is nothing
more to be said about it. The manaña habit—putting everything off
until to-morrow—is, perhaps, to Americans, the most annoying of all
the costumbres del pais in the Philippines, but it yields to pressure
much more readily than do many others, among which is the custom
of accumulating parientes; that is, giving shelter on a master’s
premises to every kind and degree of relative who has no other place
to live. This is, I suppose, a survival of an old patriarchal
arrangement whereby everybody with the remotest or vaguest claim
upon a master of a household gathered upon that master’s doorstep,
so to speak, and camped there for life.
In my first encounter with this peculiarity of my environment I
thought there was a large party going on in my cochero’s quarters;
and an indiscriminate sort of party it seemed to be. There were old
men and old women, young men and young women, many small
children and a few babes in arms. We had only Chinese servants in
the house, but the stables were in charge of Filipinos and, as I soon
discovered, the “party” was made up entirely of our stablemen’s
parientes.

(LEFT TO RIGHT) GENERAL WRIGHT,

MR. TAFT AND JUDGE IDE AS
PHILIPPINE COMMISSIONERS

I had a pair of ponies and a Victoria; Mr. Taft had his two little
brown horses and a Victoria; besides which there was an extra horse
to be used in case of accident to one of the others, as well as a pony
and calesa for the children. This rather formidable array was
necessary because we found it impossible to take a horse out more
than twice a day, and usually not more than once, on account of the
sun. My ponies were taken out only in the early morning or the late
evening, and those of Mr. Taft had all they could do to take him to
the office and bring him home twice a day. Distances were long and
there were no street cars which ran where anybody wanted to go.
 This number of conveyances made a good many stablemen
necessary and all of them, with their families, lived in quarters
attached to the stables. These families consisted of fathers, mothers,
sisters, brothers, uncles, aunts, cousins near and far removed, wives,
children, grandchildren, and a few intimate and needy friends with
their family ramifications. Besides our three cocheros and the stable
boys, there was a gardener with his parientes, so it is no wonder that
on my first inspection of the lower premises I should have thought
that some sort of festivity was in progress. I might have lived in
Manila twenty years without being able to straighten out the
relationships in this servant colony; it was not possible to learn who
had and who had not a right to live on the place; and my protest was
met with the simple statement that it was el costumbre del pais, so I,
perforce, accepted the situation.
Filipino servants never live in the master’s residence; they never
want to; they want the freedom of a house of their own, and these
houses are, as a rule, built on the outer edges of the garden, or
compound. I believe Americans now are learning to meet the
pariente habit by having room for just as many people as they need,
and no more. But those who live in the old places, with their ample
quarters, still gather the clans and are permitted to enjoy a most
expansive and patriarchal sensation.
My horses, when I first saw them, were a source of the greatest
pride. A beautifully matched pair of coal-black, stylishly-paced and
glossy little stallions, hardly larger than Shetland ponies, they looked
as if they had been washed in some sort of shrinking soap and had
come out in perfect condition except that they were several sizes
smaller than they ought to have been. These Philippine ponies are
doubtless descendants of the Arabian horses brought over by the
Spaniards and have been reduced to their present size by the change
of climate and the difference in food and environment, but they still
have the fine lines and the general characteristics of their
progenitors.
Mr. Taft secured mine from Batangas, where all the best ponies
come from, through the kindness of Mr. Benito Legarda, the
staunchest of Americanistas. Batangas was a most unquiet province,
the last, in fact, to become pacified, and Mr. Legarda had to pay an
insurrecto for bringing the horses through the insurgent lines and
delivering them at Calamba, near Manila. Although he did not know
their exact origin when he bought them, Mr. Taft said that if the facts
became known he would be accused, in certain quarters, of giving
indirect aid to the revolutionists; but he wanted the ponies so he did
not return them.
When they were hitched to the shining little Victoria which had
been built for them, they were as pretty as a picture and, as I did not
propose to have such a turn-out ruined by a couple of Filipinos on
the box in untidy camisas hanging outside of as untidy white
trousers, I had made for my cochero and boy, or coachman and
footman, a livery of white and green in which they took such
inordinate pride that they seemed to grow in stature and dignity.
