Healthcare Big Data Analytics Computational Optimization and Cohesive Approaches Intelligent Biomedical Data Analysis 10 1st Edition Bhoi

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Healthcare Big Data Analytics
Intelligent Biomedical Data
Analysis (IBDA)
Edited by
Deepak Gupta, Nhu Gia Nguyen,
Ashish Khanna and Siddhartha Bhattacharyya
Volume 10
Healthcare Big
Data Analytics
Computational Optimization and Cohesive Approaches
Edited by
Akash Kumar Bhoi, Ranjit Panigrahi,
Victor Hugo C. de Albuquerque and Rutvij H. Jhaveri
Editors
Dr. Akash Kumar Bhoi Prof. Victor Hugo C. de Albuquerque
Directorate of Research, Department of Teleinformatics Engineering (DETI)
Sikkim Manipal University, Federal University of Ceará,
Gangtok 737102, Brazil
Sikkim, victor.albuquerque@ieee.org
India
akashkrbhoi@gmail.com Dr. Rutvij H. Jhaveri
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University,
Dr. Ranjit Panigrahi Gandhinagar 382426,
Department of Computer Applications, Gujarat,
Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology, India
Sikkim Manipal University, rutvij.jhaveri@gmail.com
Majitar 737136 Sikkim,
India
ranjit.panigrahi@gmail.com
ISBN 978-3-11-075073-7
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-075094-2
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-075098-0
ISSN 2629-7140
Library of Congress Control Number: 2023944011
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.
© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: gettyimages/thinkstockphotos, Abalone Shell
Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck
www.degruyter.com
Preface
In the fast-paced and ever-evolving landscape of healthcare, one of the most transfor-
mative developments in recent times has been the explosion of big data and analytics.
The digitization of patient records, the widespread adoption of electronic health re-
cords and the proliferation of connected medical devices have generated an unprece-
dented wealth of healthcare data. This influx of information holds the potential to
revolutionize the way we approach medical research, diagnosis, treatment and over-
all healthcare management.
Welcome to Healthcare Big Data Analytics: Computational Optimization and Cohe-
sive Approaches. In this book, the authors embark on a journey through the exciting
world of leveraging big data and advanced analytics to unlock the hidden insights
within healthcare data. They explore the intersection of computational optimization
techniques and cohesive approaches, empowering healthcare professionals, research-
ers, data scientists and policymakers to harness the power of big data effectively and
efficiently. As the volume of healthcare data continues to grow exponentially, tradi-
tional methods of analysis and decision-making prove insufficient to handle the com-
plexity and magnitude of information. This book serves as a comprehensive guide to
the state-of-the-art computational tools and techniques that address these challenges
head-on. From optimizing patient care pathways to improving operational efficiency
in healthcare institutions, the applications of big data analytics are wide-ranging and
deeply impactful.
The book is divided into several sections, each delving into crucial aspects of
healthcare big data analytics:
In Chapter 1, the authors explore the growing popularity of artificial intelligence
(AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms, their adoption in various industries, in-
cluding healthcare. They shed light on the pressing need to accelerate AI adoption in
healthcare to improve patient outcomes, with a focus on using machine learning to
advance cancer research and treatment. Chapter 2 delves into the critical aspect of
securing medical images through watermarking. The application of optimization tech-
niques, such as particle swarm optimization (PSO) and genetic algorithm (GA), is ex-
plored to enhance the robustness of watermarking techniques, ensuring secure
exchange of sensitive medical information. Machine learning algorithms particularly
deep learning has been explored in Chapter 3, to aid mental health providers in mak-
ing more informed decisions based on patients’ historical data, electronic media use
and other behavioral indicators.
The COVID-19 pandemic has challenged healthcare systems globally, which is the
theme of Chapter 4. This chapter focuses on utilizing regression models to predict
COVID-19 death rates, aiding in effective healthcare management. Various regression
algorithms, such as Extra Tree Regression and Random Forest Regression, are com-
pared to identify the most accurate prediction method. Similarly, in Chapter 5 the au-
thors explore the applications of computer vision, artificial intelligence and machine
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110750942-202
VI Preface
learning algorithms in medical imaging, including computed tomography and X-rays,

to improve diagnosis and patient care. Chapter 6, on the other hand, deals with detec-
tion of COVID-19 in IoMT cloud-based system using ensemble machine learning algo-
rithms. The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) has transformed healthcare with
wireless devices and sensors. This chapter presents an IoMT cloud-based diagnostics
framework leveraging machine learning algorithms, such as XGBoost, Extra Tree,
Random Forest and LGBM, for COVID-19 detection, offering insights into efficient pa-
tient management. Similarly, machine learning has been explored in Chapter 7 to pre-
dict and classify big medical data for disease prevention and early detection. In
Chapter 7, the authors delve into the intersection of data analytics and big medical
data, exploring how machine learning and deep learning algorithms contribute to ac-
curate patient prediction, diagnosis and monitoring. In a similar node, Chapter 8 high-
lights how hyperspectral imaging is a vital domain in medical research. This chapter
focuses on how deep learning techniques enhance hyperspectral image analysis for
disease diagnosis, detection and segmentation, revolutionizing surgical procedures
and disease diagnosis.
Big data analytics plays a critical role in healthcare diagnostics, disease prediction
and patient management. Managing the healthcare sector is challenging, and the in-
flux of big data requires advanced analytics for efficient decision-making. In Chap-
ter 9, the authors elaborate the application of big data analytics, its characteristics
and workflow, offering insights into how it can revolutionize healthcare management.
Application of Big Data Analytic Techniques for Healthcare Systems is also discussed
in brief in Chapter 10, where the emphasis is given on application of various machine
learning and deep learning algorithms in healthcare systems to uncover patterns and
knowledge for better patient care.
The security and privacy aspects of big data have been explained in Chapter 11.
As big data becomes integral to healthcare, ensuring security and privacy is para-
mount. In this context, Chapter 11 discusses state-of-the-art methods and techniques
to tackle security and privacy issues, along with the challenges that arise in the
healthcare industry. Likewise, augmented intelligence, coupled with machine learn-
ing and neural networks, plays a vital role in securing medical data and enhancing
brain tumor detection. In Chapter 12, the authors explore the use of encryption algo-
rithms for secure healthcare systems. Extending security of medical big data a Lay-
ered Security Framework has been proposed in Chapter 13 to protect medical big
data, addressing privacy and security concerns in healthcare.
Our goal with Healthcare Big Data Analytics: Computational Optimization and Co-
hesive Approaches is to equip readers with the knowledge and tools necessary to navi-
gate the vast sea of healthcare data, extract meaningful insights and transform these
insights into tangible improvements in patient outcomes and healthcare management.
Whether you are a healthcare professional, researcher, data scientist or policymaker,
we believe that the content within these pages will empower you to harness the full
potential of big data and analytics for the betterment of healthcare worldwide.
Preface VII
As the authors and editors of this volume, we extend our gratitude to all contrib-
utors who have shared their knowledge, expertise and research findings, making
Healthcare Big Data Analytics: Computational Optimization and Cohesive Approaches
a comprehensive resource for all those engaged in the transformative field of health-
care analytics. We hope that this book will pave the way for a data-driven healthcare
future, where computational optimization and cohesive approaches lead to improved
patient outcomes and revolutionized healthcare management.
Dr. Akash Kumar Bhoi

Directorate of Research, Sikkim Manipal University, Gangtok 737102, Sikkim, India
Institute of Information Science and Technologies, National Research Council, 56124
Pisa, Italy
Dr. Ranjit Panigrahi

Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Applications, Sikkim Manipal Institute
of Technology, Sikkim Manipal University, Majitar 737136, Sikkim, India
Prof. Victor Hugo C. de Albuquerque

Department of Teleinformatics Engineering (DETI), Federal University of Ceará, Brazil
Dr. Rutvij H. Jhaveri

Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of
Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar 382007, Gujarat, India
Contents
Preface V
Sitikantha Mallik, Suneeta Mohanty, Bhabani Shankar Mishra

1 Integration of neutrosophic logic for faster effective treatment of cancer
patients 1
Ganga Holi, Madhu B

2 Comparison of optimization techniques particle swarm optimization with
genetic algorithm for medical image watermarking 25
Subandhu Agravanshi, Muskaan Walia, Sushruta Mishra

3 An analytical study of AI in overcoming mental illness 55
S. Visalakshi
4 COVID-19 case analysis and prediction using regression models 85
Asit Kumar Lenka, Hrudaya Kumar Tripathy

5 Computer vision for medical diagnosis and surgery 101
Joseph Bamidele Awotunde, Akash Kumar Bhoi, Ranjit Panigrahi

6 Detection of COVID-19 in IoMT cloud-based system using ensemble
machine learning algorithms 125
Idowu Dauda Oladipo, Joseph Bamidele Awotunde, Emmanuel Abidemi Adeniyi,

Agbotiname Lucky Imoize, Muyideen Abdulraheem, Ige Oluwasegun Osemudiame
7 Prediction of big medical data using data analytics and deep
learning 149
Niyati Mishra, Sushruta Mishra

8 Impact of deep learning applications in medical hyper spectral
imaging 179
M. Ganeshkumar, V. Sowmya, E. A. Gopalakrishnan, K. P. Soman

9 Disease prediction mechanisms on large-scale big data with explainable
deep learning models for multi-label classification problems in
healthcare 207
X Contents
Idowu Dauda Oladipo, Muyideen Abdulraheem, Joseph Bamidele Awotunde,

Sulaimon Olayinka Dauda, Roseline Oluwasenu Ogundokun,
Muiz Olalekan Raheem, Ige Oluwasegun Osemudiame
10 Application of big data analytic techniques for healthcare systems 225
Jay Patel
11 Big data security and privacy in healthcare 245
Arpan Maity, Sushruta Mishra

12 Healthcare encryption using augmented intelligence 261
Navod Neranjan Thilakarathne, Rohan Samarasinghe, Rakesh Kumar Mahendran

