Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PDF International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology 1St Edition Jeon Ebook Full Chapter
PDF International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology 1St Edition Jeon Ebook Full Chapter
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-1st-edition-kwang-w-jeon/
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-1st-edition-kwang-w-jeon-2/
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-first-edition-kwang-w-jeon/
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-1st-edition-kwang-w-jeon-eds/
International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology 1st
Edition Kwang W. Jeon And Lorenzo Galluzzi (Eds.)
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-1st-edition-kwang-w-jeon-and-lorenzo-
galluzzi-eds/
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-327-1st-edition-kwang-w-jeon-and-lorenzo-
galluzzi-eds/
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-volume-328-lorenzo-galluzzi-eds/
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-volume-330-lorenzo-galluzzi-eds/
https://textbookfull.com/product/international-review-of-cell-
and-molecular-biology-volume-331-lorenzo-galluzzi-eds/
VOLUME THREE HUNDRED AND TWENTY ONE
INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF
CELL AND MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
International Review of Cell
and Molecular Biology
Series Editors
GEOFFREY H. BOURNE 1949—1988
JAMES F. DANIELLI 1949—1984
KWANG W. JEON 1967—
MARTIN FRIEDLANDER 1984—1992
JONATHAN JARVIK 1993—1995
INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF
CELL AND MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
Edited by
KWANG W. JEON
Department of Biochemistry
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
Sara Aspengren
Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg,
Sweden
Lidia Bakota
Department of Neurobiology, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
Roland Brandt
Department of Neurobiology, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
Elizabeth Calzada
Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore,
MD, USA
Karen L. Cheney
School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Steven M. Claypool
Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore,
MD, USA
Yusuke Ito
Plant Molecular Breeding Laboratory, Bioscience and Biotechnology Center, Nagoya
University, Nagoya, Japan
Jian-Ping Jin
Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
Henriikka Kentala
Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum 2U, Helsinki, Finland
Makoto Matsuoka
Plant Molecular Breeding Laboratory, Bioscience and Biotechnology Center, Nagoya
University, Nagoya, Japan
Younes Medkour
Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Yoichi Morinaka
Plant Molecular Breeding Laboratory, Bioscience and Biotechnology Center, Nagoya
University, Nagoya, Japan
Vesa M. Olkkonen
Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum 2U, Helsinki, Finland
ix
x Contributors
Ouma Onguka
Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore,
MD, USA
Reynante Ordonio
Plant Molecular Breeding Laboratory, Bioscience and Biotechnology Center, Nagoya
University, Nagoya, Japan
Lorène Penazzi
Department of Neurobiology, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
Takashi Sazuka
Plant Molecular Breeding Laboratory, Bioscience and Biotechnology Center, Nagoya
University, Nagoya, Japan
Veronika Svistkova
Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Vladimir I. Titorenko
Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Margareta Wallin
Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg,
Sweden
Marion Weber-Boyvat
Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum 2U, Helsinki, Finland
CHAPTER ONE
Evolution, Regulation,
and Function of N-terminal
Variable Region of Troponin T:
Modulation of Muscle Contractility
and Beyond
Jian-Ping Jin*
Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
*E-mail: jjin@med.wayne.edu.
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. Molecular Structure of Troponin T 3
3. Evolution of Troponin T Isoform Genes 6
4. Alternative Splicing 10
5. Developmental Regulations 15
6. Posttranslational Modifications 19
6.1 Phosphorylation 19
6.2 Restrictive Proteolysis 20
7. Conclusion and Perspectives 22
Acknowledgments 22
References 22
Abstract
Troponin T (TnT) is the tropomyosin-binding and thin filament-anchoring subunit of
the troponin complex in skeletal and cardiac muscles. At the center of the sarcomeric
thin filament regulatory system of striated muscles, TnT plays an essential role in
transducing Ca2+ signals in the regulation of contraction. Having emerged predating
the history of vertebrates, TnT has gone through more than 500 million years of
evolution that resulted in three muscle-type-specific isoforms and numerous alterna-
tive RNA splicing variants. The N-terminal region of TnT is a hypervariable structure
responsible for the differences among the TnT isoforms and splice forms. This focused
review summarizes our current knowledge of the molecular evolution of the N-
terminal variable region and its role in the structure and function of TnT. In addition
1. INTRODUCTION
TnC
HO
Ch OC
ym
otr
yps
in c
Restricted lea Tnl
vag
calpain I cleavage e
TnT
H2N N-terminal variable region T1 T2
Figure 1 Structural and functional domains of TnT. The diagram summarizes the
structural and functional regions of TnT. The high-resolution structure of partial
troponin complex including a C-terminal segment of TnT that interacts with TnI and
TnC is redrawn from published crystallography data (Takeda et al., 2003). The arrows
indicate the chymotryptic cleavage site between the T1 and T2 fragments (Perry, 1998)
and the calpain I cleavage site for the selective removal of the N-terminal variable region
of cardiac TnT (Zhang et al., 2006). The two tropomyosin-binding segments (Jin and
Chong, 2010) are also outlined.