Maria and I felt a sense of the utmost satisfaction the first time we
stepped into this carriage for a drive down to the Luneta where we
were sure to see everybody we knew and hundreds of people besides;
but our vanity was destined to be brought to a sudden termination.
As we were driving along with much satisfaction, a bit of paper
floated down alongside the blinkers of the little ebony steed on the
right and he made one wild leap into the air. His companion gave
him an angry nip, and then the fight was on. Maria and I jumped out,
which was not difficult in a low-built Victoria, and no sooner had we
done so than we saw the complete wreck of all our grandeur. With all
the leaping and plunging and biting and kicking, in the vicinity of a
handy lamp-post, the smash-up was fairly complete. Neither of the
ponies was hurt, except by the lash of the whip, and I must say the
little wretches looked rather funny; like very pretty and very bad
children, sorry for what they had done. But their characters were
established and they proceeded after that to live up to them. We
never could have any confidence in them and my coachman was the
only person who could do anything with them. He was a most
unsatisfactory man in many ways and used often to call for us at
dinner parties in a state of gay inebriety, but we didn’t dare discharge
him because everybody else in the stables stood in awe of the blacks
while he seemed greatly to enjoy his constant and spectacular
struggles with them.
The Filipinos are a most temperate people; there is no such thing
as drunkenness among them; but coachmen seem to be an exception
in that they allow themselves a sufficient stimulation of the fiery vino
to make them drive with courage and dash, sometimes minus all care
and discretion. The drivers of public vehicles seem to love their little
horses in a way; they are inordinately proud of a fast paced or
stylish-looking pony; yet they are, as a rule, quite harsh to them.
They overload them and overdrive them, and under all conditions
they lash them continuously.
No Filipino cochero likes to have another cochero pass him, and
the result is constant, indiscriminate racing, on any kind of street,
under any circumstances,—and never mind the horse.
My children were driving with their governess to the Luneta one
evening, when two caromatas came tearing down behind them, each
driver hurling imprecations at the other and paying no attention to
what was ahead of him. The result was a violent collision. The two
caromatas went plunging on, the cocheros not stopping to see what
damage they might have done—which was very characteristic—and
the children narrowly escaped a serious accident. Charlie was hurled
out and fell under the children’s calesa and Robert and Helen both
declare they felt a sickening jolt as a wheel passed over him. The
baby, too, vowed that the calesa “went wight over me, wight dere,”
indicating a vital spot; but upon the closest examination we could
discover nothing more serious than a few bruises. However, it made
us very much afraid to trust the children out alone.
The gardener had two little boys, José and Capito, who were a few
years older than Charlie, but about his size, and he took a
tremendous fancy to them. They were clad, simply, in thin gauze—or
jusi—shirts which came down a little below their waists, and I think
Charlie envied them this informal attire. He used to order them
around in a strange mixture of Spanish, Tagalog and English which
made me wonder at my wholly American child; but it was an
effective combination since he seemed to have them completely
under his thumb and, as he revelled in his sense of power, he never
tired of playing with them.
Maria and I soon adopted the universal habit of driving down to
the Escolta in the early morning to do such shopping as was
necessary. We found a variety of interesting shops, but with very
little in them to meet the ordinary demands of an American woman.
There were delightful Indian bazaars and Chinese tiendas where all
manner of gaudy fabrics and strange oriental articles were on sale,
while the Spanish shops upon which everybody had to depend in
those days, and which had such grandly European names as Paris-
Manila and La Puerta del Sol, catered largely to the Filipino taste for
bright colours.
The Escolta at that time was full of saloons, established by the
inevitable followers of a large army, and the street being very narrow
and the old, rickety, wooden buildings being very wide open, the
“beery” odour which pervaded the atmosphere at all hours was really
dreadful. Mr. Taft decided that as long as this was the only street in
town where women could go shopping, the saloons would have to be
removed. There was opposition on the Commission to the bill which
provided for their banishment, and it was fought from the outside
with great vigour and bitterness, but a majority were in favour of it,
so it passed, and the saloons had to move. There has not been a
saloon on the Escolta from that day to this and, indeed, they have
ever since been under such satisfactory regulation that there is little
evidence left of their existence in the city.