13 Security system design for medical big data: layered security framework
for protecting medical big data 287
Jay Gohil
14 Big data analytics in effective implementation of healthcare
management 311
Brief biographies 329
Index 331
Sitikantha Mallik, Suneeta Mohanty✶, Bhabani Shankar Mishra✶
1 Integration of neutrosophic logic for faster
effective treatment of cancer patients
Abstract: Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms are becoming
more popular as people are adopting these technologies in daily life activities. People
are starting to see them in self-driving cars, robots, user interfaces, smart devices, re-
tail, and healthcare products, albeit the latter is lagging in adopting these new tech-
nologies. The world spends almost many trillions per year on healthcare, making it
the world’s important sector. Healthcare accounts for over a quarter of all govern-
ment spending in the world. As a result, there’s a pressing need to accelerate AI adop-
tion in healthcare so that healthcare practitioners can harness the technology’s
potential to improve patient outcomes. With the rapid rise in new technologies espe-
cially machine learning, deep learning, and big data analytics, the role of these tech-
nologies in the healthcare sector has increased to a large extent. So, there is a need to
integrate these new advanced technologies into health infrastructure that can im-
prove the quality of healthcare service a lot and analyze the patients suffering from
different diseases at a time. Machine learning allows smart machines to extend capa-
bilities by allowing people to achieve better clinical services. Cancer research has
emerged as one of the unexplored sectors in which machine learning has yet to find
steps. Cancer is the deadliest disease in human history. It is a condition that occurs
when biological alterations result in unregulated cell growth and division. Some can-
cers cause cells to grow and divide quickly, while others cause them to grow and di-
vide slowly. There is no effective cure or treatment for it. So, there is a need for
research into the effective treatment of cancer using new advanced technologies.
Neutrosophic logic is a new branch of computer science that deals with AI, ma-
chine learning, and smart machines that are capable of mimicking tasks that require
human intelligence. Some of the main applications of this technique are the use of
virtual healthcare assistants to monitor conditions and vital signs of patients at home
so that the patients do not need to visit the hospital regularly and robots assisting sur-
geons in operation theater procedures. Sensor-embedded wearable devices connected
through the web enable better healthcare with remote monitoring of patients’ condi-
tions. Hospitals and healthcare centers use machine learning to optimize the flow of
patients’ data and health history and deliver better optimized efficient healthcare.
✶
Corresponding author: Suneeta Mohanty, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha,
India, e-mail: smohantyfcs@kiit.ac.in
✶
Corresponding author: Bhabani Shankar Mishra, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha, India, e-mail: bsmishrafcs@kiit.ac.in
Sitikantha Mallik, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India,
e-mail: sitikanthamallik@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110750942-001
2 Sitikantha Mallik, Suneeta Mohanty, Bhabani Shankar Mishra
The machine learning approach provides a unique radiation dose for each patient
based on the patient’s electronic patient record data and medical health conditions.
Patients will experience fewer negative side effects as a result of this method as well
as fewer cancer therapy failures. AI allows users to analyze different scenarios and
find out the optimal solution for the patients. This technology allows much more effi-
cient, faster, and less risk-free computation and analysis.
Keywords: Neutrosophic logic, healthcare, smart machines, sensor, cancer, data analysis
1.1 Introduction
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a conglomeration of many technologies like machine
learning, pattern recognition, natural learning processing (NLP), fuzzy logic, and neu-
trosophic logic. The industry has been transformed by technology, and technology has
sparked advancement and innovation in the healthcare sector. In the last few years,
with the advent of AI and the continuous use of new emerging technologies in health-
care, medical care has experienced a rapid rise in improvements in patient healthcare
and treatment. Hospitals throughout the world will be impacted by quickly expanding
technologies, according to healthcare service companies. The acquisition, analysis,
and storage of large amounts of unprocessed data from various clinics, hospitals, and
research labs have been made possible by social networking, sensor networks, wear-
ables, mobile computing, cloud computing, and virtualization as well as data mining
methods and machine learning techniques. Health prescriptions, emails, and online
financial transactions, multimedia content like video, music, and images, X-rays, CT
scans, and other sources can all be used to gather this data. With the rapid develop-
ment of computational intelligence, there is a rise in the application of machine learn-
ing techniques for modeling data in various domains. Healthcare IT solutions are
revolutionizing the world of patient care and the overall healthcare framework.
There has been a major improvement in the operations of the entire health ecosys-
tem. Electronic patient records in the healthcare sector improve medical data access
for faster treatment. Healthcare practitioners can now quickly identify improved
health treatment strategies with the help of neutrosophic logic. New technologies are
also lowering the cost of medical education and providing more cost-effective diag-
nostic technologies that can be repeated on a big scale. But there are many deadliest
diseases like cancer for which the earliest detection and treatment are the utmost pri-
ority. There are over a hundred different varieties of cancer that are attacking differ-
ent cells or organs in the body. Cancer is categorized in general based on the organ in
which aberrant cell proliferation originates. Breast cancer, one of the types of cancers
that are found in women, starts in the breast. Cancerous cells can occur in the skin or
tissues that cover internal organs (carcinoma), connective tissues (sarcoma), blood-
forming tissue (leukemia), the immune system (lymphoma and multiple myeloma),
1 Integration of neutrosophic logic for faster effective treatment of cancer patients 3
and the brain or spinal cord (brain or spinal cord cancer) (central nervous system).
Some malignancies encourage rapid cell division and development, whereas others
induce cells to divide and develop more slowly. Some malignancies develop visible
tumors, such as leukemia, while others, such as breast cancer, do not. Since earlier
technologies were not able to detect cancer for earlier diagnosis and quick treatment,
there is a need for effective and quick treatment that leads to the integration of ma-
chine learning, AI, and big data analytics into the healthcare system. Adoption of AI
and machine learning in cancer treatment was one of the unexplored research areas
recently, but recent research work in this area has led to companies, institutions, and
governments investing a lot of resources [1]. A team of doctors and scientists from
MIT and Massachusetts General Hospital recently discovered a deep learning model
that can predict if a patient will develop breast cancer five years from now using a
mammogram. The algorithm learnt the hidden patterns in breast tissue that are pre-
cursors to cancerous tumors based on mammograms and known outcomes from over
60,000 patients. Machine learning is already being used and applied in healthcare. AI
and machine learning empower, educate, and entertain patients and doctors about
cancer treatment through edge-to-edge technology. Diseases will be promptly and ac-
curately diagnosed, and medicine will be highly personalized. Patients will recognize if
they are sick before they experience even a single symptom, thanks to wearable tech-
nology with built-in machine learning capabilities. Meanwhile, new drugs will reach
the market at a faster rate as clinical studies become faster and more accurate [9].
1.2 Background
1.2.1 Artificial intelligence
AI is a broad field of computer science concerned with creating intelligent machines

that can accomplish activities that would normally need human intelligence.
1.2.2 Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy logic is a type of many-valued logic with membership degrees ranging from 1 to
0. Fuzzy logic proposed a fuzzy set theory which states that a fuzzy set is a collection
of ordered pairs which is represented by
A = {(y,μA(y))|y ∈ U},
where μA(y) is the membership function in fuzzy set A and U the universe of discourse.
In the case of fuzzy sets, partial membership exists. The membership function,
whose value ranges from 0 to 1, is used to determine the degree of uncertainty of the
items of the fuzzy set. The truth value of variables in fuzzy logic can be any real num-
ber between 0 and 1, both inclusive [3].
1.2.3 Neutrosophic logic
Neutrosophic logic refers to a logic in which the following parameters of the proposi-
tion are defined:
1. Truth (T), percentage of truth
2. Falsehood (F), percentage of falsity
3. Indeterminacy (I), the condition or percentage of being indeterminate
where Truth, Indeterminacy, and Falsehood are standard or non-standard real sub-
sets of [0,1+], that isn’t inherently connected.
For single-valued neutrosophic logic, the total value of the elements is
1. 0 ≤ t + i + f ≤ 3, when each of the elements is self-contained.
2. 0 ≤ t + i + f ≤ 2, when dual elements are interdependent, but the final part is
unaffected.
3. 0 ≤ t + i + f ≤ 1, when all elements are interconnected.
When three or two of the t, i, f components are independent, there is room for inade-
quate information (total < 1), paraconsistent and contradictory information (total > 1),
or complete information (total = 1). If all three elements, Truth, Indeterminacy, and Fal-
sity, are interdependent, one can provide provision for partial information (total < 1) or
complete information (total = 1) in the same way.
1.2.4 Different techniques under computational intelligence
1.2.4.1 Machine learning
Machine learning is a subdomain of A.I. that aims on simulating human learning pro-
cesses using sophisticated algorithms to improve accuracy over time.
Gathering data is the initial step in the machine learning process. Cleaning and pre-
processing data entails reducing noise if necessary, gathering the information needed
to model or account for noise, and deciding on strategies for dealing with missing data
fields. The given data set is split into training and test sets, with the former being used
to develop the model and the latter being used to validate it. The standard split between
training and test sets is 70/30. The data set is linked to an algorithm, which learns and
develops predictions using advanced mathematical modeling. The whole process is ex-
plained in Figure 1.1.
Label
Training data
Machine Learning Algorithm
New Data Predictive Model Prediction
Figure 1.1: Machine learning algorithm.
Unsupervised learning, supervised learning, and reinforcement learning are exam-

ples of machine learning algorithms explained in Figure 1.2.
i. Unsupervised learning: It is a type of machine learning algorithm used to draw
inferences from datasets consisting of input data without labeled responses.
ii. Supervised learning: It uses the training data to derive a function. Each record
has a set of attributes, with the class being one of them.
iii. Reinforcement learning: It’s a controlled environment in which records are cate-
gorized using grades. Machines typically use it to perform relevant actions in
order to enhance the reward in order to acquire the best feasible answer through
trial and error and feedback [3].
a. Supervised learning
i. Classification: Supervised learning problem that involves predicting a class
label.
ii. Regression: A set of statistical procedures for estimating relationships be-
tween a dependent variable and one or more independent variables is re-
ferred to as regression analysis.
iii. Naïve Bayes: The Naive Bayes classifier uses Bayes’ theorem to classify all
values as independent of each other. It allows us to use probability to predict
a class/category based on a set of features.
iv. Nearest neighbor: It’s the problem of determining which point in a set is the
nearest to a specified point.
b. Reinforcement learning
i. Q-learning: It is a value-based learning algorithm. Value-based algorithms update
the value function based on an equation. The “Q” in Q-learning stands for quality.
ii. Temporal difference learning: It is a method that is used to compute the long-
term utility of a pattern of behavior from a series of intermediate rewards.
Machine Learning
Semi supervised Reinforcement

