Integrating Wind Energy to Weak Power

Grids using High Voltage Direct Current

Technology Nilanjan Ray Chaudhuri
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Nilanjan Ray Chaudhuri

Integrating Wind
Energy to Weak Power
Grids using High
Voltage Direct Current
Technology
Integrating Wind Energy to Weak Power Grids
using High Voltage Direct Current Technology
Nilanjan Ray Chaudhuri

Integrating Wind Energy

to Weak Power Grids
using High Voltage Direct
Current Technology

123
Nilanjan Ray Chaudhuri
School of Electrical Engineering
and Computer Science
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park
PA, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-03408-5 ISBN 978-3-030-03409-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03409-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018961401

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Dedicated to my Parents
Preface

This book is about the integration of wind energy to weak power grids through
high-voltage direct current (HVDC) technology. Wind generation is a renewable
source of clean energy, which is witnessing strong growth around the world. Wind
generation capacity grew by 10% in 2017, while wind generation output increased
by 17%. The falling price of wind power is fueling this growth. For example, the
cost of wind power for onshore installations is now comparable to or in many
cases even cheaper than gas-based generation. Installation of onshore wind turbines
is cheaper—although it faces challenges including wildlife death in the form of
bird and bat mortality, noise, and aesthetics issues among others. Most of these
issues can be solved with offshore wind turbine installations, which are more
expensive. Modern wind turbine technology leverages power electronic converters
for improved tracking of maximum power. This is also known as variable-speed
wind generation technology. The power electronic converter-interfaced turbines
can be categorized into two types—the so-called Type 3 and Type 4 turbines.
The Type 3 turbines use doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs), whereas Type
4 turbines employ the full-converter technology. Both have their advantages and
disadvantages.
In many cases, one common aspect of onshore and offshore wind energy is that
the wind energy potential is high in locations remote from the load centers. For
example, the midwest region in the USA has the highest onshore wind energy
potential, which is located far from most of the load centers. Similarly, offshore
wind energy potential is high in deep seas, which are particularly attractive due
to far less turbulence compared to the onshore scenario and avoidance of shipping
lanes. Due to the remote location of the wind farms, the high-voltage direct current
(HVDC) technology can be more economical than the AC technology. Parallel to the
growth of wind energy market, the HVDC technology has also witnessed significant
expansion around the globe including China, India, and European countries. HVDC
transmissions using overhead lines are suitable only for onshore systems. For off-
shore case, subsea cable is the only option, resulting in a shorter break-even distance.
HVDC transmission relies on two types of converter technologies—line-
commutated converter (LCC) and voltage source converter (VSC). The LCC

vii
viii Preface

technology relies upon the AC system voltage for operation, while VSCs can operate
without any support from the AC system. In addition, LCC technology demands a
large footprint. These factors rule out LCC HVDC for offshore transmission. For
onshore applications both LCC and VSC HVDC are extensively used, where the
former has significantly higher capacity. Unlike LCC, the VSC technology has still
not realized its full potential. The power rating of VSC HVDC installations are
increasing. At the time of writing, the maximum power rating reached the 1GW
mark in the INELFE project involving transmission between France and Spain,
which is still significantly lower compared to the capacity of the latest LCC HVDC
installations in China.
Most of the HVDC interconnections are “point-to-point” in nature, which implies
that there is one rectifier station that converts power from AC to DC and one inverter
station converting it back to AC. Power generated by a wind farm can be transmitted
to remote load centers by interfacing the wind farms to the rectifier station. One of
the concerns of system planners is that following an (N − 1) contingency involving
a single-point failure in the point-to-point link, the remote AC grid will experience
loss of generation. With increasing size of wind farms, such a loss could amount to
multiple of gigawatts, leading to stability issues in the AC grid. In addition to this,
when multiple such wind farms are supposed to deliver power to load centers across
countries and continents, the issues like wind curtailment, installed capacity to
meet load demand, and exchange of energy among multiple entities through market
mechanisms should also be taken into consideration. These have prompted the idea
of using HVDC grids with multiple terminals—also known as multiterminal DC
(MTDC) grids. A few MTDC grids based on LCC technology are operating for
a while, whereas two installations based on VSC technology were commissioned
in the recent past. Different visions of MTDC grids exist, e.g., the Pan-European
Supergrid has been planned to integrate offshore wind resources in the North Sea
and Baltic Sea along with solar energy from sub-Saharan Africa. In both point-
to-point and multiterminal HVDC systems, different challenges arise due to the
remote location of wind farms. For onshore wind farms in sparsely populated areas,
the local AC grids are “weak” in nature due to low inertia and low short circuit
capacity of the grids. On the other hand, offshore wind farms do not have any local
grid support.
The goal of this book is to present treatment of such scenarios, primarily in
the context of frequency dynamics and frequency support. To that end, modeling
of HVDC systems including LCC and VSC technologies and point-to-point and
multiterminal configurations are presented. Modeling of Type 3 and Type 4 turbine-
based wind farms is also included. There are classic books dedicated to LCC HVDC
and VSC HVDC, and quite a few books were recently published on multiterminal
HVDC. Also, there are books that are solely focused on wind farm modeling and
control. The coverage of the modeling aspect in this book is by no means as detailed
as in those books. Only particular modeling philosophies have been detailed, which
serve the purpose of the studies undertaken in the context of weak grid scenarios.
No attempt has been made to be encyclopedic in terms of different types of models
reported in literature.
Preface ix