I am afraid it is going to be very difficult to convey an adequate
picture of Manila society during the first years of American
occupation. There had been, in the old days, a really fine Spanish and
rich mestizo society, but all, or nearly all, of the Spaniards had left
the Islands, and the mestizos had not yet decided just which way to
“lean,” or just how to meet the American control of the situation. I
may say here that most of the educated, high-class Filipinos are
mestizo; that is, of mixed blood. They may be Spanish mestizo or
Chinese mestizo, but they have in them a strong strain of foreign
blood. Besides the Spanish- and Chinese-Filipinos, there are a
number of British mestizos who are very interesting people. Mr.
Legarda, Chief Justice Arellano, Dr. Pardo de Tavera and Mr.
Quezon, the Filipino delegate to the United States Congress, are
Spanish mestizos, while Mr. Arañeta, the Secretary of Finance and
Justice, as well as the Speaker of the Philippine Assembly and many
able lawyers and successful business men are of Chinese descent.
The mestizos control practically all the wealth of the Philippines, and
their education, intelligence and social standing are unquestioned. It
is the only country in the world that I know about—certainly the only
country in the Orient—where the man or woman of mixed blood
seems to be regarded as superior to the pure blooded native.
 Dating back also to the Spanish days was quite a numerous foreign
society consisting of a few consuls, some professional men, the
managers of banks and large British and European mercantile firms,
and their families. The leaders of the British colony were Mr. and
Mrs. Jones—Mr. Jones being the manager of the Manila branch of
the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Mrs. Jones, a
very beautiful and charming woman, gave some very elaborate
parties during that first winter. Bank House, the residence
maintained by the bank for its manager in Manila, is a beautiful
place in Uli-Uli, a district on the picturesque banks of the upper
Pásig, and it is finely adapted for balls and large receptions. Then
there were several German families who also entertained quite
lavishly, and I remember, especially, one Austrian exile; indeed, I
shall never be able to forget him because my husband took such joy
in pronouncing his name. He was Baron von Bosch.
This was the “set” which entertained the Commission most
cordially during our first season in Manila, while the Army officers,
following the lead of their Commanding General, held themselves
somewhat aloof. I kept up a constant round of parties of different
kinds in my house, and gave a dinner at least once a week at which
were gathered companies of a most interestingly cosmopolitan
character. And we did not fail to observe all the desirable forms. Both
Filipinos and Europeans expect a certain amount of ceremony from
the representatives of government and are not at all impressed by
“democratic simplicity”; so believing in the adage about Rome and
the Romans, we did what we could. Beside the spic and span guard at
the outer gate of the illuminated garden, we always, on dinner party
nights, stationed coachmen, or other stable boys disguised as liveried
footmen, on either side of the entrance, to receive guests and conduct
them to the dressing-rooms, and up the stairs to the reception room.
Our house was nicely adapted for a dinner of twelve and I usually
tried to confine myself to that number. We always had an orchestra,
orchestras being very plentiful in Manila where nearly every native
plays some sort of instrument, and the music added greatly to the
festive air of things, which was enhanced, too, by a certain oriental
atmosphere, with many Japanese lanterns and a profusion of potted
plants and great, hanging, natural ferneries and orchids which were
brought in from the forests by the Filipinos and sold on the streets.
 My husband is supposed to be the author of the phrase: “our little
brown brothers”—and perhaps he is. It did not meet the approval of
the army, and the soldiers used to have a song which they sang with
great gusto and frequency and which ended with the conciliating
sentiment: “He may be a brother of William H. Taft, but he ain’t no
friend of mine!”
We insisted upon complete racial equality for the Filipinos, and
from the beginning there were a great many of them among our
callers and guests. Their manners are models of real courtesy, and,
while their customs are not always like ours, wherever they are able
they manifest a great willingness to be conforme,—to adapt
themselves,—and their hospitality is unbounded.
I shall never forget my first call from a Filipino family. They
arrived shortly after six in the evening: el señor, la señora and four
señoritas. We went through a solemn and ceremonious handshaking
all around. I received them first, then passed them on to my husband
who, in turn, passed them on with a genial introduction to my sister
Maria. We had been sitting on the verandah, and when a semi-circle
of chairs had been arranged, the six of them sat down; el señor
noisily cleared his throat a couple of times while the ladies calmly
folded their little hands in their laps and assumed an air of great
repose. It was as if they had no intention of taking any part whatever
in the conversation.