Supervised learning Unsupervised learning
learning learning
Graph based algo

Classiﬁcation Clustering
Regression Association Low density

separation models
Dimensionality
Naїve Bayes
reduction
Figure 1.2: Techniques under machine learning.
c. Unsupervised learning
i. Clustering: The process of organizing objects into groups whose members
are similar in some way.
ii. Dimensionality reduction: It identifies and removes the features that are
hurting the machine learning model’s performance or aren’t contributing to
its accuracy.
iii. K-means algorithm: The algorithm works by identifying groups within the
data, with the parameter K representing the number of groups.
iv. Association: Finding frequent patterns, correlations, or causal structures
among sets of items or objects in transaction databases, relational databases,
and other information repositories.
1.2.4.2 Natural language processing (NLP)
It is the interaction between computers and human language in which the computers
have been programmed to process natural languages. In NLP, machine learning is a
reliable method of extracting meaning from human languages. NLP is a computa-
tional representation and analysis of human language. NLP is a branch of linguistics,
computer science, information engineering, and AI that studies how computers inter-
act with human languages. NLP allows computers to understand natural language in
the same manner that humans do. NLP, whether spoken or written, uses AI to absorb
real-world data, interpret it, and make sense of it in a form that a computer can un-
derstand. Computers, like people, have many senses such as ears to hear and eyes to
see as well as programs to read and microphones to gather audio. Similar to how peo-
ple’s brains absorb information, computers have software that does the same. At
some point during the processing, the input is converted to code that the computer
can understand [6].
NLP is divided into two stages: data pretreatment and algorithm development.
This new technology has been extremely beneficial to the healthcare industry. NLP in
healthcare is growing as analytic tools and deep learning are used to analyses medical
data and improve treatment decisions. The unstructured clinical record contains a
wealth of information about patients that the structured record does not [2].
Natural language processing techniques and approaches

Syntax: The syntax of a sentence refers to how words are arranged in a sentence to
make grammatical meaning. NLP analyzes a language’s meaning using syntax and
grammatical rules.
Syntax techniques include the following:
a. Parsing: This is a sentence’s grammatical analysis.
b. Word segmentation: This is the process of deriving word formations from a string
of text.
c. Sentence breaking: This places sentence boundaries in large texts.
d. Morphological segmentation: This divides words into smaller parts called morphemes.
e. Stemming: This divides words with inflection in them to root forms, its conjugations.
Semantics: It involves the use of and meaning behind words. NLP applies algorithms
to understand the meaning and structure of sentences. Semantics techniques include:
a. Word sense disambiguation: This derives the meaning of a word based on context.
b. Named entity recognition: This determines words that can be categorized into
groups.
c. Natural language generation: This uses a database to determine semantics behind
words and generate new text.
1.2.4.3 Automation and robotics
Automation means using computer software, machines, or other technology to carry

out a task that would otherwise be done by a human worker. There are many types of
automation, ranging from the fully mechanical to the fully virtual and from the very
simple to the mind-blowingly complex.
The goal of automation is to have machines perform monotonous and repetitive
work, resulting in increased production and more cost-effective and efficient results.
Several organizations use machine learning, neural networks, and graphs in automa-
tion. Such automation, when combined with CAPTCHA technology, can help to pre-
vent fraud in online financial transactions. Robotics is a branch of engineering which
Machine
Learning
NLP Robotics
Al
Neural networks Computer vision
Deep Learning
Figure 1.3: Techniques under artificial intelligence.
incorporates multiple disciplines to design, build, program, and use robotic machines.
Robotic process automation is intended to carry out high-volume, repetitive tasks
while adjusting to changing circumstances.
1.2.4.4 Computer vision
Analog-to-digital conversion and digital signal processing are employed with one or
more video cameras. A computer receives the image data. The ability of a computer
to see is usually associated with machine vision. The term “computer vision” refers to
the process of a computer digitizing an image, processing the data, and taking some
sort of action. These techniques are subdomains of computational intelligence, ex-
plained in Figure 1.3.
Machines are capable of capturing and analyzing visual data. Visual data is cap-
tured using cameras, and the image is converted to digital data using analogue to digital
conversion, which is then analyzed using digital signal processing. The information is
then entered into a computer. Sensitivity, or the system’s ability to identify weak sig-
nals, and resolution, or the range across which the machine can distinguish objects, are
two crucial properties of machine vision. Machine vision is utilized in a variety of appli-
cations, including signature identification, pattern recognition, and medical image
analysis.
1.2.5 Cancer
Cancer refers to the dreadful disease in which abnormal cells divide severely and af-
fect body tissue. These abnormal cells are described as cancer cells. These cells are ma-
lignant or tumor cells. These cells can penetrate and damage normal body tissues,
shown in Figure 1.4.
Detecting cancer at its earliest stages often provides the best chance for a cure.
Before going for cancer treatment, discussion with the doctor regarding specific can-
cer screening. [18]
Genetic
change
Normal cell Cancer cell
Figure 1.4: Cancer cells development.
Screening tests can save lives by finding cancer early in certain cancers, according to
studies. Once you’ve been diagnosed with cancer, your doctor will try to figure out
what stage it is. The doctor uses the cancer stage to assess the treatment options and
chances of a cure.
To see if cancer has spread to other parts of the body, imaging tests like bone
scans or X-rays may be done as part of the staging process. The cancer stages are indi-
cated by the numbers 0 through 4, which are usually written as Roman numerals 0
through IV. Cancer has advanced if the numbers are higher. In various kinds of can-
cer, the stage is indicated by letters or phrases.
1.2.6 Most common types of cancer
1.2.6.1 Breast cancer
Breast cancer is the cancer commonly occurs in women’s breasts. Breast cancer is the
most common invasive cancer in females. It is also a leading cause of cancer deaths
among females. A lump or a mass in the breast is often one of the first signs of breast
cancer. Symptoms of breast cancer include:
– lumps in the breast
– lymph nodes swelling under the arms or in the neck
– inexplicable changes in breast size, shape, or symmetry
1.2.6.2 Prostate cancer
One of the most common types of cancer is prostate cancer. It is discovered in a

man’s prostate gland. The prostate is a tiny gland that generates seminal fluid in the
body. Many prostate tumors are slow-growing and only affect the prostate gland. The
prostate gland, some surrounding tissue, and a few lymph nodes are all removed dur-
ing prostate cancer surgery (radical prostatectomy).
1.2.6.3 Basal cell cancer
Basal cell cancer is a form of skin cancer that starts in the cells of the basal layer of
the skin. Basal cells are a type of skin cell that produces new skin cells in response to
the death of existing ones. Basal cell carcinoma most commonly develops on sun-
exposed parts of the skin, such as the head and neck.
Long-term exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunshine is assumed to be
the origin of most basal cell carcinomas. Basal cell carcinoma can be prevented by
avoiding the sun and using sunscreen. The most frequent therapy for basal cell carci-
noma is surgery, which involves removing all of the cancerous cells as well as some
healthy tissue around them [12]. Treatment methods might include:
i. Surgical excision: In this treatment, the doctor removes the malignant lesion as
well as a healthy skin margin around it. To ensure that there are no cancer cells
present, the margin is checked under a microscope. For basal cell carcinomas
that are less prone to recur, such as those on the chest, back, hands, and feet, ex-
cision may be indicated.
ii. Mohs surgery: The surgeon eliminates the cancer layer after layer during Mohs
surgery, inspecting each layer under a microscope until no malignant cells remain.
1.2.6.4 Pancreatic cancer
Some of the symptoms are abdominal pain which can spread to the back, unexplained
weight loss and loss of appetite, indigestion. More than half of pancreatic cancer pa-
tients die within 3 months. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes as well as hor-
mones that assist regulate sugar metabolism. This cancer is frequently discovered late,
spreads quickly, and has a bad prognosis. In the early stages, there are no symptoms.
Pancreatic cancer comes in a variety of forms. The critical difference is whether
the exocrine or endocrine glands are affected [13].
i. Exocrine pancreatic cancer

Exocrine glands create enzymes that aid fat, protein, and carbohydrate digestion in
the intestines. Exocrine glands make up the majority of the pancreas.
ii. Endocrine pancreatic cancer

The islets of Langerhans are microscopic clusters of cells that make up the endocrine
glands. Insulin and glucagon are released into the bloodstream by them. They assist
in the control of blood sugar levels there. Diabetes can be caused by problems with
these glands [14].
1.2.6.5 Ovarian cancer
It is a cell proliferation that occurs in the ovaries. The cells reproduce rapidly and
have the ability to infiltrate and kill healthy body tissue. Two ovaries, one on each
side of the uterus, make up the female reproductive system. Ovarian cancer, accord-
ing to doctors, begins at the ends of the fallopian tubes and progresses to the ovaries
as it grows. The carcinoma of the ovary is a type of gynecological cancer. It is the
world’s fifth most common cause of death among women [11].
1.2.6.6 Skin cancer (melanoma)
Melanoma refers to the most dangerous cancer found in skin of body. It grows in the
melanocytes, the cells that generate melanin, the pigment that provides the skin its
colour. The region of the skin that has been exposed to the sun is where skin cancer,
or abnormal skin cell proliferation, most frequently occurs. However, this prevalent
type of cancer can also develop on parts of your skin that are not often exposed to
sunlight. By reducing or eliminating your access to UV radiation, we can lower our
chances of developing skin cancer. Skin cancer can be found in its earlier stages by
checking for unusual changes in our skin [5].
1.2.6.7 Colon cancer
Colon cancer is a type of cancer that starts in your colon (large intestine) or rectum.
The colon or rectum, which is located at the lower end of the digestive tract. The
colon is the last section of the digestive system.
Older adults are more likely to develop colon cancer, while it can affect anyone at
any time. The earliest symptoms of colon cancer are typically polyps, which are mi-
croscopic noncancerous (benign) clumps of cells that develop on the interior of the
colon. Some of these polyps may eventually develop into colon cancer. We have the
potential to beat colon cancer if we are diagnosed early. Since colon cancer often has
no symptoms during the early stages, it is often caught during routine screenings.
1.2.6.8 Lung cancer
Cancer that begins in the lungs and most often occurs in people who smoke. The risk
of lung cancer increases with the length of time and number of cigarettes you’ve
smoked. Lung cancer occurs when cells divide in the lungs uncontrollably. This causes
tumors to grow. These can reduce a person’s ability to breathe and spread to other
parts of the body [4]. People who are at a high risk of lung cancer should consider
being screened on a regular basis. This can help detect early signs of cancer and allow
for therapy before it spreads. Some possible symptoms of lung cancer are:
i. Hoarseness, for example, is a shift in a person’s voice.
ii. Chest infections, such as bronchitis or pneumonia, that are common
iii. The lymph nodes in the center of the chest are swollen.
iv. a persistent cough that may become worse
v. chest pain
1.2.6.9 Leukemia
Leukemia is a type of blood cancer that starts in the bone marrow and results in a
large number of abnormal blood cells. These blood cells, often known as blasts or leu-
kemia cells, are not fully matured, shown in Figure 1.5. Bruising and bleeding, as well
as bone discomfort and weariness, are all possible symptoms. This cancer began in
blood-forming tissues, compromising the human body’s ability to combat infection.
1.2.6.10 Cervical cancer
It is a type of cancer that occurs in the cells of the cervix – the lower part of the uterus
that connects to the vagina. Cervical cancer is another type of gynecological cancer.
The most common symptoms of cervical cancer are:
– bleeding between periods
– bleeding after sexual intercourse
– bleeding in post-menopausal women
– discomfort during sexual intercourse
– vaginal discharge with a strong odor
– vaginal discharge tinged with blood
– pelvic pain
Cervical cancer can be treated with surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or a combina-