TnT gene contains an additional exon encoding two amino acids (Cooper and
Ordahl, 1985). The C-terminal variable region of TnT resides in the
TnI–TnT interface in troponin complex and is in the proximity of TnC
(Takeda et al., 2003; Vinogradova et al., 2005), whereas its functional signif-
icance and the regulation of its alternative splicing require more investigation.
There is another minor variable region between the middle and C-
terminal regions of TnT (i.e., between the T1 and T2 fragments), where
an alternatively spliced exon (exon 13) is found in mammalian cardiac TnT
encoding a short segment of 2 or 3 amino acids (Jin et al., 1992, 1996). The
alternative splicing of this exon involves exclusion, complete, and partial
inclusions (Jin et al., 1996). The functional significance of this minor variable
region and the regulation of its alternative splicing also remain to be
investigated.
variable segment. The findings demonstrate that TnT protein has the potential
of restoring ancestral conformations that have been allosterically suppressed by
the evolutionary addition of a modulatory structure. The results revealed
three-dimensional structural evidence for the evolutionary relationship
between TnI and TnT, two subunits of the troponin complex, and among
the three muscle fiber type-specific TnT isoforms (Chong and Jin, 2009).
Consistent with sequence analysis that suggested a distant homology
of the genes encoding TnI and TnT, the epitope analyses demonstrated
restoration of TnI-like three-dimensional structures in TnT, supporting that
these two subunits of troponin arose from a TnI-like ancestor protein
(Chong and Jin, 2009). This common ancestor would have had functions
in both anchoring to the actin-tropomyosin filament and inhibiting myosin
ATPase. TnI and TnT have diverged prior to the emerging of vertebrates
(Chong and Jin, 2009). It remains to be investigated whether any present-day
protein could represent the common ancestor of TnI and TnT, possibly in
invertebrate species.
Further supporting the notion that TnI and TnT genes are duplicates of a
common ancestral gene, TnI is also present in three muscle fiber type iso-
forms and the six TnI and TnT isoform genes are closely linked in three pairs
(fast TnI–fast TnT, slow TnI–cardiac TnT, and cardiac TnI–slow TnT) in the
genome of vertebrates (Chong and Jin, 2009; Jin et al., 2008). Embryonic
cardiac muscle expresses solely slow skeletal muscle TnI that is replaced by
cardiac TnI during late embryonic and early postnatal development (Jin,
1996; Saggin et al., 1989). The functional pairing of slow TnI and cardiac
TnT in embryonic heart indicates that the evolutionarily linked TnI–TnT
gene pairs, including the seemingly scrambled slow TnI–cardiac TnT and
cardiac TnI–slow TnT gene pairs, represent originally functional linkages.
In addition to the genomic linkages, TnI and TnT also have structural
alikeness that supports their origination by gene duplication. Like the struc-
ture of TnT, the N-terminal region of TnI is also a variable structure as
cardiac TnI has an evolutionarily additive N-terminal extension that is a
heart-specific regulator (Parmacek and Solaro, 2004; Perry, 1999) to fine
tune the conformation and function of cardiac TnI in physiologic and
pathophysiologic adaptations (Akhter et al., 2012; Jin et al., 2008).