For onshore wind farms integrated by LCC HVDC, the focus is on understanding
and regulating frequency dynamics of weak AC grids interfacing wind farms and
HVDC systems. Frequency-domain analysis is used for determining the interaction
among phase-lock-loop and converter controls of the wind farm. For a progressively
weak AC grid, analysis and control are performed by imposing frequency control at
the LCC station. Due to the weak nature of the rectifier-end AC grid, the reactive
power and AC voltage strongly affect frequency dynamics. Moreover, frequency
dynamics of rectifier and inverter-side grids show coupling. Such phenomena are
analyzed, and special measures for improving frequency dynamics are discussed.
Other means of frequency support involving conversion of retired coal-fired plants
to synchronous condensers are also evaluated through frequency-domain analysis.
Power grids become extremely weak following blackouts due to the absence of
voltage and frequency support and lack of inertia. Under such circumstances, system
restoration needs to be performed very carefully. With the aid of synchrophasor
technology, Type 3 turbine-based wind farms can be used as black-start units in
such grids, while VSC HVDC links assist in restoring other parts of the grid. A
treatment of system restoration in a hybrid simulation platform is demonstrated
where a portion closer to the wind farm and HVDC is represented using EMT-type
models, while the rest of the grid is modeled in phasor framework. The motivation
and need for such a modeling approach are also established.
For offshore wind farm interconnection, the focus of the book has been on
frequency support features extracted from such farms and regulation of such func-
tionalities through MTDC grids. Extraction of both inertial and primary frequency
support from wind farms and other AC grids and exchange of the same among
multiple AC areas can potentially lead to new ancillary service market regimes.
Ideas of quantification of frequency support features and selective participation of
AC areas are presented. Finally, a hybrid MTDC grid system model that integrates
onshore and offshore wind farms through LCC and VSC HVDC converter stations
and frequency support mechanisms therein are discussed.
The intended audience of the book are graduate students with research interest
in the integration of wind energy systems and HVDC technology. Researchers in
academia, national labs, and industry would find this book equally useful. Power
system planners, operators, and practicing engineers from utilities and ISOs/RTOs
focused on system-level studies should find interest in this book. It is also expected
that this book will trigger some thought-provoking discussions in the regulatory
bodies focused on market and reliability coordination (e.g., FERC and NERC in
the USA). Vendors of wind energy and HVDC systems should find this useful for
projects relating system support functionalities.

Boalsburg, PA, USA Nilanjan Ray Chaudhuri

September 2018
Acknowledgments

The material presented in this book is the culmination of research carried out in
my group at Penn State. First and foremost, I would like to thank the National
Science Foundation (NSF), USA, for sponsoring this research. Most of the research
material was produced with support from grant award ECCS1656983. Chapters 4, 5,
and 6 are developed based on research papers published from my group, which has
been acknowledged in appropriate places throughout the book. Graduate students
involved in producing results in Chap. 4 are Mr. Amirthagunaraj Yogarathinam, Ms.
Jagdeep Kaur, and Mr. Sai Gopal Vennelaganti. Chapters 5 and 6 are developed
based on Mr. Pooyan Moradi Farsani’s work and Mr. Sai Gopal Vennelaganti’s
research, respectively. Last but not least, from the very inception, this book
could not have been possible without my wife Emily’s continuous encouragement
and support.

xi
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Wind Energy Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 AC vs DC Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) Technology . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3 Latest Developments in LCC Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.4 Voltage Source Converter (VSC) Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Multiterminal DC (MTDC) Electric Power Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Existing MTDC Systems in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6 Focus and Scope of the Monograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Modeling and Control of HVDC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 Configurations of DC Transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Line-Commutated Converter (LCC)-Based HVDC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Modeling Philosophies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.2 State-Space Averaged Phasor Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Voltage Source Converter (VSC)-Based HVDC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 Overall Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.2 Modeling of Two-Level VSC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 VSC Controls: Grid-Connected Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.1 Control of Real and Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4.2 Control of DC-Side Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.3 Control of AC-Side Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5 VSC Controls: Islanded Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6 MTDC Grid Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.1 Model of Asymmetric Bipolar MTDC Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.2 Unified Model of MTDC Grid Connected
to AC Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