tion of these treatments. Surgery is a common therapeutic option when cancer has
not spread beyond the cervix. Radiation therapy may be advantageous if a doctor sus-
pects that cancer cells are present inside the body following surgery [19].
Normal Blood Leukemia
Erythrocytes Neutrophil Lymphocyte Monocyte Platelets
Figure 1.5: The difference between normal blood cells and leukemia blood cells.
1.2.6.11 Lymphoma
Cancer generally occurs in the lymphatic system of the body, which is part of the
body’s germ-fighting network. Lymphoma is a cancer of lymphocytes. These white
blood cells originate in the bone marrow and are present in blood and lymph tissue.
Symptoms of lymphoma include the presence of a lump under the skin, itchy skin,
fatigue, loss of appetite, coughing, and chest pain.
1.2.7 Major causes of cancer
The following are major causes of cancer:

a. Exposure to chemicals or toxic compounds: Toxic substances such as benzene,
asbestos, nickel, cadmium, vinyl chloride, benzidine, N-nitrosamines, tobacco or
cigarette smoke, asbestos, and aflatoxin can cause cancer when exposed to them.
Radon is a radioactive gas that is colorless and odorless. Lung cancer can be
caused by long-term radon exposure. Children who have been exposed to these
substances may acquire a second cancer in the future in some situations. These
potent anticancer drugs can change cells and/or the immune system. Cancer that
develops as a result of the treatment of many cancers and other illnesses, and
those who are exposed to high quantities of radiation at work, such as uranium
miners, are a second malignancy.
b. Ionizing radiation: Uranium, radon, UV rays from sunlight, radiation from
alpha, beta, gamma, and X-ray-emitting sources. X-rays and gamma rays are
known human carcinogens (cancer-causing agents). The evidence for this comes
from many different sources, including studies of atomic bomb survivors in
Japan, people exposed during the Chernobyl nuclear accident, people treated
with high doses of radiation for cancer.
c. Pathogens: Other possible agents are human papillomavirus, EBV or Epstein-Barr
virus, hepatitis viruses B and C, other bacteria. People with HIV infection or AIDS
can get cancer, just like anyone else. They are more likely to get some types of
cancer than people who are not infected.
d. Genetics: Genetics played an important role in specific cancers like ovarian, colo-
rectal, breast, prostate, skin, and melanoma. These types of cancer have been
linked to human genes.
e. Tobacco: Tobacco smoke contains thousands of compounds, including at least 50
cancer-causing agents. The chemicals that cause cancer are known as carcino-
gens. Nicotine and carbon monoxide are two substances found in tobacco smoke.
f. Unhealthy lifestyle habits: Obesity raises the risk of cancer in a variety of ways.
One of the most common ways is that being overweight leads the body to produce
and circulate more estrogen and insulin, hormones that promote cancer growth.
It’s critical to achieve and maintain a healthy weight to minimize the risk of can-
cer and other chronic diseases like heart disease and diabetes. Breast cancer (in
women past menopause), colon and rectum cancers, endometrium (the lining of
the uterus), esophagus, pancreas, liver, and kidney cancers, among others, are all
increased by being overweight or obese.
1.2.8 Applications of neutrosophic logic
i. Neutrosophic algorithms are utilized in the business, stock, and finance industry
to provide financial advice, predict the future value of stocks, and monitor assets.
Chatbots can serve as brokers, providing real-time quotes to their users. By engag-
ing with the trading and stock market environment, bots powered by deep learn-
ing can learn from it.
ii. In the education industry, neutrosophic algorithms can be used to evaluate stu-
dents’ overall performance and to automate the grading system. This is true in
the education industry all across the world. Various schools across the country
are utilizing AI in the classroom. Teachers, students, parents, and, of course, edu-
cational institutions have all gained a fresh perspective on education as a result
of the application of AI in education.
iii. In the domain of healthcare, neutrosophic algorithms are utilized to provide a

more accurate diagnosis, with the technology that has been used to detect and
diagnose diseases such as breast cancer earlier. Additionally, computer programs
such as bots are utilized to assist doctors in organizing patient appointments and
maintaining patient health information, among other things. This cutting-edge
technology allows elderly patients to track and monitor their health status. There
is an alarm mechanism in place to notify or transmit signals to family members
and healthcare providers in the event of any deviation or change in routine
activities.
iv. With the use of robotic process automation, neutrosophic algorithms are utilized
in industry to automate the repetitive operations performed by humans. Machine
learning algorithms are combined with analytics to acquire information that aids
in understanding client needs to boost customer satisfaction. For the fusion of in-
formation received from various sensors, information that can be conflicting to a
certain degree, the robot uses the fuzzy and neutrosophic logic or set. In real time
it is used as a neutrosophic dynamic fusion, so an autonomous robot can decide
at any moment.
v. Smartphones, smart TVs, surveillance systems, guidance and travel, audio and en-
tertainment streaming, and computer games are all using AI approaches like neu-
trosophic algorithms. Smart Homes collect and analyze data using AI and Internet
of things (IoT) devices such as connected sensors, lighting, and meters. This infor-
mation is utilized to make better use of house infrastructure, utilities, and other
services to make daily life easier and more efficient. In the instance of Smart
Homes, IoT frameworks provide the data, and AI uses that data to execute specific
tasks that reduce human stress.
vi. Neutrosophic logic is also used in the field of robotics and sensing devices, expert
systems.
1.3 Role of neutrosophic logic in medical sector

Computational intelligence techniques like fuzzy logic and neutrosophic logic are
changing the way patients communicate with others. They also help to close the infor-
mation gap between patients and doctors. Neutrosophic logic will improve the accuracy
and efficiency of practitioners’ practices. They can use robotic process automation in
the ICU to better schedule patients, assist with surgery and medical image interpreta-
tion, and make better judgments. The main useful benefits of neutrosophic logic in the
health sector are given as follows.
1.3.1 Guiding treatment choice
Based on conventional electronic health data and existing test findings, the company is
creating several algorithms to detect subtle, early indicators of disease in high-risk pa-
tients. Lower GI diseases, prediabetic development to diabetes, chronic renal disease,
and coronary artery disease are among the conditions that the company is pursuing.
Neutrosophic logic is being used by many essential healthcare operations to evaluate
potential diagnoses and select the optimal treatment plan for a specific patient. Further-
more, neutrosophic logic can assist in predicting which patients are more likely to expe-
rience post-operative difficulties, allowing healthcare systems to intervene earlier if
necessary. In today’s environment, being able to properly and precisely use data allows
for more efficient decision-making in almost every industry. There is no exception in
the healthcare industry. Large amounts of data will become available for analysis as
healthcare providers move toward a uniform framework for recording patient out-
comes using neutrosophic algorithms-enabled systems that can track outcome patterns
following treatment and identify optimal treatments based on patients’ profiles. As a
result, neutrosophic algorithms facilitate clinical decision-making and ensure that the
most relevant interventions and therapies are adjusted to each patient, resulting in a
more personalized approach to care. The immediate effect will be a huge improvement
in outcomes, resulting in the elimination of post-treatment difficulties as a primary cost
factor in most healthcare ecosystems around the world [15].
1.3.2 Fast response in emergency health situations
Every patient’s record is stored in an electronic storage repository that can be ac-
cessed anywhere which can be easily accessed by doctors to know the health status of
the patient. These neutrosophic-based systems can accurately analyze CT scans and
specific tests, decreasing physician error and allowing for early diagnosis and man-
agement before diseases worsen. An Israeli start-up, for example, has developed these
neutrosophic algorithms that are as good as or better than people at detecting ill-
nesses including breast cancer [7].
These algorithms have shown to be more accurate and faster than people in re-
viewing and translating mammograms, allowing for considerably earlier diagnosis of
breast cancer. Early detection of oncoming breast cancer – which is frequently missed
by human diagnosis – can significantly minimize the expense of this condition to
healthcare.
1.3.3 Clinical trials optimization and drug development
Neutrosophic algorithms have the potential to reduce the time it takes to develop life-
saving drugs, allowing billions of dollars to be reallocated to healthcare systems. A
start-up supported by the University of Toronto recently installed an algorithm on a
supercomputer that simulates and analyses millions of potential medicines to predict
their efficacy against Ebola, saving money and, most importantly, patients’ lives by
repurposing the existing treatments [8]. Given the increased volume and speed of
published research, clinical trial enrollment, medication development, and biomarker
discovery in oncology in recent years, AI has a better chance than ever to assist in
data analysis and decision-making. To this end, some commercial apps in develop-
ment use neutrosophic logic and NLP. Neutrosophic algorithms can help improve the
development of medications in clinical trials.
1.3.4 Empowering the patient
Neutrosophic algorithms have the potential to empower us to make better health de-
cisions on an individual basis. A vast number of people all around the world are al-
ready using wearable technology to capture common data such as sleep habits and
heart rate. Patients now have more convenient methods to receive medical treatment
thanks to recent advancements in telehealth. Remote consultations through live
stream and telephone are a cost-effective way to get medical advice without having to
travel to a hospital or a doctor’s office.
1.3.5 Reduction in costs and time saving
Using AI to automate these interactions can substantially reduce costs and provide
barrier-free healthcare by providing health consultations without patients needing to
visit clinics occasionally. Recent advancements in NLP have paved the way for a new
contact-proof patient interface that can automatically communicate with patients.
The interface enables the patients to communicate their symptoms, send questions di-
rectly to concerned doctors. Similarly, AIs can be programmed to contact patients fre-
quently to ensure that they remain engaged and follow their treatment plan.
1.3.6 Remote support for patients in real-time
An AI-connected emergency vehicle is a machine coupled with smart multi-technology

and communication services that generate high connectivity and specialized communi-
cation to receive specialized remote access in real time via high-definition video while
caring for a patient inside an ambulance. It will soon be able to connect the health and
medical emergency unit with other cars or infrastructures, allowing it to bypass traffic
and get to the hospital faster.
1.4 Neutrosophic logic in cancer treatment