By revealing suppressed three-dimensional structures, we further dem-
onstrated an evolutionary lineage of fast to cardiac to slow TnT isoform
genes (Chong and Jin, 2009). Different from TnI and TnT that have evolved
into three isoforms for the three fiber types of vertebrate striated muscle,
TnC is present in only two isoforms: fast TnC (Gahlmann and Kedes, 1990)
Modulation of Muscle Contractility and Beyond 9
fTnT-like
cTnT-like
Figure 2 Evolutionary lineage of TnT isoform genes. The evolutionary lineage of TnT
isoform genes is illustrated from the data of sequence analysis, immunological distance,
and experimental detection of evolutionarily suppressed conformational states (Chong
and Jin, 2009). Data suggested that TnT first emerged as an ancestral fast TnT gene.
A duplication event later resulted in the emergence of a cardiac TnT-like gene that was
further duplicated to give rise to the present-day cardiac TnT and slow TnT genes.
human slow TnT Glu180 nonsense mutation (Jin et al., 2003) that causes
severe nemaline myopathy with infantile death (Johnston et al., 2000) and
confirmed by knocking down of the expression of slow TnT gene expression
in diaphragm muscle to produce atrophy, slow-to-fat fiber type switch, and
reduced resistance to fatigue in mouse muscles (Feng et al., 2009b).
We reported that the heart of adult toads Bufo expresses exclusively slow
skeletal muscle TnT instead of cardiac TnT while all other myofilament
proteins remain to be the cardiac isoforms including normal cardiac TnI
and cardiac myosin (Feng et al., 2012). This unique biochemical content of
toad cardiac muscle is correlated to a striking physiologic feature of toad
heart, that is, it is highly tolerant to large changes in the volume of body fluid
and blood between rainy and dry seasons (Boral and Deb, 1970) and much
more resistant to the loss of blood volume than that of the closely related frog
heart under experimental conditions (Deb et al., 1974). The aortic blood
flow rate of toad did not drop until a blood loss of more than 5% of the body
weight, whereas blood loss of 2% of the body weight caused a decline of
aortic blood flow rate in frog (Hillman and Withers, 1988). We demonstrated
that toad hearts had faster contractile and relaxation velocities and a signif-
icantly higher tolerance to afterload (Feng et al., 2012). These findings
indicate that the unique utilization of slow skeletal muscle TnT to replace
cardiac TnT in toad cardiac muscle was an evolutionary adaption with a
significant fitness value during natural selection, further supporting the
differentiated functionalities of TnT isoforms.
As discussed earlier, the main differences among the three muscle-type
TnT isoforms is in the N-terminal variable region (Jin et al., 2008; Wei and
Jin, 2011; Sheng and Jin, 2014) that fine tunes the molecular conformation
and function of TnT, thus represents a major driving force of the evolution-
ary diversity of TnT isoforms.
4. ALTERNATIVE SPLICING
not adult cardiac TnT (Jin and Lin, 1989). Exon 4 of cardiac TnT gene is
alternatively spliced independent of developmental stages (Jin et al., 1996).
The avian cardiac TnT gene contains 16 constitutively spliced exons and only
1 alternative exon (the embryonic exon 5) (Cooper and Ordahl, 1985).
Correspondingly, four mammalian and two avian cardiac TnT N-terminal
alternative splicing variants have been found in normal cardiac muscle.
Mammalian fast skeletal muscle TnT gene contains 19 exons, of which
exons 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and a fetal exon encoding segments in the N-terminal
variable region are alternatively spliced (Breitbart and Nadal-Ginard, 1986;
Briggs and Schachat, 1993; Wang and Jin, 1997). These alternative exons are
not included or excluded randomly and not all possible splicing combina-
tions are at a significant level detectable by cDNA cloning. Accordingly, only
13 mouse fast TnT mRNA variants and 11 chicken fast TnT mRNA variants
differing in the N-terminal variable region have been actually found with
sequence information to represent the splicing pathways for significant levels
of protein products and physiologic functions (Ogut and Jin, 1998; Smillie et
al., 1988; Wang and Jin, 1997).
In addition to exons 4–8, several unique N-terminal alternative coding
exons are found in avian fast skeletal muscle TnT genes. Seven P exons
located between exons 5 and 6 encode a unique Tx segment (Jin and
Samanez, 2001; Miyazaki et al., 1999; Smillie et al., 1988) consisting of
seven tandem repeats of pentapeptides (AHH[A/E]E) are found in chicken
fast TnT gene. A w exon and a y exon are found between exons 4–5 and 7–8,
respectively, further increasing the diversity of avian fast TnT (Schachat et al.,
1995). As discussed earlier, the Tx segment encoded by the P exons in the fast
TnT gene of birds in avian orders of Galliformes and Craciformes contains a
cluster of high-affinity transition metal ion binding sites (Jin and Smillie,
1994). No homologous counterpart was found in mammalian TnT genes
and the biologic significance of the Tx element remains to be investigated.