xiii
xiv Contents

2.6.3 Simulation of Contingencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2.6.4 Control Strategies of MTDC Converters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3 Modeling and Control of Inverter-Interfaced Wind Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 DFIG-Based Wind Energy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2.1 Wind Turbine Model and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generator Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2.3 GSC and DC Bus Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.4 Turbine Pitch Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3 Control Strategy of DFIGs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.1 Grid-Connected Mode of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.2 Isolated Mode of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4 Full-Converter-Based Wind Energy System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 PMSG-Based Direct-Drive WTG Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5.1 Generator-Side Converter Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5.2 Grid-Side Converter Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4 Integration of Onshore Wind Farms to a Weak AC Grid
Interfacing LCC HVDC Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2 Case Study I: Impact of Inertia and Effective Short Circuit
Ratio on Frequency Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.1 State-Space Averaged Phasor Model of the System . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.2 Validation Using Detailed Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3 Dynamic Model Representing Weak AC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4 LCC-HVDC Frequency Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5 Analysis of Frequency Dynamics in a Progressively
Weak System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.1 Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.5.2 Improving Control of Frequency in Very Weak System . . . 91
4.6 Performance Across Operating Points: Inclusion of Pitch
Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.7 Case Study II: Coupled Frequency Dynamics of Rectifier
and Inverter-Side AC Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.8 Full-Order Model of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.8.1 Four-State Nonlinear Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.9 Application I: Revealing Voltage-Frequency Coupling
Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.9.1 Experiment-I: Without Eacr and Eaci Variations
in Four-State Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.9.2 Experiment-II: With Eacr and Eaci Variations
in Four-State Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.9.3 Analysis of Voltage-Frequency Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Contents xv

4.10 Application II: Firing Angle Correction Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.10.1 Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.11 Application III: Analytical Insight and Energy Bound
on Frequency Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.11.1 Analytical Insight I: Decoupling of Rectifier-Side
Frequency Dynamics from Inverter-Side Disturbance . . . . . 111
4.11.2 Analytical Insight II: Per-Unit Energy Bound
on Frequency Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.11.3 Analytical Insight III: Droop Control of Wind Farm . . . . . . . 114
4.11.4 Analytical Insight IV: Synchronizing
and Damping Torque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.12 Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.13 Case Study III: Displaced Conventional Generation
Converted to Synchronous Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.14 Effect of Synchronous Condenser on System Performance . . . . . . . . . 122
4.14.1 Load Flow Analysis Considering Synchronous
Condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.14.2 Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.15 Test System with Detailed Model of Weak AC Grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.16 Challenges and Proposed Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.17 Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.17.1 Frequency-Domain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.17.2 Time-Domain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5 Power System Restoration Using DFIG-Based Wind Farms
and VSC-HVDC Transmission Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2 Black-Start Process Using DFIG-Based Wind Farms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.1 Step I: DC Bus Pre-charging Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.2 Step II: Self-Supporting DC Bus, Line Charging,
and Load Pickup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.2.3 Step III: PMU-Enabled Autonomous Synchronization . . . . 149
5.2.4 Step IV: Hot-Swapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.3 VSC-HVDC Controls for Black-Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.4 Hybrid Simulation Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.5 Need for Hybrid Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.6 Hybrid Simulation Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.7 Case Study I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.7.1 Non-hybrid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.7.2 Hybrid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.8 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.8.1 System Restoration: Non-hybrid vs Hybrid Simulation. . . . 157
5.8.2 Additional Load Pickup: Hybrid Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
xvi Contents

5.9 Case Study II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

5.9.1 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6 Integration of Wind Farms Using MTDC Grids: Frequency
Support Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.2 Methods of Frequency Support in AC-MTDC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.2.1 Ratio-Based Selective Frequency Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.3 Chapter Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.4 Topic I: Frequency Support in Asynchronous
AC-MTDC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.5 Study System: Full-Order Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.6 N th-Order Model of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.7 AC-Side Disturbance: Primary Frequency Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.7.1 Selective Power Routing Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.7.2 Characteristic Features of Selective Power Routing. . . . . . . . 183
6.7.3 Monopolar Representation of N th-Order Model . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.7.4 Static Design of Frequency-Droop Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.7.5 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.8 AC-Side Disturbance: Inertial and Primary Frequency Support. . . . . 190
6.8.1 MPC Without Frequency Droop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.8.2 MPC with Frequency Droop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.9 Inertial-Droop Control: Modified N th-Order Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.10 Ratio-Based Inertial and Primary Frequency Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.10.1 Monopolar Representation of Modified N th-Order
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.10.2 Design of Inertial and Frequency-Droop Coefficients . . . . . 198
6.10.3 Simulation Results of Modified N th-Order and
Full-Order Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.11 DC-Side Disturbance: Converter Outage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.11.1 Converter Outage Problem and Its Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.11.2 Proposed Solution to Converter Outage Problem . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.11.3 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.12 Topic II: Frequency Support in Asynchronous AC-MTDC
System with Offshore Wind Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.13 Study System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.14 Inertial and Primary Frequency Support with OWFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.14.1 Wind Farm Controller for Emulating the N th-Order
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.14.2 Simulation Results of Full-Order Model with OWF . . . . . . . 215
6.15 Topic III: Frequency Support in Asynchronous AC-H-MTDC
System with Offshore and Onshore Wind Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.16 Modeling Bipolar H-MTDC Grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.17 Control Strategies in H-MTDC Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Contents xvii

6.18 Frequency Support in H-MTDC Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

6.19 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

A Space Phasor and dq Reference Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
A.2 Space Phasor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
A.2.1 dq-Frame Representation of a Space Phasor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Chapter 1
Introduction

