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Selection for Semi-Arid Regions
Selection for Semi-Arid Regions
Edited by
Mohammad Albaji
Saeid Eslamian
Abd Ali Naseri
Faezeh Eslamian
First edition published 2020
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Albaji, Mohammad, editor. | Eslamian, Saeid, editor. | Naseri, Abd Ali, editor. |
Eslamian, Faezeh, editor.
Title: Handbook of irrigation system selection for semi-arid regions /
edited by Mohammad Albaji, Saeid Eslamian, Abd Ali Naseri, Faezeh Eslamian.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis
Group, [2020]
Identifiers: LCCN 2020007246 (print) | LCCN 2020007247 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367505363 (hardback ; acid-free paper) | ISBN 9781003050261 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Irrigation. | Arid regions agriculture. | Irrigation
engineering.
Classification: LCC S613 .H35 2020 (print) | LCC S613 (ebook) | DDC
631.7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020007246
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020007247
ISBN: 9780367505363 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781003050261 (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by Lumina Datamatics Limited
Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................ix
Editors............................................................................................................................................. xiii
Contributors....................................................................................................................................xvii
Section I Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction of Parametric Evaluation System for Irrigation Purposes........................ 3

Mohammad Albaji, Saeid Eslamian, Abd Ali Naseri, and Faezeh Eslamian
Chapter 2 Using Analytical Hierarchy Process Integrated with GIS in an Arid

Region for Site Selection of Different Irrigation Systems........................................... 15
Lamya Neissi, Saeed Boroomand Nasab, and Mohammad Albaji
Section II Strategies for Irrigation Development

and Management
Chapter 3 Crop Yield Response to Partial Root Drying Compared

with Regulated Deficit Irrigation................................................................................ 29
Hamid Zare Abyaneh, Mehdi Jovzi, Niaz Ali Ebrahimi Pak, and
Mohammad Albaji
Chapter 4 Solute Leaching Modeling under Different Irrigation Regimes,

Soil Moisture Conditions, and Organic Fertilizer Application................................... 55
Hossein Bagheri, Hamid Zare Abyaneh, and Azizallah Izady
Chapter 5 Performance Evaluation of the BUDGET Model in Simulating

Different Strategies of Irrigation................................................................................. 67
Mona Golabi, Mohammad Albaji, and Saeed Boroomand Nasab
Chapter 6 Investigation of Water Stress on Kochia Scoparia L. in Arid

and Semiarid Areas.................................................................................................... 81
Mona Golabi, Reza Sadegh Mansouri, Saeed Boroomand Nasab, and
Maasomeh Salehi
v
vi Contents
Chapter 7 Coefficients of Infiltration Equations: Determination and Evaluation........................ 93

Mona Golabi, Mohammad Albaji, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 8 Determination of the Optimized Equation of Leaching........................................... 107

Mona Golabi, Mohammad Albaji, and Saeid Eslamian
Section III Case Studies: Irrigation Method

Selection for the Crossroads of Central
and Southeast Europe and South Asia
Chapter 9 Multi-Criteria Decision-Making for Irrigation Management in Serbia.................... 119

Boško Blagojević, Jovana Bezdan, Atila Bezdan, Milica Vranešević,
and Radovan Savić
Chapter 10 Appraisal of Agricultural Lands for Irrigation in Hot Subhumid Region

of Jayakwadi Command Area, Parbhani District, Maharashtra, India..................... 145
Bhaskara Phaneendra Bhaskar, Rajendra Hegde,
Sampura Chinnappa Ramesh Kumar, and Venkataramappa Ramamurthy
Section IV Case Studies: Irrigation System Selection

in Western Asia
Chapter 11 Appropriate Evaluation of Soils Delta of the Wadi Horan within the Province
of Upper Euphrates, Iraq for Some Technologies of Irrigation Systems.................. 169
AbdulKarem Ahmed Al-Alwany, Farhan J. Mohamed Althyby,
and Adel K. Salemn
Chapter 12 The Best Irrigation System in Hamidih Plain, Iran.................................................. 183

Mohammad Albaji, Abd Ali Naseri, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 13 The Best Irrigation System in Shahid Chamran Plain, Iran..................................... 191
Mohammad Albaji, Saeed Boroomand Nasab, Saeid Eslamian, and
Abd Ali Naseri
Chapter 14 The Best Irrigation System in Ezeh and Baghmalek Plain, Iran.............................. 199
Mohammad Albaji, Mona Golabi, Abd Ali Naseri, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 15 The Best Irrigation System in Dezful Plain, Iran.....................................................209

Contents vii
Chapter 16 The Best Irrigation System in Shirin Ab Plain, Iran................................................ 221

Mohammad Albaji, Saeed Boroomand Nasab, Saeid Eslamian, and
Abd Ali Naseri
Chapter 17 The Best Irrigation System in Mian-Ab Plain, Iran.................................................. 231