One of its specific physiologic functions is to serve as a Ca2+ reservoir (Zhang
et al., 2004), which may confer certain functions required for the avian flight
muscles.
The slow skeletal muscle TnT gene has a simpler structure than that of the
fast skeletal muscle and cardiac TnT genes. There are only 14 exons in the
slow TnT gene and one of which is alternatively spliced. With an exon–-
intron organization same as that of the mammalian slow TnT genes (∼9 kb),
chicken slow TnT gene is significantly smaller (3 kb) by having shorter
intron sequences (Hirao et al., 2004; Huang et al., 1999b). Alternative
splicing of exon 5 in the N-terminal region generates 2 variants of slow
12 Jian-Ping Jin
TnT (Gahlmann et al., 1987; Huang et al., 1999b; Jin et al., 1998). Splicing at
two alternative acceptor sites in intron 5 of mouse slow TnT gene further
generates a single amino acid variation in the exon 6-encoded segment
(Huang et al., 1999b). The same pattern was found for the intron 4–exon
5 splicing of chicken slow TnT gene transcript (Hirao et al., 2004).
The molecular mechanism that regulates the alternative splicing of
TnT mRNA is not fully understood. Both cis and trans regulatory factors
have been implicated to affect the alternative splicing of cardiac TnT (Ladd
and Cooper, 2002). Alternative splicing of fast TnT was found during
myogenesis. Muscle-specific trans regulatory factors were required for
appropriate splicing and incorporation of constitutive and alternative
exons of fast TnT during myotube differentiation in culture (Breitbart
and Nadal-Ginard, 1987).
The N-terminal alternatively spliced TnT variants have been shown
with functional impacts. Skinned fibers of adult chicken pectoral muscle
containing alternatively spliced fast TnT with more negatively charged
residues in the N-terminal variable region exhibited higher myofilament
calcium sensitivity than control muscle fibers containing alternatively
spliced TnT with less N-terminal negative charges (Ogut et al., 1999;
Reiser et al., 1992, 1996). When reconstituted into skinned cardiac muscle
strips, embryonic cardiac TnT with more negative N-terminal charges also
increased Ca2+ sensitivity of myosin ATPase and force development in
comparison to that of the less negatively charged adult cardiac TnT
(Gomes et al., 2002). Similarly, studies using reconstituted myofilaments
showed that the embryonic cardiac TnT produced higher Ca2+ sensitivity as
compared with that of adult cardiac TnT (Gomes et al., 2004). Embryonic
and neonatal cardiac muscle containing embryonic cardiac TnT exhibited
higher tolerance to acidosis (Solaro et al., 1988). In contrast, overexpression
of fast skeletal muscle TnT that has a less negatively charged N-terminal
segment than that of cardiac TnT decreased the tolerance to acidosis in
transgenic mouse cardiac muscle (Nosek et al., 2004).
No pathogenic point mutation has been identified in the N-terminal
variable region of TnT, whereas multiple such mutations have been found
immediately outside the N-terminal variable region (for example I79N of
adult cardiac TnT that causes familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
(Knollmann et al., 2001)). This observation may indicate the highly plastic
nature of the N-terminal variable region of TnT.
Nonetheless, larger structural variations such as aberrant splicing in
the N-terminal variable region of cardiac TnT have been reported in
Modulation of Muscle Contractility and Beyond 13
TnT function is beneficial for the rhythm pumping function of the heart.
This is different from the function of skeletal muscle, in which multiple TnT
isoforms are present to fit the need of broader twitches for fusion into tetanic
contractions. Based on this observation, we tested a hypothesis that the
abnormality of aberrant N-terminal splicing of cardiac TnT is not a simple
loss of function but the chronic presence of more than one class of TnT in the
thin filaments of adult cardiac muscle (Feng and Jin, 2010).
In this hypothesis, desynchronized activation of ventricular muscle at the
myofilament level due to the coexistence of TnT variants that produce split
Ca2+ sensitivity would decrease the efficiency of cardiac pumping. To dem-
onstrate this mechanism, we first created transgenic mouse hearts that coex-
press a wild-type fast skeletal muscle TnT and the endogenous cardiac TnT.