Abstract This chapter gives a brief background of the context and scope of this
monograph. To that end, the relevance of performing research on integration of wind
energy in a weak grid scenario using high voltage direct current (HVDC) technology
is presented. Different wind energy conversion technologies are introduced followed
by line-commutated converter (LCC) and voltage source converter (VSC) technolo-
gies. Next, the concept of multiterminal direct current (MTDC) grids is presented.
Finally, the focus and scope of the monograph is elaborated. The first focus is on the
challenge of regulating frequency in a weak grid interfacing LCC-HVDC and wind
farms. The second problem is restoration of weak grids using wind farms and VSC-
HVDC. The final problem deals with integration of wind farms through MTDC
grids and provision of frequency support to weak asynchronous AC grids.

1.1 Background

Modern power grids around the globe are witnessing an unprecedented proliferation
of wind energy. Interestingly, most of the onshore wind energy potential is located
in areas that are hardly inhabited, e.g., in the Mid-West region in the USA. Similarly,
a huge offshore wind potential is available and is increasingly being harnessed by
European countries. Due to the absence of a strong power grid in such areas, both
onshore and offshore, wind farm integration faces challenges. Moreover, due to
long distance from load centers, High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) technology
is more economical than AC transmission to deliver power from wind farms.
As an example, the 2008 Department of Energy (DoE) report [22] studied a 20%
wind power penetration in the Eastern Interconnection. In this study, a majority
of wind farms were concentrated in Midwest due to high wind energy potential, see
Fig. 1.1. Since these AC systems are far away from the load centers, they are “weak”
in nature. To deliver such a large amount of wind power to the grid over such a long
distance, HVDC technology is more economical than AC transmission systems [2].
In the Joint Coordinated System Plan (JCSP) report [17], line-commutated converter
(LCC)-based HVDC systems were proposed to connect these wind farms in the
weak AC grids in the Midwest region. The LCC technology was preferred over

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

N. R. Chaudhuri, Integrating Wind Energy to Weak Power Grids using High
Voltage Direct Current Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03409-2_1
2 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 The US onshore and offshore wind energy potential at 50-m hub height (credit: NREL)

the voltage source converter (VSC) technology since the latter suffers from lower
efficiency and cannot meet the power capacity requirement (a few GWs) of such
large onshore wind farms.
On the contrary, VSC technology is the preferred choice for offshore wind farms
(OWFs) due to advantages that are well documented in HVDC text books [3],
e.g., much lower footprint, cheaper cables, bidirectional power flow without voltage
polarity reversal, etc. The offshore wind potential of the USA is shown in Fig. 1.1.
Presently, three offshore wind projects are planned in the Atlantic Wind Connection
project, namely New Jersey Energy Link, Delmarva Energy Link, and Bay Link,
respectively [4]; all of which are going to be based on VSC technology.
In this book, we will focus on different challenges facing integration of both
onshore and offshore wind generation to “weak” grids using HVDC technology. We
will analyze application of LCC-HVDC in integrating onshore wind farms. System
restoration (black start) using wind farms and VSC-HVDC will be analyzed. We will
also focus on the application of multiterminal DC (MTDC) technology to integrate
the onshore and the offshore wind farms.
Wind energy integration in weak grids using HVDC technology is a relatively
new area of research. Of late, a lot of attention is being focused on the integrating
offshore wind using VSC-HVDC. Much less attention has been paid towards
onshore wind farms connected through LCC-HVDC in weak grids. The idea of
1.2 Wind Energy Technologies 3

system restoration (Black-start) using wind generators assisted by HVDC technol-

ogy and the treatment of both onshore and offshore wind integration in a unified
framework using MTDC technology are relatively new at the time of writing.

1.2 Wind Energy Technologies

Wind energy conversion system can be divided into the following major compo-
nents: turbine and mechanical interface, generator, power electronic converter (if
present), and control systems. Figure 1.2 shows different components of a wind
turbine.
A modern wind turbine typically has a three-blade rotor spinning about the rotor
hub, which is coupled to the generator’s rotor shaft. The shaft can be mechanically
connected through a gearbox or direct coupling. The rotor hub is connected to
an enclosure called the “nacelle.” The nacelle houses the gearbox (if present),
generator, power electronic converters (if present), and control systems. The turbine
rotor and the nacelle are mounted on the turbine tower. Wind sensors are mounted
on the nacelle, which help reorient the rotor hub and the nacelle in the direction of
wind using the “yaw” control. The blades are also rotated around their long axes to
regulate the angle of attack from wind by the “pitch angle” control. This ensures that
the power output and the speed do not go above dangerously high levels. Typically,
a turbine starts producing power above 12-mph wind speed, known as “cut-in”
speed, and produces its rated output at around 28–30 mph. The pitch angle controller
feathers the blade to stop power production when the wind speed is around 50 mph,
also known as the “cut-out” speed.
Different types of wind turbine–generator systems are in use, which can be
broadly classified as either fixed-speed (Type 1 and 2) or variable-speed systems
(Type 3 and 4). Figure 1.3a shows simplified schematic of a Type 1 wind power