Smartphones, connected devices, machine learning, informatics, and cryptography
would help the health and healthcare sector collect, access, and utilize scattered data
sources more effectively. Patients’ clinical information was also recorded, such as
blood test results showing any abnormalities in white blood cell counts or lymphocyte
counts as well as their age, sex, and symptoms. These concentrated on CT scans and
blood tests since they are used by doctors all around the world to diagnose cancer
patients.
According to recent research, 500,000 people are diagnosed with cancer each year.
It is crucial to discover this condition early to provide patients the best chance of recov-
ery and survival. Many countries are increasing their investments in cancer research
and development with the hopes of achieving a decade’s worth of progress in cancer
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment in a short period [10].
Neutrosophic algorithms-based cancer diagnosis therapy also emphasizes the use
of AI and machine learning to assist pathologists in making more precise diagnostic
judgments which would ultimately lead to earlier detection and better cancer treat-
ment. These techniques combine tumor genomic sequencing with AI-powered tools
for structuring varied information such as oncology notes and pathology reports. Ma-
chine-learning algorithms are used for analyzing radiology and pathology images.
The outcome, according to the business, is a data-driven treatment that is personal-
ized for each patient. Medication discovery and clinical validation, as well as how
these treatments are provided at the point of care, are all part of cancer treatment. In
recent years, these operations have become both costly and time-consuming. Further-
more, medications can have a wide range of therapeutic results for patients. The con-
vergence of neutrosophic algorithms and cancer therapy has yielded several solutions
to these problems. Patients can be accurately matched to clinical trials using bio-
markers, and approaches ranging from machine learning to neural networks and
neutrosophic algorithms can speed up drug discovery and truly customized cancer
therapy using only a patient’s data. These advancements are significant. Researchers
develop algorithms that properly predict when lesions in the lungs are malignant
using a data set of thousands of high-resolution CT scans provided by the repository
containing health records of patients. This will significantly reduce the present detec-
tion technology’s false-positive rate, provide patients quicker access to life-saving in-
terventions, and give radiologists more time to spend with their patients [16].
The researchers then combined the data from the CT scans with the clinical data to
create a neutrosophic algorithm. The program simulates a physician’s workflow for di-
agnosing cancer-related disorders and provides a final diagnosis prediction of positive
or negative. Based on CT scans, clinical data, or both, the model generates independent
probabilities of being cancer-affected. Various healthcare centers and clinics use the
neutrosophic logic technique, which uses machine learning to combine and filter out
medical scans and electronic health records (EHR) to provide personalized radiation
treatment doses for cancer patients. When it comes to cancer diagnosis, there is a lack
of accuracy among practicing medical experts; therefore this computer-based auto-
mated technique holds a lot of promise. Using tissue fingerprinting, researchers can in-
struct a machine to scan through millions of tumor photographs and discriminate
visual features to identify a single tumor. Through training, we have essentially evolved
a computer eye that’s optimized to look at cancer patterns. Because no two patients’
tumors are alike, the initial phase in the procedure introduces the concept of tissue fin-
gerprints or distinguishing architectural features in tumor tissue that an algorithm can
use to discern between samples. The findings demonstrated that AI algorithms discov-
ered structural differences in pathology slides with more precision and reliability than
the human eye and that these variations could be recognized without the need for
human intervention. The researchers broke digital pathology images in half for the
study and then used a deep learning algorithm to reassemble them based on their
chemical fingerprints. Breast cancer is the most frequent type of cancer in women all
over the world. The only method to treat it is to get regular health checkups and early
detection. The neutrosophic system may assist in the early detection of disease and
thereby lower the chance of getting breast cancer.
Although the advantages of implementing computers to improve cancer diagnosis
have been around for decades, and computer-aided detection (CAD) systems are
widely used in mammography clinics, CAD programs have not improved clinical per-
formance. The problem is that existing CAD programs are programmed to discover
features that only human radiologists can perceive, whereas neutrosophic algorithms
train computers to detect malignancies based on thousands of mammograms [17].
1.5 Advantages of neutrosophic logic in healthcare

Healthcare firms are looking for innovative solutions that can seamlessly integrate
everything from connectivity to the cloud to IoT endpoints in a secure tech ecosystem.
Healthcare institutions may use sophisticated technology to fully harness the connec-
tion provided by smart devices to assist improve clinical outcomes, control costs, and
provide a better patient experience. The neutrosophic logic algorithm is one of the
best solutions for healthcare productivity. It assists hospitals and health systems to
enhance efficiency by reducing long lines of patients waiting in clinics and hospitals.
Another random document with
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so as to embrace the whole scheme of the universe, I should no
longer perceive the contents of that universe as dispersed through
space, because I should no longer have as my special standpoint a
here to which other existence would be there.
My special standpoint in space may thus be said to be
phenomenal of my special and peculiar interests in life, the special
logical standpoint from which my experience reflects the ultimate
structure of the Absolute. And so, generally, though the conclusion
can for various reasons not be pressed in respect of every detail of
spatial appearance, the spatial grouping of intelligent purposive
beings is phenomenal of their inner logical affinity of interest and
purpose. Groups of such beings, closely associated together in
space, are commonly also associated in their peculiar interests, their
special purposes, their characteristic attitude towards the universe.
The local contiguity of the members of the group is but an “outward
and visible sign” of an “inward and spiritual” community of social
aspiration. This is, of course, only approximately the case; the less
the extent to which any section of mankind have succeeded in
actively controlling the physical order for the realisation of their own
purposes, the more nearly is it the truth that spatial remoteness and
inner dissimilarity of social purposes coincide. In proportion as man’s
conquest over his non-human environment becomes complete, he
devises for himself means to retain the inner unity of social aims and
interests in spite of spatial separation. But this only shows once
more how completely the spatial order is a mere imperfect
appearance which only confusedly adumbrates the nature of the
higher Reality behind it. Thus we may say that the “abolition of
distance” effected by science and civilisation is, as it were, a
practical vindication of our metaphysical doctrine of the comparative
unreality of space.
Similarly with time, though the temporal series may, in a sense, be
said to be less of an unreality than the spatial. For it does not seem
possible to show that spatial appearance is an inevitable form of
finite experience. We can at least conceive of a finite experience
composed entirely of successive arrangements of secondary
qualities, such as sounds or smells, and the accompanying feeling-
tones, though we have no positive ground for affirming the existence
of such a type of experience. But the temporal form seems
inseparable from finite intelligence. For the limitation of my existence
to a certain portion of time is clearly simply the abstract and external
aspect of the fact that my interests and purposes, so far as I can
apprehend the meaning of my own life, occupy just this special place
in the logical development of the larger whole of social life and
purpose of which my own life is a member. So the position of a
particular purposive act in the temporal series of acts which I call the
history of my own life, is the outward indication of the logical place
filled by this particular act in the connected scheme of interests
which form my life on its inner side. But it is an inevitable
consequence of the want of complete internal harmony we call
finitude, that the aims and interests of the finite subject cannot be in
the same degree present to its apprehension all at once and
together. In being aware of its own internal purpose or meaning, it
must, because it is finite and therefore not ultimately a completely
harmonious systematic whole, be aware of that purpose as only
partially fulfilled. And in this sense of one’s own purposes as only
partially fulfilled, we have the foundation of the time-experience, with
its contrast between the “now” of fulfilment and the “no longer” and
“not yet” of dissatisfied aspiration.
For this reason, dissatisfaction, unfulfilled craving, and the time-
experience seem to be bound up together, and time to be merely the
abstract expression of the yearning of the finite individual for a
systematic realisation of its own purpose which lies for ever beyond
its reach as finite. If this is so, only the absolute and infinite individual
whose experience is throughout that of perfectly harmonious
systematic realisation of meaning, can be outside the time-process;
to it, “vanished and present are the same,” because its whole nature
is once for all perfectly expressed in the detail of existence. But the
finite, just because its very nature as finite is to aspire to a perfection
which is out of reach, must have its experience marked with the
distinction of now from by and by, of desire from performance. In this
temporal character of all finite experience we may perhaps
afterwards discern the ultimate ground of morality, as we can already
discern in the unresting struggle of the finite to overcome its finitude,
practical evidence that time is not a form which adequately
expresses the nature of Reality, and must therefore be imperfect
appearance.[154]
Thus we seem finally to have reached the conclusion that time and
space are the imperfect phenomenal manifestation of the logical
relations between the purposes of finite individuals standing in social
relations to each other; the inner purposive life of each of these
individuals being itself in its turn, as we have previously seen, the
imperfect expression, from a special logical “point of view,” of the
structure and life of the ultimate infinite individual. For the infinite
individual itself the whole of the purposes and interests of the finite
individuals must form a single harmonious system. This system
cannot itself be in the spatial and temporal form; space and time
must thus in some way cease to exist, as space and time, for the
absolute experience. They must, in that experience, be taken up,
rearranged, and transcended, so as to lose their character of an
endless chain of relations between other relations.
Precisely how this is effected, we, from our finite standpoint,
cannot presume to say. It is natural to draw illustrations from the
“specious present” of perception, in which we appear to have a
succession that is also simultaneous; or again, from the timeless and
purely logical character science seeks to ascribe to its “laws of
nature.” But in the “specious present” we seem obliged to attend to
one aspect, succession or simultaneity, to the exclusion of the other;
probably we never succeed in equally fixing both aspects at once. It
thus presents us rather with the problem than with its solution. And
again, after our discussion of the meaning of law, we cannot affirm
that Nature is, for the absolute experience, a system of general laws.
Hence it seems well not to take these illustrations for more than they
are actually worth as indications of the merely phenomenal character
of time. Metaphysics, like the old scholastic theology, needs
sometimes to be reminded that God’s thoughts are not as ours, and
His ways, in a very real sense when Philosophy has done its best,
still past finding out.[155]
Consult further:—F. H. Bradley, Appearance and Reality, chaps. 4