The coexistence of two nonmutant TnT’s in adult cardiac muscle altered the
overall cooperativity of Ca2+-activated force production (Huang et al.,
1999a), decreased cardiac function, and produced myocardial degeneration
(Huang et al., 2008). We then tested in transgenic mouse hearts the effects of
expressing one or two of the cardiac TnT splicing variants found in turkey
and canine-dilated cardiomyopathy together with endogenous wild-type
adult cardiac TnT on cardiac efficiency. The results showed that the coex-
istence of more than one forms of cardiac TnT in adult cardiac muscle
significantly decreased cardiac pumping efficiency proportional to the
degree of TnT heterogeneity (Feng and Jin, 2010) that splits thin filament
calcium sensitivity (Biesiadecki and Jin, 2002).
It is worth noting that abnormal inclusion of the embryonic exon 5 in
adult cardiac TnT was also found in cat and Guinea pig hearts (Biesiadecki
et al., 2002). In addition, the Guinea pig hearts express cardiac TnTwith an
exclusion of a larger segment in the N-terminal region encoded by exon 6
(Biesiadecki et al., 2002). Cats and Guinea pigs are both reported to have
high incidence of inherited cardiomyopathy and heart failure (Hasenfuss,
1998; Tilley et al., 1977). Therefore, improper splicing of N-terminal exons
of cardiac TnT might be a common pathogenic mechanism.
The alternatively spliced N-terminal coding exons of fast, cardiac, and
slow TnT genes are summarized in Figure 3 and Table 1. The large number
of alternatively spliced TnT variants differing in the N-terminal region may
provide a capacity of modifying muscle contractility whereas retaining the
core functions of TnT.
A very interesting observation is a point mutation of turkey cardiac TnI
(R111C) in the TnI–TnT interface (Biesiadecki et al., 2004), which
blunted the functional effect of protein kinase A phosphorylation of cardiac
Modulation of Muscle Contractility and Beyond 15
N-terminal
Conserved regions TnC-binding site
variable region
w X(P)7 y Fetal
Exons 2 3 4 5 67 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16/17 18
Fast
Chymotrypsin
(Fetal) An additional exon in chicken
Exons 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Cardiac
Calpain I
Exons 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Slow
Alternative acceptor sites in intron 5
Figure 3 Alternatively spliced exons of mammalian and avian fast, cardiac, and slow TnT
genes. The linear maps of fast, cardiac, and slow TnT illustrate the segments encoded by
each exon. The alternatively spliced exons are indicated by the filled boxes, among
which the developmentally regulated exons are in solid black. The w, x (P), and y exons
illustrated in the fast TnT structure are only found in avian species. The alternative
acceptor site involved in the splicing of exon 6 in slow TnT gene is indicated with an
arrowhead. The C-terminal and middle regions of TnT are well conserved among the
three muscle-type-specific isoforms and across species whereas the N-terminal region is
highly variable. The calpain I cleavage site for the selective removal of the N-terminal
variable region of cardiac TnT in stress conditions (Zhang et al., 2006) and the
chymotrypsin cleavage site dividing the T1 and T2 fragments of fast TnT (Perry, 1998)
are indicated with arrowheads.
TnI (Wei et al., 2010) had mutually rescuing effects when it coexists with
the exon 7-deleted cardiac TnT (Biesiadecki et al., 2004; Wei et al., 2010)
in the hearts of double transgenic mice (Wei et al., 2010). This finding
suggests that the TnI–TnT interface is a pivotal site in transmitting Ca2+
signals during striated muscle contraction and relaxation as well as in
mediating the functional effects originating from the N-terminal variable
region of TnT (Jin et al., 2008; Wei and Jin, 2011; Sheng and Jin, 2014).