Hub

Nacelle
Blade

Tower

Wind Sensor
Generator
Gearbox
Yaw Control
Brake
Pitch Control

Fig. 1.2 Components of a wind turbine

4 1 Introduction

Gear Asynchronous
box machine Ps PCC
VW
grid
Ptur
Pt
Wind
turbine Qt
(a)

Gear Asynchronous
box machine Ps PCC
VW
grid
Ptur
Pt
Wind
turbine Variable Qt
Resistance
(b)

Gear Asynchronous
box machine Ps
PCC
VW
grid
Ptur
AC AC Pt
Wind =
turbine
DC DC Qt
Pr RSC GSC

(c)

Gear
box Ps PCC
VW AC
AC
= grid
DC DC
Ptur Asynchronous/
Synchronous
Pt
Wind machine Qt
turbine
(d)

Fig. 1.3 (a) Schematic of constant-speed wind power system. Schematic of variable-speed wind
power system based on: (b) asynchronous generator and converter, (c) doubly fed induction
generator and converter, (d) gearless synchronous generator and converter
1.2 Wind Energy Technologies 5

system. It is composed of a wind turbine coupled with an asynchronous generator

via a gearbox. In this case, the asynchronous generator is a squirrel cage induction
machine that produces power when operated above the synchronous speed. The
gearbox is used to interface the slowly rotating turbine shaft and the generator
with higher rotor speed. In this type of wind power system, the machine is directly
connected to grid without any power electronic interface. Since the asynchronous
machine consumes reactive power, it is equipped with shunt capacitors, which can
be seen in Fig. 1.3a. For a constant wind speed under steady state, the turbine speed
is almost linearly related to the torque. With a sudden change of wind speed, the
inertia of the rotating mass including the turbine, drive train, and generator rotor
results in a slow change in rotor speed and power output. Figure 1.3b shows the
schematic of a Type 2 wind turbine. It is very similar to the Type 1 system as it also
uses an asynchronous machine directly connected to the grid and requires shunt
capacitors for supplying reactive power. In this case however, the asynchronous
machine is a wound-rotor induction generator with rotor current controlled by
variable resistors. The variable resistors can be introduced by using power electronic
switches. These switches and their controller module can be separately connected to
the rotor winding using slip rings or they can be mounted on the rotor, eliminating
the slip ring. These variable resistors can control the rotor currents very fast and
help maintain a constant power output in the presence of wind gusts. They can also
improve the dynamic response of the machine during system disturbances. Similar
to Type 1 turbines, the asynchronous machines provide power output when operated
above the synchronous speed.
The two dominant types of variable-speed wind energy systems are shown in
Fig. 1.3c, d. Figure 1.3c shows a Type 3 wind generator, which is based on the
doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) topology. In this case, the asynchronous
machine is a wound-rotor induction generator. A power electronic converter system
consisting of two AC–DC and DC–AC VSCs in back-to-back configuration is used,
which allows bidirectional power exchange between the generator rotor and the grid.
The VSC connected to the rotor is called the rotor-side converter (RSC), and the
VSC connected to the stator terminals is called the grid-side converter (GSC). Each
of RSC and GSC typically has a rating of 25%–30% of the rating of the generator.
As it can be seen from Fig. 1.3c, the stator of DFIG is directly connected to the grid
and hence the stator frequency is determined by the grid frequency. When the wind
speed changes, the RSC can regulate the speed of the rotor to extract maximum
power from the turbine, see the turbine characteristics in Fig. 1.4, which leads to a
variable rotor frequency. This operation is known as maximum power point tracking
(MPPT). Both RSC and GSC can provide the reactive power demanded by the
asynchronous machine. Type 3 wind turbines can generate power at subsynchronous
and supersynchronous speeds of the generator. Since the rotor speed is controlled
over a wide range to ensure MPPT, Type 3 wind turbines are called “variable-speed.”
A Type 4 wind energy system is illustrated in Fig. 1.3d, which is based on a full
converter (FC) topology. Here, the stator is connected to the grid via two back-
to-back AC–DC and DC–AC VSCs. Each of these have the same rating as the
generator. The generator can be an asynchronous generator (squirrel-cage induction
6 1 Introduction

MPPT power V W3 V W2 V W1

P WF
curve

V W1 V W2 V W3

r_dfg

Fig. 1.4 Torque-speed characteristics of a wind turbine across different wind speeds. The loci of
maximum power output of the wind turbine are highlighted

machine) or a synchronous generator (with rotor exciter or with permanent magnet

rotor). The turbine–generator mechanical interface may or may not include a gear
box. The latter option is known as the “direct drive” option, which becomes realistic
when a synchronous machine with high number of poles is used because such a
generator can operate with a low speed. The converter system adjusts the frequency
of stator circuit excitation to allow a variable rotor speed demanded by the MPPT
operation.
Most modern wind farms are based on Type 3 and Type 4 wind turbines [15].
These two types of wind power systems will be described in more detail later in
Chap. 3.