El señor explained in Spanish that they were our near neighbours
and that they had called merely to pay their respects. Mr. Taft had
been studying Spanish diligently ever since he left the United States,
but he is not conspicuously gifted as a linguist, and he had not yet
waked up—as he so often expressed a wish that he might—to find
himself a true Castilian. However, his ready laugh and the cordiality
of his manners have always had a peculiar charm for the Filipinos,
and he was able on this occasion, as he was on many future ones, to
carry off the situation very well. We all nodded and smiled and said,
“Si Señor” and “Si Señora,” to long and no telling what kind of
speeches from our guests; then Maria and I complimented the ladies
on their beautifully embroidered camisas, which started things off
properly. They praised everything in sight, and what we didn’t get
through the little Spanish we knew, we got from gesture and facial
expression. They got up and wandered all around, feeling of my
Japanese tapestries and embroideries, breathing long “ahs!” of
admiration over my gold screens and pictures and curios, and acting
generally like callers who were being very well entertained. Then the
children came in and they broke out afresh in voluble praise of them.
I assumed the proper deprecatory mien in response to their
laudation of my children, and altogether I felt that we were
acquitting ourselves rather well in this first inter-racial social
experience.
But at the end of half an hour the strain was getting a little severe
and I was wondering what to do next, when our six callers arose and
said they must be going. I breathed an inward sigh of relief and was
making ready to escort them to the top of the stairs, when my
husband cordially exclaimed:
“Why, no! Porque? Tenemos bastante tiempo. Why hurry?” And—
they—all—sat—down!
I regretted then even the little Spanish Mr. Taft had learned,
though, of course, he didn’t expect them to heed his polite protest.
He knew nothing at all about Filipino manners; he didn’t know they
expected to receive some sign from him when it was time to go and
that they would consider it discourteous to go while he was urging
them to stay. He kept up, without much assistance, a brave if
laboured conversation, and the minutes slowly passed. Our dinner
hour approached and I darted warning glances at him, for I had a
horrible fear that he just might ask them to remain and dine. But at
the end of another hour a strained expression began to spread itself
over even his face, and there was not a word of protest from him
when, at a quarter past eight, our little brown neighbours once more
indicated an intention of going home. We entertained Filipino callers
nearly every day after that, but never again did we urge them to
reconsider their sometimes tardy decision to depart.
With regard to Filipino manners and customs; I am reminded that
we were nonplussed, though greatly amused by the costumbre del
pais which decreed that some return be made by a Filipino for any
and all favours bestowed upon him. We grew accustomed to this
before we left the Islands, and came to expect a few offerings of sorts
almost any day in the week, but in the beginning it was usually most
embarrassing.
 One time, soon after our arrival, a very loyal Americanista was
shot down in the street, during the peaceful discharge of his duty, by
an insurrecto. His widow, with her children, came into Manila in a
state of utter destitution, to secure some recompense from the
government for her husband’s services, and while her case was
pending Mr. Taft, in great pity for her, sent her money enough to live
on. The next day the whole family, from the wide-eyed boy to the
babe carried astride the mother’s hip, came to call on their
benefactor, bringing with them as a gift a basket containing a few
eggs, some strange Philippine fruits and a lot of sea-shells. Mr. Taft
was deeply touched, and with the brusqueness of a man who is
touched, he told her he had given her the money to buy food for
herself and her children and not for him, and he refused her offering.
I know, by the light of a fuller knowledge of the character of the lowly
Filipino, that she went away feeling very much cast down.
But in connection with such gifts there were always more laughs
than sighs. We invited to luncheon one day a dashing Filipino named
Tomaso del Rosario. Señor Rosario, a man of wealth and prominence
who had a fine Spanish education and was well dressed in the high-
collared, patent-leathered and immaculate-linened Spanish style,
was quite self-confident and enjoyed himself very much. He seemed
attracted to Maria and she, being linguistic, was able to talk to him in
a mixture of many languages. The next day she received from Señor
Rosario, not a floral offering, but a basket filled with nuts, a canned
plum-pudding, some canned chocolates and preserved fruits. This
attention did not seem so remarkable, however, when we learned, to
our amusement, that he had sent exactly the same present to Alice
Worcester, then five years old.