5. DEVELOPMENTAL REGULATIONS
(Cooper and Ordahl, 1984; Jin, 1996; Jin et al., 2003; Toyota and Shimada,
1981). Insitu hybridization studies found that the expression of cardiac TnT
in the developing heart begins at day 7.5 postcoitum and in skeletal muscles
at day 11.75 postcoitum (Wang et al., 2001). The expression of cardiac TnT
gene is downregulated in skeletal muscles during postnatal development and
ceases in the adult (Jin et al., 2003; Sabry and Dhoot, 1991; Saggin et al.,
1990). The developmental switching from cardiac TnT to skeletal muscle
TnT is seen in both avian and mammalian skeletal muscles (Cooper and
Ordahl, 1984; Jin, 1996; Swiderski and Solursh, 1990; Toyota and Shimada,
1981), demonstrating a functional exchangeability between the muscle type-
specific TnT isoforms. On the other hand, the developmentally regulated
switch of TnT isoforms indicates differentiated function of the TnT isoforms
in different types of adult striated muscles.
While the expression of cardiac TnT gene is downregulated, the expres-
sion of slow TnT is upregulated in postnatal slow skeletal muscles. This
process is concurrent with the onset of the Amish nemaline myopathy in
which the affected infant’s lack of slow TnT in their skeletal muscle are
apparently normal in skeletal muscle function at birth but soon develop the
disease phenotypes while cardiac TnT ceases expression in skeletal muscles
(Jin et al., 2003). This observation suggests that cardiac TnT may function in
place of slow TnT in embryonic and growing skeletal muscles, a hypothesis
that is worth testing for the development of targeted therapeutic approaches
of Amish nemaline myopathy.
Transient expression of slow TnT, but not fast TnT, was found in the
embryonic heart. At day 13.5 postcoitum, expressions of all three TnT genes
were detected in the developing tongue and this coexpression continued to
day 16.5 postcoitum with fast TnT being predominant. Cardiac TnT tran-
script was also detectable by in situ hybridization in the embryonic urinary
bladder, where presumably smooth muscle was present (Wang et al., 2001). It
remains to be investigated whether this low-level expression of TnT in
smooth muscle has a physiologic significance.
In chicken skeletal muscle, cardiac TnC was coexpressed with cardiac
TnT in early developmental stages (Toyota and Shimada, 1981). During the
development of avian skeletal muscle, the downregulation of cardiac TnT
and cardiac TnC and the upregulation of the adult form of skeletal troponin
subunits were dependent on diffusible neurohumoral factors but indepen-
dent of functional innervation (Toyota and Shimada, 1983).
As discussed earlier, the alternative splicing of cardiac TnT switches
pattern during avian and mammalian heart development. Embryonic and
18 Jian-Ping Jin
6. POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS
6.1 Phosphorylation
Various in vitro and ex vivo experimental conditions produced phosphoryla-
tion of cardiac TnTat multiple sites. For example, Thr197, Ser201, Thr206, and
Thr287 in the C-terminal region of cardiac TnTwere reported to be protein
20 Jian-Ping Jin
kinase C (PKC) phosphorylation sites (Jideama et al., 1996; Noland and Kuo,
1991; Sumandea et al., 2004). It was also reported that reactive oxygen
species exerted negative inotropic effect on rat cardiac myocytes through
phosphorylation of cardiac TnT at Thr194 and Ser198 by apoptosis signaling
kinase 1 (He et al., 2003). However, these observations remain controversial
and recent mass spectrometry data showed that adult cardiac TnT in rat heart
under basal in vivo condition is 100% monophosphorylated at Ser2, excluding
all of the other possible sites beyond amino acid 30 (Marston and Walker,
2009; Sancho Solis et al., 2008). Consistently, constitutive phosphorylation
of Ser2 at the NH2 terminus of TnT was reported previously (Perry, 1998).
We further found that when embryonic mouse cardiac TnT was overex-
pressed in adult heart, Ser25 encoded by exon 5 was also fully phosphorylated
(Zhang et al., 2011). The highly efficient phosphorylation of Ser2 and Ser25
in the N-terminal variable region of cardiac TnT is an interesting observa-
tion and further studies are required to identify the functional significance
and the kinase(s) responsible, as well as the regulatory mechanisms that
sustain these N-terminal specific phosphorylations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I sincerely thank my current and past lab members and collaborators for their outstanding and
continuing contributions to our troponin studies. I want to also thank my mentors, especially
Prof Jim Lin at the University of Iowa and Prof Larry Smillie at the University of Alberta, for
their guidance and support during my scientific career. This work was supported in part by
grants from the National Institutes of Health (AR048816 and HL098945) to J.-P.J.