1.3 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Technologies

1.3.1 AC vs DC Transmission

The main motivation for developing overhead HVDC transmission lines is their
cost-effectiveness in transmitting bulk power over long distances. For cable-based
(underground or offshore) power transmission however, it is the only option beyond
a certain distance. Figure 1.5 shows in very crude terms the variation in cost vs
transmission distance for AC transmission compared with HVDC transmission.
The HVDC technology needs a rectifier station converting AC to DC at one end
of the transmission line. At the other end, another station converts DC back to
AC. In simple terms, the cost associated with the converter stations is shown for
a zero transmission distance in Fig. 1.5. As it is shown in Fig. 1.5, for over a certain
distance, called the “break-even distance,” HVDC transmission costs lesser than
1.3 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Technologies 7

AC line

cost DC line

Break-even distance

Transmission distance
Fig. 1.5 AC and DC transmission cost by length

its AC counterpart. The break-even distance is about 700–900 km for overhead

HVDC lines. There are multiple reasons behind lower cost of DC transmission.
These include:
• AC transmission system requires at least three conductors, each for one phase.
For DC transmission, two conductors (e.g., positive and negative) can transmit
the same power.
• The tower structure is less costly for DC transmission, since it does not need to
hold three conductors as in the AC system. Also, the right-of-way requirement
of the DC transmission is less since the tower span is shorter.
• For a given AC system with rated AC voltage Vac and a DC system with rated
DC voltage Vdc , the ratio of insulation length per phase of the AC system to
the insulation length per pole of the DC√system is given by (k.k1 /k2 )(Vac /Vdc ).
Here, typical values of k, k1 , and k2 are 2, 2.5, and 1.7, respectively [3]. Clearly,
the length of insulation is higher for the AC system when the rated voltages are
the same.
• The losses in DC transmission are lower compared to their AC counterpart [3].
• For very long lines, dynamic stability limit and the need for reactive power
compensation becomes restrictive for AC transmission.
Figure 1.6 shows two HVDC lines crossing over near Wing, North Dakota, USA.
There is only one example of such a crossover in North America [1]. The left tower
carries the Square Butte line, which is a ±250-kV bipole with a single conductor per
pole. The right tower carries the HVDC line transmitting power from Coal Creek
Station power plant south of Underwood, North Dakota—also known as the CU line.
The CU line is a ±400-kV bipole with two conductors per pole. In comparison, two
345-kV AC line are shown in Fig. 1.7.
8 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.6 Two HVDC transmission lines crossing over near Wing, North Dakota, USA. Photo
credit: Wtshymanski [1] under license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)

For underground or subsea cable transmission, the break-even distance is not

determined by the cost advantage. Typically beyond 50 Km [8], the charging current
in AC cables become so high that the DC transmission is the only option in such
cases.

1.3.2 Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) Technology

Line-commutated converter (LCC) technology relies on the AC system voltage for

both turn on and turn off of the switching devices. Historically, two types of devices
have been used in LCC-HVDC transmission systems. Mercury arc valves were used
in the first LCC-HVDC system connecting Gotland to mainland Sweden in 1954.
They were in use until 1970, when thyristors started to be used in LCC-HVDC [18].
LCC is a mature technology widely used in HVDC systems around the world.
The Graetz bridge is the basic building block in LCC-HVDC. It is a three-phase
6-pulse full-wave bridge consisting six thyristor valves arranged in the configuration
shown in Fig. 1.8. In this application, each thyristor valve is comprised of a suitable
number of series-connected thyristors to achieve desired DC voltage rating. The
control of LCC stations is achieved by regulating the firing angle of the thyristors.
Thyristors are turned on by gate pulses when they are forward biased. However, they
can only be turned off when the commutating AC voltage becomes negative. LCCs
1.3 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Technologies 9

Fig. 1.7 Two 345-kV AC transmission lines

require a relatively strong synchronous voltage source in order to commutate (i.e., to

transfer the current from one phase to another) in a synchronized firing sequence of
the thyristor valves. LCCs can only operate with the AC current lagging the voltage,
which demands reactive power. The typical reactive power consumption under full
load is 50–60% of the real power consumption. The consumption of reactive power
changes with the loading condition. Large capacitor banks are installed to meet the
reactive power need of the converters. Since the reactive power demand changes
with loading condition, breakers are connected to these banks to switch them on
and off as needed—please see Fig. 1.8.
The flow of DC current in this type of converter is unidirectional and hence,
power reversal from one station to the other is done by reversing the polarity
of DC voltage in both stations. Tap-changing transformers are usually used to
connect the converters’ AC side to the grid (Fig. 1.8). These transformers are used
to bring the firing angles of the converter stations within the nominal operating
range. Usually, three single-phase banks are used for the converter transformers to
improve reliability. Large reactors are connected to the DC side of these converters
to smoothen the DC voltage and current ripples. In addition, shunt filters are
10 1 Introduction