Our life, on the whole, was intensely interesting in its unusual
atmosphere and curious complications, but throughout everything
we were made to feel the deep significance of our presence in the
Islands; and the work of the Commission was first, last and always to
us the subject of the greatest moment. Even in our daily round of
social affairs we dealt with tremendous problems whose correct
solution meant the restoration of peace and prosperity to what then
should have been, and what we knew could be made, a great country.
That for which the American flag had always stood began to assume,
for many of us, a broader and a finer meaning; and being so much a
part of our flag’s mission in a strange field a certain zest was added to
our patriotism which we had never felt before. I believe, and I think
all those who know the truth believe, that Americanism, in its highest
conception, has never been more finely demonstrated than in the
work done by the United States in the Philippine Islands; work, the
broad foundation for which the Commission was engaged in
constructing during the period of which I write.
So many were the problems to be met and dealt with that in the
beginning the Commissioners were each given a set of subjects for
investigation and study, their findings being submitted for debate
and consideration in the general meetings.
Taxation, civil service, provincial and municipal organisations,
currency and finance, police, harbour improvements, roads and
railways, customs, postal service, education, health, public lands, an
honest judiciary and the revision of the code of laws; these were
some of the vital problems, but underlying them all was the
immediate necessity for the establishment of tranquillity and
confidence throughout the archipelago.
In order to make clear, in any degree, the Philippine situation as
we found it, it is essential that, briefly, the position of the Catholic
Church and its representatives, the Friars, be explained. For the first
time in its history the American government found itself compelled
to adjust a seemingly insurmountable difficulty between a church
and its people.
With us the Church is so completely separate from the State that it
is difficult to imagine cases in which the policy of a church in the
selection of its ministers, and the assignment of them to duty could
be regarded as of political moment, or as a proper subject of
comment in the report of a public officer, but in the first reports of
the Philippine Commission to Washington this subject had to be
introduced with emphasis.
The Spanish government of the Philippine Islands was a
government by the Church through its monastic orders, nothing less.
In the words of the Provincial of the Augustinians, the Friars were
the “pedestal or foundation of the sovereignty of Spain” which being
removed “the whole structure would topple over.” The Philippine
people, with the exception of the Mohammedan Moros and the non-
Christian tribes, belonged, during the Spanish dominion, to the
Roman Catholic Church, and the Church registry of 1898 showed a
total membership of 6,559,998. The parishes and missions, with few
exceptions, were administered by Spanish Friars of the Dominican,
Augustinian and Franciscan orders, and it was to the nature of this
administration that Spain owed the insurrections of 1896 and 1898,
the latter of which terminated only upon our assuming control of the
islands.
In 1896 there were in the Philippines 1,124 monks of the
Augustinian, Dominican and Franciscan orders, which body included
a company of Recolletos, who are merely an offshoot of the order of
St. Augustine and differ from the Augustinians only in that they are
unshod. In addition to these there were a few Jesuits, Capuchins,
Benedictines and Paulists, but they engaged in mission and
educational work only and did not share with the other orders the
resentment and hatred of the people. Filipinos were not admitted to
any of the orders, but they were made friar curates and served as
parish priests in some of the smaller places.
When a Spanish Friar curate was once settled in a parish he
remained there for life, or until he was too old for service, and
because of this fact he was able to establish and maintain an
absolutism which is difficult to explain in a few words. He was simply
everything in his parish. As a rule he was the only man of education
who knew both Spanish and the native dialect of his district, and in
many parishes he was the only Spanish representative of the
government. In the beginning, through his position as spiritual
guide, he acted as intermediary in secular matters between his
people and the rest of the world, and eventually, by law, he came to
discharge many civil functions and to supervise, correct or veto
everything which was done, or was sought to be done in his pueblo.
He was Inspector of Primary Schools, President of the Board of
Health and the Board of Charities, President of the Board of Urban
Taxation, Inspector of Taxation, President of the Board of Public
Works, Member of the Provincial Council, Member of the Board for
Partitioning Crown Lands, Censor of Municipal Budgets, and Censor
of plays, comedies or dramas in the dialect of his parish, deciding
whether or not these were against the public peace or morals. In a
word, he was the government of his parish; and in addition to all
things else, it was he who, once a year, went to the parish register,