REFERENCES
Akella, A.B., Ding, X.L., Cheng, R., Gulati, J., 1995. Diminished Ca2+ sensitivity of skinned
cardiac muscle contractility coincident with troponin T-band shifts in the diabetic rat.
Circ. Res. 76, 600–606.
Akhter, S., Zhang, Z., Jin, J.P., 2012. The heart-specific NH2-terminal extension regulates
the molecular conformation and function of cardiac troponin I. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ.
Physiol. 302, H923–H933.
Anderson, P.A., Greig, A., Mark, T.M., Malouf, N.N., Oakeley, A.E., Ungerleider, R.M.,
Allen, P.D., Kay, B.K., 1995. Molecular basis of human cardiac troponin T isoforms
expressed in the developing, adult, and failing heart. Circ. Res. 76, 681–686.
Biesiadecki, B.J., Chong, S.M., Nosek, T.M., Jin, J.P., 2007. Troponin T core structure and
the regulatory NH2-terminal variable region. Biochemistry 46, 1368–1379.
Modulation of Muscle Contractility and Beyond 23
Biesiadecki, B.J., Elder, B.D., Yu, Z.B., Jin, J.P., 2002. Cardiac troponin T variants produced
by aberrant splicing of multiple exons in animals with high instances of dilated cardiomy-
opathy. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 50275–50285.
Biesiadecki, B.J., Jin, J.P., 2002. Exon skipping in cardiac troponin Tof turkeys with inherited
dilated cardiomyopathy. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 18459–18468.
Biesiadecki, B.J., Schneider, K.L., Yu, Z.B., Chong, S.M., Jin, J.P., 2004. An R111C poly-
morphism in wild turkey cardiac troponin I accompanying the dilated cardiomyopathy-
related abnormal splicing variant of cardiac troponin T with potentially compensatory
effects. J. Biol. Chem. 279, 13825–13832.
Boral, M.C., Deb, C., 1970. Seasonal changes in body fluids and haematology in toad Bufo
melanostictus a poikilothermic cold torpor. Proc. Indian Natl. Sci. Acad. 36, 369–379.
Breitbart, R.E., Nadal-Ginard, B., 1986. Complete nucleotide sequence of the fast skeletal
troponin T gene. Alternatively spliced exons exhibit unusual interspecies divergence. J.
Mol. Biol. 188, 313–324.
Breitbart, R.E., Nadal-Ginard, B., 1987. Developmentally induced, muscle-specific trans
factors control the differential splicing of alternative and constitutive troponin T exons.
Cell 49, 793–803.
Briggs, M.M., Schachat, F., 1993. Origin of fetal troponin T: developmentally regulated
splicing of a new exon in the fast troponin T gene. Dev. Biol. 158, 503–509.
Cabral-Lilly, D., Tobacman, L.S., Mehegan, J.P., Cohen, C., 1997. Molecular polarity in
tropomyosin-troponin T co-crystals. Biophys. J. 73, 1763–1770.
Chandra, M., Montgomery, D.E., Kim, J.J., Solaro, R.J., 1999. The N-terminal region of
troponin T is essential for the maximal activation of rat cardiac myofilaments. J. Mol. Cell.
Cardiol. 31, 867–880.
Chaudhuri, T., Mukherjea, M., Sachdev, S., Randall, J.D., Sarkar, S., 2005. Role of the fetal
and alpha/beta exons in the function of fast skeletal troponin T isoforms: correlation with
altered Ca2+ regulation associated with development. J. Mol. Biol. 352, 58–71.
Chong, S.M., Jin, J.P., 2009. To investigate protein evolution by detecting suppressed epitope
structures. J. Mol. Evol. 68, 448–460.
Collins, J.H., 1991. Myosin light chains and troponin C: structural and evolutionary
relationships revealed by amino acid sequence comparisons. J. Muscle Res. Cell
Motil. 12, 3–25.
Communal, C., Sumandea, M., de Tombe, P., Narula, J., Solaro, R.J., Hajjar, R.J., 2002.
Functional consequences of caspase activation in cardiac myocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA 99, 6252–6256.
Cooper, T.A., Ordahl, C.P., 1984. A single troponin T gene regulated by different programs
in cardiac and skeletal muscle development. Science 226, 979–982.
Cooper, T.A., Ordahl, C.P., 1985. A single cardiac troponin T gene generates embryonic and
adult isoforms via developmentally regulated alternate splicing. J. Biol. Chem. 260,
11140–11148.