(Space and Time), 18 (Temporal and Spatial Appearance); L.
Couturat, L’Infini Mathématique, pt. 2, bk. iv. chap. 4 (against the
Kantian antinomies); H. Poincaré, La Science et L’Hypothèse, pp.
68-109; H. Lotze, Metaphysic, bk. ii. chaps. 1-3; W. Ostwald,
Vorlesungen über Naturphilosophie, lects. 5, 8; J. Royce, The World
and the Individual, Second Series, lect. 3; B. Russell, Foundations of
Geometry: Is Position in Space and Time Absolute or Relative (Mind,
July 1901), Principles of Mathematics, pt. 6, vol. i.; H. Spencer, First
Principles, pt. 2, chap. 3.
141. The student who desires to think out the problems for himself
would probably do well to take the discussions of Locke (Essay, bk.
ii. chaps. 13-15) and Hume (Treatise of Human Nature, bk. i. pt. 2)
rather than that of Kant as his starting-point, as they are less vitiated
by psychological superstitions. In recent metaphysical work the
chapters on the subject in Mr. Bradley’s Appearance and Reality will
probably be found most useful. Much may be learned from Mr.
Russell’s work, Foundations of Geometry, with which should,
however, be compared the largely discrepant results of his later
article, “Is Position in Space and Time Relative or Absolute?” (Mind,
July 1901).
142. We are not called upon to enter into such specially
psychological questions as, e.g., whether both directions, past and
future, can be detected within the “specious present” of direct
perception, or whether the specious present only contains the
elements “now” and “no longer,” the “not yet” being a subsequent
intellectual construction, as is held, e.g., by Mr. Bradley and Mr.
Shadworth Hodgson.
143. We may indeed go still further, and say that every unique
moment or experience has its own unique spatial and temporal
system. The method by which I weave the perceived space-time
systems of different experiences within my own mental life into a
single conceptual system, is in principle the same by which the
spaces and times of myself and other men are made into one
system for the purpose of practical intercourse.
144. For an account of the psychological processes involved in all
this, see, e.g., Stout, Manual of Psychology,3 bk. iii. pt. 2, chaps. 3-5;
bk. iv. chap. 6.
145. Thus Dedekind (Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen? p. xii.)
maintains that none of the constructions of Euclid involve the
continuity of space.
146. Of course, a physical vacuum is not the same thing as empty
space. For the purposes of any special science a vacuum means a
space not occupied by contents of the special kind in which that
special science is interested. Thus, in the ordinary parlance of
Physics, a vacuum means simply a space in which there is no mass.
Whether it is desirable, for the purposes of physical science, to
assume the existence of vacuum, is altogether a question for
Physics itself, and to decide it in the affirmative is not to maintain the
existence of that unmeaning abstraction, absolutely empty space. In
any case, it may be observed that the widespread notion that motion
is only possible in a physical vacuum is a mistake, motion being
perfectly possible in a fluid plenum.
147. It must be carefully noted that distance as thus defined is not
properly a quantitative relation, and involves no notion of magnitude,
but only of relative place in a series. It should also be observed that
in assuming the existence of such a unique relation between every
pair of points, it is tacitly taken for granted that the number of
dimensions of the spatial order is finite. In a space of an infinite
number of dimensions, such unique relation would be impossible.
(See Russell, Foundations of Geometry, p. 161 ff.) Our justification
for making this assumption, as also for taking time to be of one
dimension only, seems to be that it is indispensable for all those
practical purposes which depend on our ability to create a science of
Geometry, and that we have no positive ground for assuming the
opposite. Thus ultimately the assumption appears to be of the nature
of a postulate.
148. The ablest detailed account of the relativity of spatial position
readily accessible to the English reader, will be found in Mr. Russell’s
Foundations of Geometry, chaps. iiiA, iv. Mr. Russell has since, in
Mind for July 1901, attempted to prove the opposite view, that
positions in space and time are inherently distinct, but without
discussing his own previous arguments for relativity. Into the purely
mathematical part of Mr. Russell’s later contentions I am not
competent to enter. I may, however, suggest that the question of
Metaphysics cannot be decided merely by urging, as Mr. Russell
does, that fewer assumptions are required to construct a geometry
on the hypothesis of absolute than on that of relative position. The
superior convenience of an assumption for certain special purposes
is no proof of its ultimate intelligibility. And when Mr. Russell goes on
to admit that points in space are indistinguishable for us, he seems
to me to give up his case. For is not this to admit that, after all, the
space with which we deal in our geometrical science is relative from
beginning to end? How differences of quality of which we, by
hypothesis, can know nothing, can help or hinder our scientific
constructions, it is indeed hard to see.
149. This may be brought home even to those who, like myself,
are not mathematicians, by the perusal of such a work as
Lobatchevsky’s Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Parallel-Linien,
where a consistent geometry of triangles is constructed in entire
independence of the postulate of parallelism. Of course, in the end it
must be a mere question of nomenclature whether a form of serial
order independent of these quasi-empirical restrictions is to be called
“space” or not.
150. It must be carefully remembered that the essential defect of
the indefinite regress is not its interminableness, but its monotony.
We ourselves held that Reality is an individual composed of lesser
individuals which repeat the structure of the whole, and that the
number of these individuals need not be finite. But, in our view, the
higher the order of individuality the more self-explanatory was its
structure, whereas in the indefinite regress an incomprehensible
construction is endlessly repeated in the same form.
151. Normally, that is; for brevity’s sake I omit to note the possible
case of a coherent dream-life continued from night to night. In
principle there would be a difference between the case of the space
and time of such a dream-life and those of our waking hours.
152. So the events of my dreams, though not occupying any place
in the temporal series of the events of waking life, are so far logically
connected with that series as both sets of events stand in relation to
certain identical elements of psychical temperament and disposition.
Another interesting case is that of so-called “dual personality.” The
experience of both the two alternating personalities can be arranged
in a single temporal series only because of the way in which both
sets are inwoven with the systematic interests of other men, whose
personality does not alternate, or alternates with a different rhythm. If
all mankind were subject to simultaneous alternations of personality,
the construction of a single time-series for all our experiences would
be impossible. In this discussion I have throughout followed the full
and thorough treatment of the problem by Mr. Bradley, Appearance
and Reality, chap. 18.
153. Otherwise, conceptual space and time are, as we have seen,
derivatives of the number-series, and we have already learned that
the number-series leads to the problem of summing an endless
series, and is therefore not an adequate way of representing ultimate
Reality. (Bk. II. chap. 4, § 10). Another form of the same difficulty
would be that conceptual space and time are applications of the
numerical series,—but application to what? To a material which is
already spatial and temporal. All these puzzles are only different
ways of expressing the essential relativity of space and time. But see
the anti-Kantian view in, e.g., Couturat, L’Infini Mathématique, pt. 2.
154. Compare Prof. Royce’s remarks, The World and the
Individual, Second Series, lect. 3, “The Temporal and the Eternal,” p.
134. I should certainly have had to acknowledge considerable
obligation to Prof. Royce’s discussion had not the present chapter
been written before I had an opportunity of studying it.
155. Against the plausible attempt to solve the problem by simply
thinking of the whole physical order as forming a “specious present”
to the Absolute Experience, we may urge that the “specious present”
itself regularly consists for us of a multiplicity of detail, which we
apprehend as simultaneous without insight into its inner unity as the
embodiment of coherent system. Hence the direct insight of the
Absolute Experience into its own internal meaning or structure
cannot be adequately thought of as mere simultaneous awareness
of the detail of existence. So long as a succession is merely
apprehended as simultaneous, its meaning is not yet grasped.
CHAPTER V
SOME CONDITIONS OF EVOLUTION

§ 1. The concept of evolution an attempt to interpret natural processes in terms of
individual growth. § 2. Evolution means change culminating in an end which is
the result of the process and is qualitatively new. The concept is thus
teleological. § 3. Evolution, being teleological, is essentially either progress or
degeneration. If it is more than illusion, there must be real ends in the physical
order. And ends can only be real as subjective interests of sentient beings
which are actualised by the process of change. § 4. Thus all evolution must
take place within an individual subject. § 5. Further, the subject of evolution
must be a finite individual. All attempts to make “evolution” a property of the
whole of Reality lead to the infinite regress. § 6. The distinction between
progressive evolution and degeneration has an “objective” basis in the
metaphysical distinction between higher and lower degrees of individuality. §
7. In the evolutionary process, old individuals disappear and fresh ones
originate. Hence evolution is incompatible with the view that Reality consists
of a plurality of ultimately independent finite individuals.
§ 1. We saw, in the first chapter of the present Book, that evolution