Ldc

Tap-changing
transformer

vdc Vgabc

C1 C3

C4 C5 C6
R1 L1

R2 L2 C2 Capacitor
Banks
Filters

Fig. 1.8 Graetz bridge: a three-phase 6-pulse full-wave bridge converter. Tap-changing trans-
former, switched capacitor banks, and filters are connected in the AC side. Inductors are connected
in the DC side

Ldc
Y-Y
6-pulse
bridge
vdc Vgabc
Delta-Y
6-pulse Filters
bridge &
Capacitor Banks

Fig. 1.9 A three-phase 12-pulse bridge converter formed by connecting two Graetz bridges in
series on the DC side and in parallel on the AC side. One tap-changing transformer has a Y –Y
configuration, while the other has a Delta–Y configuration

needed to reduce the harmonics in the AC side. The footprint of LCC-HVDC

converter stations is generally large due to the need for filters, capacitor banks, and
transformers.
Harmonic currents and voltages in the AC and the DC sides create overheating of
capacitors and nearby generators in addition to interference with telecommunication
lines. For a p-pulse bridge, the AC-side current harmonics are of the order (np ± 1)
and the DC-side voltage harmonics are of the order np, where n = 1, 2, . . .. The
magnitude of the kth-order harmonic is 1/k of the fundamental component. To
remove the lower-order harmonics, it is a common practice to connect two Graetz
bridges in series in the DC side and in parallel in the AC side as shown in Fig. 1.9.
1.3 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Technologies 11

The AC side of one bridge is interfaced using a Y –Delta transformer and the other
using a Y –Y transformer. This results in the cancellation of the 5th and the 7th
harmonic currents and the configuration is called a 12-pulse bridge.
Filter design is one of the most challenging aspects of an HVDC project.
Typically, for a 12-pulse bridge, two filters are tuned to produce low-impedance path
for the 11th and the 13th harmonic current. Another high-pass filter can be used for
the rest of the higher-order harmonics. On the DC side, usually DC filters involving
large inductors are used to reduce the DC voltage harmonics. This, however, can
be quite challenging since grids connected to the HVDC can pose a wide range
of Thevenin’s impedances based on different loading scenarios. The impedance
angle can vary from inductive to capacitive region. The filters need to be designed
to ensure an acceptable total harmonic distortion (THD) and meet the telephonic
interference standards usually determined by the telephone influence factor (TIF) [5]
across all operating conditions. There are instances where these requirements could
not be met by standard filter design. For example, in the Tianshengqiao–Guangzhou
project Siemens used an active DC filter to meet the TIF requirement [6].
When there is a fault in the overhead DC transmission line, the inverter keeps
operating with ignition advance angle β limited to 80◦ , which results in a small
inverter voltage. The rectifier is switched to an inversion mode by increasing the
firing angle α to a value as high as 140◦ . This helps in taking away the fault energy
and the DC fault current extinguishes typically within 10 ms. One of the design
criteria for determining the size of the DC-side inductors is the allowable rate-of-
rise of DC fault current.

1.3.3 Latest Developments in LCC Technology

As the global trend of integration of renewable energy continues, the demand of

very long distance power transmission becomes a necessity. For example, in China
the need for such very long distance transmission is driven by the demand to serve
loads in their mega cities in the east coast from hydro power plants in the west
and coal-fired plants in the northwest. When thousands of megawatts of power
is transmitted over substantially long distances, ultra high voltage DC (UHVDC)
transmission has often become the preferred option. The UHVDC systems have DC
voltage ratings of ±800 kV or above. World’s first UHVDC transmission system
was the Yunnan–Guangdong ±800-kV HVDC link in China, which transmits 5 GW
power over 1373 km since June 2010. The rectifier station is located in Puer in the
Yunnan Province and the inverter station is situated in Jiangmen in the Guangdong
Province. Due to such high voltage in the DC side, two 12-pulse groups are used
per pole.
Thyristor valves in the latest installations have the current-carrying capacity of
6.25 kA and blocking capacity of 7.2 kV (https://www.abb-conversations.com/2015/
11/thyristors-the-heart-of-hvdc/). Under normal condition, a single component has
the capability to switch more than 20-MW power. The latest device fabrication
12 1 Introduction

Table 1.1 UHVDC projects in China

Sl. no. Project Rating Distance (km)
1. Yunnan–Guangdong ±800 kV, 5 GW 1373
2. Xiangjiaba–Shanghai ±800 kV, 6.4 GW 1907
3. Jinping–Southern Jiangsu ±800 kV, 7.2 GW 2059
4. Nuozhadu–Guangdong ±800 kV, 5 GW 1413
5. Hami–Zhengzhou ±800 kV, 8 GW 2192
6. Xiluodu–Zhejiang West ±800 kV, 8 GW 1653
7. Lingzhou–Shaoxing ±800 kV, 8 GW 1720
8. Shanxi North–Jiangsu ±800 kV, 8 GW 1119
9. Jiuquan–Hunan ±800 kV, 8 GW 2383
10. Xilingol League–Jiangsu ±800 kV, 10 GW 1620
11. Shanghaimiao–Shandong ±800 kV, 10 GW 1238
12. Zhundong–Wannan ±1100 kV, 12 GW 3400

technology has enabled power saving in the range of 1 kW per device under
rated condition. Structured blocking junctions that are substantially deeper than the
active part towards the edges and finer cathode patterns with elaborate distribution
around amplifying gate electrode have increased the efficiency of modern UHVDC
installations to as high as 99.6% (https://www.abb-conversations.com/2015/11/
thyristors-the-heart-of-hvdc/). Table 1.1 shows the UHVDC projects in China.