Deb, C., Chatterjee, S., Boral, M.C., 1974. Body fluid and hematological changes in toads
following heat exposure. Am. J. Physiol. 226, 408–410.
Farza, H., Townsend, P.J., Carrier, L., Barton, P.J., Mesnard, L., Bahrend, E., Forissier, J.F.,
Fiszman, M., Yacoub, M.H., Schwartz, K., 1998. Genomic organisation, alternative
splicing and polymorphisms of the human cardiac troponin T gene. J. Mol. Cell.
Cardiol. 30, 1247–1253.
Feng, H.Z., Biesiadecki, B.J., Yu, Z.B., Hossain, M.M., Jin, J.P., 2008. Restricted N-terminal
truncation of cardiac troponin T: a novel mechanism for functional adaptation to energetic
crisis. J. Physiol. 586, 3537–3550.
Feng, H.Z., Chen, X., Hossain, M.M., Jin, J.P., 2012. Toad heart utilizes exclusively slow
skeletal muscle troponin T: an evolutionary adaptation with potential functional benefits.
J. Biol. Chem. 287, 29753–29764.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
selkäänsä. Odotahan sentään!» lisäsi hän huomattuaan Jánkon jo
tarttuneen juutalaista kaulukseen, »haluan tulla katsomaan tuota
kujetta. Tule nyt vain mukaamme, vanha saapas. Sinähän valitsit
vapaaehtoisesti, ja ehkä tämä ylimääräinen korko on hyvinkin puoli
tuntia kestävän vaivan arvoinen. Jos palvelijani sattuvat tappamaan
sinut, voi koko heimosi jakaa keskenään nuo viisikymmentätuhatta
mitallista vehnää ja muut kirotut tarpeet. Nyt, Jánko, voit koetella
uuden ratsupiiskasi kestävyyttä häneen. Tulkaa nyt, sillä minulla on
kiire».
VANHA SAITURI.
Tie oli täynnä syviä kuoppia ja pyörän jälkiä, kuten aina kuivan
vuodenajan kestäessä. Työläs ja vaivalloinen kävely väsytti pian
juutalaisen jalat, mutta hän ei näyttänyt siitä välittävän. Ajatukset,
jotka nähtävästi olivat hyvin miellyttävät, pehmittivät kovan tien
hänelle, ja hänen kätensä siveli hellästi taskua, joka äsken oli ollut
pullollaan seteleitä, mutta joka nyt oli verraten tyhjä, lukuunottamatta
papereita, joissa oli tuon tuhlaavan kreivin nimikirjoitus.
Tietä, jota Rosenstein käveli, reunustivat jonkun matkaa
molemmin puolin pitkät ja solakat poppelit, joiden hopeisia lehtiä
jokainen tuulenpuuska heilutteli. Kaukaa edestä häämötti autio,
punertava ja kuiva hiekkatasanko tummansinisine kaartuvine
taivaineen ja tien vieressä olevine vanhanaikaisine luhistuvine
ravintoloineen.
»Hän ei ole vielä tullut etkä saa odottaa häntä täällä sisällä».
Kuiskailtiin salavihkaa, että kauan aikaa, noin sata vuotta sitten oli
Keményillä ollut juutalaiset esivanhemmat, ja myönnettiin yleisesti,
että tästä perinnöllisestä tahrasta, sillä tahra se oli, että talonpojalla
oli juutalaista verta tippakin suonissaan, vanha Kemény oli perinyt
rakkautensa rahoihin, ahneutensa ja kokoomishalunsa.
Mutta olkoonpa nyt tuon asian laita miten tahansa, muodostui
hänen elämänsä Kisfalussa, tuossa luhistumaisillaan olevassa
olkikattoisessa maatalossa, jonka hän vuokrasi Bideskuty’n kreiviltä,
mitä säästäväisimmäksi. Kun hän oli nuori, ei hänellä ollut kuin yksi
palvelija, joka pesi hänen vaatteensa ja valmisti hänen ruokansa
tavallisesti ytykurkuista, maidosta ja ruisleivästä. Hän nukkui
paljaalla lavitsalla eikä käynyt milloinkaan ravintolassa eikä kirkossa,
jossa hänen aina olisi ollut pakko uhrata muutamia kolikoita kolehtiin.