or orderly development is a fundamental characteristic of the
processes which compose the physical order as apprehended by the
various empirical sciences. For the purposes of Mechanics and
Mechanical Physics, indeed, we have no need to look upon Nature
as the scene of development; for these sciences it is enough to
conceive of it as a vast complex of changes of configuration and
transformations of energy, connected by regular uniformities of
sequence. As soon, however, as we come to regard Nature from the
standpoint of those sciences which explicitly recognise differences of
quality, as well as differences in position and quantity, among the
objects with which they deal, this narrowly mechanistic conception of
natural processes becomes inadequate. With the notion of physical
processes as productive of changes of quality we are inevitably led
to think of the physical order as a world in which the qualitatively new
is derived from, or developed out of, the previously familiar by fixed
lines of deviation and under determinate conditions.
Naturally enough, it is from the biological sciences, in which the
study of organic growth plays so prominent a part, that the impulse
to conceive of physical change as development originally comes. As
long ago as the fourth century B.C., Aristotle had taken the concept of
growth or development as the foundation of the most influential
scheme of metaphysical construction yet produced in the whole
history of speculation. In Aristotle’s view, however, the process of
development was regarded as strictly confined within the limits of the
individual life. The individual organism, beginning its existence as an
undeveloped germ or potentiality, gradually unfolds itself in a series
of successive stages of growth, which culminates at the period of
complete maturity. But the individual germ itself is a product or
secretion derived from a pre-existing mature individual of the same
type as that into which this germ will ultimately grow. The number of
distinct typical processes of growth is thus strictly determined, and
each such process implies the previous existence of its completed
result. In other words, the boundaries between species are fixed and
ultimate; there can be no beginning in time of the existence of a new
species, and therefore no origination of new species by development
from other types. As Aristotle epigrammatically puts it, “It takes a
man to beget a man.”
A further point of weakness in the Aristotelian theory is the
absence of any definite account of the machinery by which the
process of growth is effected. We learn, indeed, that the latent
capacity of the organic germ to develop according to a certain
specific type is stimulated into activity by influences contained in the
environment, but the precise nature of this process of stimulation
was necessarily left in obscurity, in consequence of the imperfect
knowledge possessed by Aristotle of the minute character of natural
processes in general.
In the evolutionary theories of modern biology, it is precisely the
problems of the origination of new species, and of the special
character of the relations between the species and its environment
by which this process is conditioned, that have attracted almost
exclusive attention. And, with the steadily increasing success of
evolutionary hypotheses in dealing with biological problems, there
has naturally arisen a tendency to extend the application of the
general concept of evolution far beyond the sphere in which it first
originated. We have now not only more or less well-accredited
hypotheses of the production by evolution of our chemical elements,
but even ambitious philosophical constructions which treat the
concept of evolution as the one and only key to all the problems of
existence. In the presence of these far-reaching applications of
evolutionary ideas, it becomes all the more necessary to bear in
mind, in our estimate of the worth of the evolution concept, that its
logical character remains unaltered by the extension of its sphere of
applicability; it is still, in spite of all minor modifications, essentially
an attempt to interpret natural processes in general in terms of
individual growth.
We are not, of course, in the present chapter in any way
concerned with the details of any one particular theory as to the
special conditions which determine the course of organic or other
evolution. What those conditions in any special case are, is a
question, in the first instance, for that particular branch of empirical
science which deals with the description of the particular aspect of
the processes of the physical order under investigation. And though
it would be a proper question for a complete Philosophy of Nature
how the details of a well-established scientific theory must be
interpreted so as to harmonise with the general metaphysical
implications of the physical order, it is for many reasons premature to
raise such a question in the present state of our actual knowledge of
the details of evolutionary processes. All that can be done here is to
ask what in general are the logical implications involved in thinking of
a process as an evolution at all, and how those implications are
related to our general interpretation of the physical order.
§ 2. Evolution obviously involves the two concepts, already
criticised at length, of change and the dependence of the order and
direction of change upon determinate conditions. But an evolutionary
process is never a mere orderly sequence of changes. For instance,
the changes of configuration and exchanges of energy which take
place when work is done in a material system, conceived as
composed of moving masses without any element of secondary
quality, are not properly to be called a process of evolution. They are
not an evolution or development, because, so long as we keep to the
strictly kinetic view of natural processes as consisting solely in the
varying configuration of systems of mass-particles, the end of the
process is qualitatively undistinguishable from its beginning; nothing
qualitatively new has emerged as its result. Or rather, to speak with
more accuracy, the process has really no end and no unity of its
own. It is only by an entirely arbitrary limitation of view, due to purely
subjective interests of our own, that we isolate just this collection of
mass-particles from the larger aggregate of such particles which
form the physical order as regarded from the strictly kinetic
standpoint, and call it one system; and again, it is with equal
arbitrariness that we determine the point of time beyond which we
shall cease to follow the system’s changes of configuration. In the
indefinitely prolonged series of successive configurations there is no
stage which can properly be called final. Hence from the rigidly
mechanistic point of view of Kinetics and Kinematics there are no
evolutions or developments in the universe, there is only continuous
change.
Development or evolution, then, definitely implies the culmination
of a process of change in the establishment of a state of things
which is relatively new, and implies, further, that the relatively new
state of things may truly be regarded as the end or completion of this
special process of change. Thus the fundamental peculiarity of all
evolutionary ideas is that they are essentially teleological; the
changes which are evolutions are all changes thought of as
throughout relative to an end or result. Except in so far as a process
of change is thus essentially relative to the result in which it
culminates, there is no sense in calling it a development. We may
see this even by considering the way in which the concepts of
evolution and development are used in the various departments of
Physics. We sometimes speak of a chemical process as marked by
the “evolution” of heat, or again we say that, if the second law of
Thermo-dynamics is rigidly and universally true, the physical
universe must be in a process of evolution towards a stage in which
none of its energy will be available for work. But we can only attach a
meaning to such language so long as we allow ourselves to retain
the common-sense point of view according to which there are real
qualitative differences between what abstract Mechanics treats as
equivalent forms of “energy.”
We can speak of the evolution of heat, just because we,
consciously or unconsciously, think of heat as being really, what it is
for our senses, something qualitatively new and distinct from the
other kinds of energy which are converted into it by the chemical
process. So we can intelligibly talk of the gradual conversion of one
form of energy into another as an evolution only so long as we
regard the various forms of energy as qualitatively different, and are
therefore entitled to look upon the complete conversion of the one
into another as the qualitatively new result of a process which is
therefore terminated by its complete establishment. From the
standpoint of the physical theories which regard the distinction
between the forms of energy as only “subjective,” there would be no
sense in regarding that particular stage in the course of events at
which one form of energy disappeared as the end or result of a
process which terminates in it, and thus such terms as evolution and
development would lose their meaning. Only the establishment of
the qualitatively new can form a real end or result, and so afford a
logical basis for the recognition of the changes in the physical order
as distinct processes of development.
§ 3. This essentially teleological character of development is
emphasised in the language of the biological sciences by the
constant use of the concepts of progress and degeneration. For
biology an evolution is essentially a process either in the progressive
or in the regressive direction. Every evolution is an advance to a
“higher” or a decline to a “lower” state of development. Now progress
and regress are only possible where the process of change is
regarded as throughout relative to the end to be attained by the
process. Exactly how we conceive this end, which serves us as a
standard for distinguishing progress from degeneration, is a
secondary question; the point of fundamental importance is that,
except in reference to such an end, there can be no distinction at all
between progressive and retrogressive change. Thus, unless there
are really ends in the physical order which determine the processes
of change that culminate in their actual establishment, evolution
cannot be real. If the ends, by the establishment of which we
estimate progress in development, are merely arbitrary standards of
our own to which nothing in external reality corresponds, then the
physical order must really be a mere succession of changes which
are in no true sense developments, and the whole concept of nature
as marked by development will be a mere human delusion. And, on
the contrary, if there is any truth in the great scientific conceptions of
evolution, there must be real ends in the physical order.
Now, there is only one intelligible way in which we can think of a
process of change as really relative to an end. The resultant state
which we call the end of the process, as being the final stage which
completes this special process, and enables us to mark off all that
succeeds it as belonging to a fresh process of development, must
also be its end in the sense of being the conscious attainment of an
interest or purpose underlying the whole process. It is only in so far
as any state of things is, for some sentient being, the realisation of a
subjective interest previously manifested in an earlier stage of
experience, that that state of things forms the real culmination of a
process which is distinguished from all other processes, and
stamped with an individuality of its own, by the fact that it does
culminate in precisely this result. The conceptions of end or result
and of subjective interest are logically inseparable. Hence we seem
forced to infer that, since evolution is an unmeaning word, unless
there are genuine, and not merely arbitrarily assigned, ends
underlying the processes of physical nature, the concept of evolution
as characteristic of the physical order involves the metaphysical
interpretation of that order as consisting of the teleological acts of
sentient beings, which we had previously accepted on more general
grounds. It would be useless to attempt an escape from this
conclusion by drawing a distinction between two meanings of
“end”—“a last state” and “the achievement of a purpose.” For the
whole point of the preceding argument was that nothing can be an
“end” in the former sense without also being an end in the latter.
Unless processes have ends which are their subjective fulfilment, it
is only by an arbitrary convention of our own that we assign to them
ends which are their last states. And if it is only an arbitrary
convention that physical processes have ends in this sense,
evolution itself is just such a convention and nothing more.[156]
§ 4. What is in principle the same argument may be put in another
form, and the equivalence of the two forms is itself very suggestive
from the metaphysical point of view. Evolution or development, like
all change, implies the presence throughout successive stages in a
process of something which is permanent and unchanging. But it
implies something more definite still. Whatever develops must
therefore have a permanent individual character of its own of which
the successive stages in the development process are the gradual
unfolding. Unless the earlier and the later stages in a connected
series of changes belong alike to the gradual unfolding, under the
influence of surroundings, of a single individual nature, there is no
meaning in speaking of them as belonging to a process of
development. Only the individual can develop, if we are to attribute
precise meaning to our words. We speak of the evolution of a society
or a species, but if our words are not to be empty we must mean by
such phrases one of two things. Either we must mean that the
species and the society which develop are themselves individuals of
a higher order, no less real than the members which compose them,
or our language must be merely a way of saying that the life of each
member of the social or biological group exhibits development.
When we reflect on what is really involved in our ordinary loose
expressions about the “inheritance” of this or the other physical or
social trait, we shall see that the former alternative is far less
removed from ordinary ways of thought than might at first seem to be
the case. If any kind of reality corresponds to our current metaphor
of the “inheritance” of qualities, the groups within which such
“inheritance” takes place must be something much more than mere
aggregates of mutually exclusive individuals. A group within which
qualities can be thus inherited must, as a whole, possess a marked
individual nature of its own. Now we have already seen that all
individuality is in the end teleological. A group of processes forms an
individual life in the degree to which it is the expression of a unique
and coherent interest or aim, and no further. Hence, once more, only
what is truly individual can develop or evolve. And we readily see
that it is precisely in so far as a set of processes form the expression
of individual interest, that the demarcation of the group as a
connected whole from all previous and subsequent processes
possesses more than a conventional significance. Hence only
processes which are the expression of individual interest possess
“ends” or “last states,” and thus the two forms of our argument are in
principle identical. Once more, then, the significance of evolutionary
ideas, if they are to be more than a purely conventional scheme
devised for the furtherance of our own practical purposes, and as an
artificial aid to classification, is bound up with the doctrine that the
events of the physical order are really the expression of the
subjective interests of sentient subjects of experience.[157]
§ 5. To proceed to a further point of the utmost importance. Not
only does evolution imply the presence of individuality in the subject
of the evolutionary process; it implies its possession of finite
individuality. An infinite individual cannot have development or
evolution ascribed to it without contradiction. Hence the Absolute,
the Universe, or whatever other name we prefer to give to the infinite
individual whole of existence, cannot develop, cannot progress,
cannot degenerate. This conclusion might be derived at once from
reflecting upon the single consideration that temporal succession is
involved in all evolution, whether progressive or retrogressive. For
temporal succession is, as we have seen, an inseparable
consequence of finite individuality. But it will be as well to reach our
result in a different way, by considering certain further implications of
the concept of evolution which are manifestly only present in the
case of finite individuality.
In every process of development or evolution there are involved a
pair of interrelated factors, the individual nature which develops, and
the environment which contains the conditions under which and the
stimuli in response to which it develops. The undeveloped germ is as
yet a mere possibility, something which will yet exhibit qualities not
as yet possessed by it. In its undeveloped state, what it possesses is
not the qualities characteristic of its later stages, but only
“tendencies” or “dispositions” to manifest those qualities, provided
that the environment provides the suitable stimulus. Hence, if either
of the two interrelated factors of development, the individual or the
environment, is missing, there can be no evolution. Now, the infinite
individual whole of existence has no environment outside itself to
supply conditions of development and incentives to change. Or, what
is the same thing, since the “possible” means simply that which will
follow if certain conditions are realised, there is no region of
unrealised possibility outside the realised existence of the infinite
whole. Hence in the infinite whole there can be no development: it
cannot progressively adapt itself to new conditions of existence; it
must once and for all be in its reality all that it is in “idea.” The infinite
whole therefore evolves neither forward nor backward.
This impossibility of ascribing development to the whole of Reality
is strikingly illustrated by a consideration of the impasse into which
we are led when we try in practice to think of the whole universe as
in process of evolution. So long as you are still in the presence of the
fundamental distinction between the developing subject and its
environment, you are logically driven, if everything is to be taken as
a product of evolution, to supplement every evolutionary theory by a
fresh evolutionary problem. To account for this special evolution
(e.g., the evolution of the vertebrata) you have to assume an
environment with determinate qualities of its own, influencing the
evolution in question in a determinate way in consequence of these
qualities. But if everything has been evolved, you have again to ask
by what process of evolution this special environment came to be
what it is. To solve this problem you have once more to postulate a
second “environment” determining, by interaction, the course of the
evolution of the former. And thus you are thrown back upon the
indefinite regress.
Unless, indeed, you are prepared boldly to assert that, as all
determinate character is the product of evolution, the universe as a
whole must have evolved out of nothing. (You would not escape this
dilemma by an appeal to the very ancient notion of a “cycle” or
“periodic rhythm” of evolution, in virtue of which the product of a
process of evolution serves in its turn as the environment for the
reiterated evolution of its own antecedent conditions, A thus passing
by evolution into B and B back again into A. For you would at least
have to accept this tendency to periodic rhythm itself as an ultimate
property of all existence, not itself resulting by evolution from
something else.) The dilemma thus created by the attempt to apply
the concept of evolution to the whole of Reality, is sufficient to show
that evolution itself is only thinkable as a characteristic of processes
which fall within the nature of a system which, as a whole, does not
evolve.
We may restate the same contention in the following form:—All
development means advance towards an end. But only that which is
as yet in imperfect possession of its end can advance towards it. For
that which already is all that it has it in its nature to be there can be
no advance, and hence no progressive development. Neither can
such a complete individual degenerate. For even in degenerating,
that which degenerates is gradually realising some feature of its own
nature which was previously only an unrealised potentiality. Thus
even degeneration implies the realisation of an end or interest, and
is itself a kind of advance[.] As the biologists tell us, the atrophy of an
organ, which we call degeneration, is itself a step in the progressive
adaptation of the organisation to new conditions of life, and, as the
moralists remind us, in the ethical sphere a “fall” is, in its way, an
upward step. Hence what cannot rise higher in the scale of existence
also cannot sink lower.
§ 6. Evolution is thus an inseparable characteristic of the life of
finite individuals, and of finite individuals only. And this consideration
gives us the clue to the metaphysical interpretation of the distinction,
so significant for all evolutionary theory, between the progressive
and retrogressive directions of the evolution process. To a large
extent it is, of course, a matter of convention what we shall regard as
progress and what as degeneration. So long as we are specially
interested in the attainment of any end or culminating result, we call
the line of development which leads up to that result progressive,
and the line which leads to its subsequent destruction degeneration.
And thus the same development may be viewed as progress or as
degeneration, according to the special character of the interests with
which we study it. Thus, for instance, the successive modifications of
the vertebrate structure which have resulted in the production of the
human skeleton are naturally thought of as progressive, because our
special interest in human intelligent life and character leads us to
regard the human type as superior to its predecessors in the line of
development. At the same time, many of these modifications consist
in the gradual loss of characteristics previously evolved, and are
therefore degenerative from the point of view of the anatomical
student, who is specially interested in the production of organs of
increasing complexity of structure, and therefore takes the
complexity of those structures as his standard in distinguishing
progress from retrogression.
But the distinction is not a purely conventional one. As we have
seen, degrees of individuality are also degrees of reality; what is
more completely individual is also a completer representative of the
ultimate structure of the infinite individual whole, and therefore more
completely real. Hence we may say that advance in individuality is
really, and not in a merely conventional sense, progress in
development; loss of individuality is real degeneration. Thus we get
at least the possibility of a true “objective” basis for distinction
between the directions of evolutionary progress. But we must
remember that it is only where we are able to know something of the
actual interests of finite experiencing beings that we have safe
grounds for judging whether those interests receive more adequate
embodiment in consequence of the changes of structure and habit
produced by evolution or not. Hence, while our insight into the inner
lives of ourselves and our animal congeners theoretically warrants
us in pronouncing the various developments in human social life to
be genuinely progressive or retrogressive, and again in regarding the
series of organic types which leads directly up to man as a true
“ascent,” our ignorance of the special character of the individual
experiences of which the inorganic physical order at large is the
phenomenal manifestation, makes it impossible for us to determine
whether an “evolution” outside these limits is really progressive or
not. We have to treat “cosmic evolution” in general, outside the
special line of animal development which leads up to man, as
indifferently a “progress” or a “degeneration” according to our own
arbitrary point of view, not because it is not “objectively” definitely the
one or the other, but because our insight is not sufficient to discern
which it is.
§ 7. One more point may be noted, which is of some importance in
view of certain metaphysical problems connected with the nature of
finite individuality. If evolution is more than an illusion, it seems
necessary to hold that it is a process in the course of which finite
individuals may disappear and new finite individuals originate. This
point is metaphysically significant, because it means that the fact of
evolution is irreconcilable with any of the philosophical theories of
ancient and modern times, which regard Reality as composed of a
plurality of ultimately independent finite individuals or
“personalities.”[158] If these philosophical theories are sound, the
course of the world’s history must be made up of the successive
transformations of finite individuals, who somehow remain
unaffected and unaltered in their character by the various external
disguises they assume. The individuals of such a philosophy would,
in fact, be as little modified by these changes as the actors on a
stage by their changes of costume, or the souls of the
“transmigration” hypothesis by the bodies into which they
successively enter. And thus development would not be even a
relatively genuine feature of the life of finite individuals; it would be a
mere illusion, inevitable indeed in the present condition of our
acquaintance with the detailed contents of existence, but
corresponding to no actual fact of inner experience.
On the other hand, if evolution is not a pure illusion, these
metaphysical constructions cannot be valid. For the whole essence
of the modern doctrine of evolution is contained in the principle that
radical differences in kind result from the accumulation of successive
modifications of individual structure, and once established continue
to be perpetuated as differences in kind. Now, such differences in
kind can only be interpreted metaphysically as radical differences in
the determining aims and interests of the experiencing subjects
constituting the physical order, and we have already seen that it is
precisely the character of these dominant unique interests which
forms the individuality of the individual. Thus the metaphysical
interpretation of the evolution process seems inevitably to resolve it
into a process of the development of fresh and disappearance of old
individual interests, and thus into a process of the origination and
disappearance of finite individuals within the one infinite individual
whole.
A conclusion of the same sort would be suggested by
consideration of those facts of our own individual development from
which the wider evolutionary theories have, in the last resort,
borrowed their ideas and their terminology. The mental growth of the