1.3.4 Voltage Source Converter (VSC) Technology

Unlike LCC, voltage source converter (VSC) is still a developing technology. This
type of converters typically uses self-commutating devices, which can be turned off
independent of the AC system voltage. The most widely used self-commutating
device in VSC-HVDC is the insulated-gate bipolar-junction transistor (IGBT),
which is shown in Fig. 1.10a. IGBTs operate as transistors with high voltage and
current ratings and moderate forward voltage drop. It enjoys fast turn-on and turn-
on capabilities with low switching loss, which makes it suitable for high-power
converters that use pulse-width modulation (PWM) for switching. The IGBTs are
connected to anti-parallel diodes to ensure bidirectional current conduction, see
Fig. 1.10b.
VSCs are built with three general topologies, which are called two-level,
three-level, and multi-level depending upon how many levels of DC-side voltage
they possess. Half-bridge two-level VSC consists of two semiconductor switches
connected to each other as shown in Fig. 1.11. The semiconductor switches should
be turned on and off in a controlled manner to generate an AC voltage in the presence
of DC voltage on the other end of VSC. The capacitors act as filters to reduce
the distortion in the DC-side voltage. This type of VSCs can also be built with
1.3 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Technologies 13

Fig. 1.10 (a) Insulated gate bipolar junction transistor (IGBT). (b) IGBT with anti-parallel diode

Vdc
2
AC system
DC system

Vdc
2

n
Fig. 1.11 Schematic of a half-bridge, single-phase, two-level VSC

four switches as full-bridge converters. The VSC shown in Fig. 1.11 is a single-
phase VSC. Three-phase VSC can also be built, which consists of three half-bridge
converters for the three phases (see Fig. 1.12). The AC side requires series inductors
which can be contributed by AC chokes and transformers. The AC filters are used to
attenuate high-frequency harmonics. Both the magnitude and phase angle of the AC
voltage vgabc (Fig. 1.12) can be controlled by VSCs irrespective of the direction of
AC current. This enables independent control of active and reactive power exchange
with the AC system.
14 1 Introduction

Rdc Ldc
idc

Vgabc R L
Vtabc
vdc
Cdc

Fig. 1.12 A three-phase 2-level 6-pulse bridge configuration of a VSC with IGBTs coupled with
anti-parallel diodes

idc

vdc

Fig. 1.13 Schematic diagram of a full-bridge

We can have less harmonics in terminal voltage by using more than two levels.
For example, a full-bridge, shown in Fig. 1.13, can be used to synthesize three-level
VSCs. The full-bridges can be connected in parallel from their DC ports, while
their AC outputs are combined by three corresponding single-phase transformers
whose grid-side windings are connected as a wye configuration [8, 23]. Increasing
the number of levels beyond three can reduce the harmonic distortions even further.
One configuration of multi-level VSC, which has come to use in recent years is
known as the modular multi-level converter (MMC) [8, 21]. In this configuration,
1.3 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Technologies 15

SM1 v s1
SM 2 vs 2 v1 j
vdc
2 SM N vsN
i1 j
L P, Q
R Lt Rt
0 idiffj v j
ij
L vgi
PCC
R
i2 j
vdc
SM N 1 vs N 1
2
SM N 2 vs N 2 v2 j

SM 2 N vs 2 N

Fig. 1.14 Schematic showing one leg of a three-phase MMC. SM indicates a submodule

multiple half-bridge converters, also called submodules (SMs), are connected in

series from their AC-side terminals to generate a multi-level AC voltage waveform.
The configuration of one phase of a three-phase MMC is shown in Fig. 1.14. This
structure consists of two so-called arms in each phase. In each of the arms, there
are N series-connected SMs, which are each connected to a capacitor in the DC
side. If each of the DC bus is charged to the voltage v2N dc
, then the AC voltage
output of each SM can be either “0” or 2N for the upper arm and “0” or − v2N
vdc dc

for the lower arm. Thus, appropriate switching and bypassing sequence of these
SMs in the upper arm can produce voltage variation between “0” and v2dc in the
AC terminal. In fact, as consecutive submodules in the series connection are turned
on, the voltage increases in a staircase manner, whereas consecutive bypassing of
SMs leads to voltage reduction in the same fashion. This can effectively generate a
smooth positive half-cycle of the AC voltage. Similarly, the negative half-cycle can
be produced by the lower arm. The harmonic content can be significantly reduced
by increasing the number of SMs. The details of operation of three-level and multi-
level VSCs can be found in [21, 23].
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2. Specie di festa barbarica in uso presso quelle tribù.

3. Medico-prete.

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 Nota del Trascrittore

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