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Healthcare Big Data Analytics Computational Optimization and Cohesive Approaches Intelligent Biomedical Data Analysis 10 1st Edition Bhoi

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Healthcare Big Data Analytics

Computational Optimization and

Big Data Analytics for Intelligent Healthcare

Computational Learning Approaches to Data Analytics in

Computational Intelligence Applications in Business

From Big Data to Big Profits Success with Data and

Big Data Analytics for Sensor Network Collected

Data Analytics for Pandemics: A COVID-19 Case Study

Machine Learning and Big Data Analytics Paradigms:

It's All Analytics!: The Foundations of AI, Big Data,

Computational Optimization and Cohesive Approaches

Library of Congress Control Number: 2023944011

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

learning algorithms in medical imaging, including computed tomography and X-rays,

Dr. Akash Kumar Bhoi

Dr. Ranjit Panigrahi

Prof. Victor Hugo C. de Albuquerque

Dr. Rutvij H. Jhaveri

Sitikantha Mallik, Suneeta Mohanty, Bhabani Shankar Mishra

Ganga Holi, Madhu B

Subandhu Agravanshi, Muskaan Walia, Sushruta Mishra

Asit Kumar Lenka, Hrudaya Kumar Tripathy

Joseph Bamidele Awotunde, Akash Kumar Bhoi, Ranjit Panigrahi

Idowu Dauda Oladipo, Joseph Bamidele Awotunde, Emmanuel Abidemi Adeniyi,

Niyati Mishra, Sushruta Mishra

M. Ganeshkumar, V. Sowmya, E. A. Gopalakrishnan, K. P. Soman

Idowu Dauda Oladipo, Muyideen Abdulraheem, Joseph Bamidele Awotunde,

Arpan Maity, Sushruta Mishra

Navod Neranjan Thilakarathne, Rohan Samarasinghe, Rakesh Kumar Mahendran

Brief biographies 329

AI is a broad field of computer science concerned with creating intelligent machines

1.2.2 Fuzzy logic

1.2.3 Neutrosophic logic

1.2.4 Different techniques under computational intelligence

1.2.4.1 Machine learning

Machine Learning Algorithm

New Data Predictive Model Prediction

Figure 1.1: Machine learning algorithm.

Unsupervised learning, supervised learning, and reinforcement learning are exam-

Semi supervised Reinforcement

Graph based algo

Regression Association Low density

Figure 1.2: Techniques under machine learning.

1.2.4.2 Natural language processing (NLP)

Natural language processing techniques and approaches

1.2.4.3 Automation and robotics

Automation means using computer software, machines, or other technology to carry

Neural networks Computer vision

Figure 1.3: Techniques under artificial intelligence.

1.2.4.4 Computer vision

Normal cell Cancer cell

Figure 1.4: Cancer cells development.

1.2.6 Most common types of cancer

1.2.6.1 Breast cancer

1.2.6.2 Prostate cancer

One of the most common types of cancer is prostate cancer. It is discovered in a

1.2.6.3 Basal cell cancer

1.2.6.4 Pancreatic cancer

i. Exocrine pancreatic cancer

ii. Endocrine pancreatic cancer

1.2.6.5 Ovarian cancer

1.2.6.6 Skin cancer (melanoma)