Mohammad Albaji, Abd Ali Naseri, Mona Golabi, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 18 The Best Irrigation System in East North Ahvaz Plain, Iran.................................... 243
Chapter 19 Determining the Best Irrigation System in Malashih Plain, Iran............................. 253
Mohammad Albaji, Saeed Boroomand Nasab, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 20 Best Irrigation System Determination in Ramshir Plain, Iran................................. 261

Mohammad Albaji, Abd Ali Naseri, Mona Golabi, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 21 Irrigation System in Khalf Abad Plain, Iran............................................................. 269

Chapter 22 Irrigation System Option for Shahid Rajaie Plain, Iran............................................ 277
Mohammad Albaji, Saeed Boroomand Nasab, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 23 Irrigation System Preference in Dehmola Plain, Iran............................................... 287

Mohammad Albaji, Mona Golabi, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 24 Irrigation System Suggestions in Sudjan Plain, Iran................................................. 295

Mehdi Jovzi, Hamid Zare Abyaneh, Niaz Ali Ebrahimi Pak, Majid Heydari,
Shahrokh Fatehi, Amin Behmanesh, Mohammad Albaji, and Saeid Eslamian
Chapter 25 Irrigation System Choice in Miheh Plain, Iran.........................................................307

Mehdi Jovzi, Hamid Zare Abyaneh, Majid Heydari, Shahrokh Fatehi,
Amin Behmanesh, Mohammad Albaji, and Saeid Eslamian
Index............................................................................................................................................... 319
Preface
Irrigation, the addition of water to lands via artificial means, is essential to profitable crop produc-
tion in arid climates. Irrigated agriculture makes a major contribution to food security in the world.
It uses more than 60%–70% of the water withdrawn from the world’s water resources. The irrigated
area at a global level represents around 20% of the total agricultural land and contributes 40%
of the total food production. However, the performance of the majority of existing irrigation sys-
tems remains low. With increasing competition from other sectors, irrigation is under pressure to
reduce its share of water use. The available world’s water resources may not be able to meet various
demands that will inevitably result in the irrigation of additional lands in order to achieve a sustain-
able food security. Due to the scarce water supply in the arid and semiarid climates, maximizing
water use efficiency is critical. A shift from surface irrigation to high-tech irrigation technologies,
e.g., sprinkle and drip irrigation systems, may yield significant water savings. Also, in lands where
irrigation is introduced as a new practice, and in lands that currently irrigate, there must be irriga-
tion method choices. Alternative irrigation methods may become more advantageous as the land
organization, objectives, price, and cost change. The selection of irrigation methods will often be
influenced by costs, energy, crop, soil texture, land topography, water supply, climate parameters,
labor availability, etc. In other words, irrigation application method and system selection should
result in optimum use of available water. The selection should be based on a full awareness of
management considerations, such as water source and cost, water quantity and quality, irrigation
effects on the environment, energy availability and cost, farm equipment, product marketability,
and capital for irrigation system installation, operation, and maintenance. The purpose of this book
is to bring together and integrate in a single text the subject matter that deals with the irrigation
selection methods in arid and semiarid regions. The book is divided into four major sections dealing
with the subject mentioned above and is intended for students, researchers, and professionals work-
ing on various aspects of irrigation method selection. Each section is composed of some chapters
from various research groups and individuals working separately. Various case studies have been
discussed in the chapters to present a general scenario of irrigation method selection management.
The first section highlights the parametric evaluation system for irrigation purposes. The para-
metric approach in the evaluation of land characteristics consists of a numeral rating of the different
limitation levels of the land characteristics in a numerical scale from a maximum (normally 100)
to a minimum value. If a land characteristic is optimal for the considered land utilization type, the
maximum rating of 100 is attributed; if the same land characteristic is unfavorable, a minimal rating
is applied. The aim of the parametric evaluation system is to provide a method that permits evalua-
tion for irrigation purposes and that is based on the standard granulometrical and physicochemical
characteristics of a soil profile. The section concludes with a review of the analytical hierarchy pro-
cess integrated with GIS in an arid region for site selection of different irrigation systems.
ix
x Preface
Section two focuses on strategies for irrigation development and management. The deficit irriga-
tion and partial root-zone drying irrigation systems are introduced in an arid area. Deficit irrigation
(DI) and partial root-zone drying system (PRD) are strategies that involve this need that express
irrigating the root zone with less water than the maximum evapotranspiration without loss in yield.
Also, the solute leaching modeling under different irrigation regimes, soil moisture conditions, and
organic fertilizer application in an arid area is introduced. This study examines the experimental
and numerical modeling of soil solute leaching under different irrigation regimes, soil moisture
conditions, and vermicompost application. Finally, this section concludes with an evaluation of the
BUDGET model in simulating different strategies of irrigation in the west of Asia.
Section three highlights the multi-criteria decision-making for irrigation management in Europe.
Decision-making related to irrigation management needs to be made in the context of multiple, usu-
ally conflicting, criteria that are coming from economic, environmental, and social domains. Multi-
criteria decision analysis (MCDA) is the most often used approach for this type of decision-making,
and different (MCDA) methods have been developed in the past. Hence, the first goal of this section
was to make MCDA methods more intelligible (compared with the current level of understand-
ing) to novice users within the field of irrigation management. Therefore, basic ideas as well as
the main steps of selected (MCDA) methods are presented. Also, this section focuses on appraisal
of agricultural lands for irrigation in the hot, subhumid region of Jayakwadi Command Area,
Parbhani District, Maharashtra, India. The appraisal of basaltic clays soils under the hot, subhumid
Marathwada region of Maharashtra is to tackle the recurring droughts and to explore answers to
two vital questions such as water to every field and more crop per drop. The detailed land resource
inventory is very essential for sustainable agriculture under irrigation with the help of the FAO and
Sys parametric approach. This study showed the limits of soil–topography-yield variations in inter-
preting site-specific data for irrigation.
The final section starts with an evaluation of the soils delta of the Wadi Horan within the prov-
ince of the Upper Euphrates, Iraq, for some technologies of irrigation systems. The results showed
that drip irrigation proved more appropriate than the surface irrigation system in the study area.
However, the main determinants of both methods were the characteristics of the physical environ-
ment and the topography of the study area. Drip irrigation research has proved that the conserva-
tion of soil and keeping it within the water field capacity will be more useful for application of the
irrigation method, especially in climates and arid areas; therefore, it is recommended to exercise
as the best way appropriate for the study area. Also, this section focuses on analysis and compari-
son of three irrigation systems (surface, sprinkle, and drip) in six major Iran watersheds by taking
into account various soil and land characteristics. Details are given for the analysis of field data
to compare the suitability of the land for surface, sprinkle, and drip irrigation systems. The ana-
lyzed parameters included soil and land characteristics. In this research, the land is not being
“improved.” The lands are just being ranked according to defined criteria to establish which irriga-
tion method (surface, sprinkle, or drip) is best suited to the characteristics of the land. That is, the
land suitability for irrigation methods (surface, sprinkle, or drip) is being compared while taking
into consideration the characteristics of the land. The results obtained showed that sprinkle and
drip irrigation methods are more suitable than a surface or gravity irrigation method for most of
the soils tested. Moreover, because of the insufficiency of surface and groundwater resources, and
the aridity and semiaridity of the climate in these areas, sprinkle and drip irrigation methods are
highly recommended for a sustainable use of this natural resource; hence, the changing of current
irrigation methods from gravity (surface) to pressurized (sprinkle and drip) in the study area are
proposed.
It is evident but nevertheless worth mentioning that all the chapters have been prepared by
individuals who are experts in their fields. The views expressed in the book are those of the
authors, and they are responsible for their statements. An honest effort has been made to check
Preface xi
the scientific validity and justification of each chapter through several iterations. We, the editors,
publisher, and the authors of the chapters, have put together a comprehensive reference handbook
on irrigation method selection in arid and semiarid regions with a belief that this book will be of
immense use to present and future colleagues who teach, study, research, and/or practice in this
particular field.
Dr. Mohammad Albaji

Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Faculty of Water Science Engineering
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
Professor Saeid Eslamian

Department of Water Engineering, College of Agriculture
Center of Excellence in Risk Management and Natural Hazards
Isfahan University of Technology, Iran
Professor Abd Ali Naseri

Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
Dr. Faezeh Eslamian

Bioresource Engineering Department
McGill University
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Editors
Mohammad Albaji is a faculty member at Shahid Chamran
University of Ahvaz, Iran. He earned his PhD in Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering from Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz,
Iran. Dr. Albaji is active in the fields of irrigation and drainage,
precision irrigation, agricultural water management, water produc-
tivity, water & soil salinity and alkalinity, soil science, land suit-
ability for irrigation, land suitability for crops, and has more than 70
publications in reputed journals, books, and refereed conferences.
He has been working as a reviewer for many reputed journals, such
as Agricultural Water Management, Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture, Environment, Development and Sustainability,
Transaction of the Royal Society of South Africa, Clean Soil, Air,
Water, etc. He had several executive posts such as dean of Jundishapur’s Water and Energy Research
Institute (Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz; 2016–2018), head of Soil Science Department
(Khuzestan Water & Power Authority; 2000–2012), etc. He has membership in the International
Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA), American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE), etc.
Saeid Eslamian is a full professor of environmental hydrology and

water resources engineering in the Department of Water Engineering
at Isfahan University of Technology, where he has been since 1995.
His research focuses mainly on statistical and environmental hydrol-
ogy in a changing climate. In recent years, he has worked on model-
ing natural hazards, including floods, severe storms, wind, drought,
pollution, water reuses, sustainable development and resiliency, etc.
Formerly, he was a visiting professor at Princeton University, New
Jersey, and ETH Zürich, Switzerland. On the research side, he
started a research partnership in 2014 with McGill University,
Canada. He has contributed to more than 600 publications in jour-
nals, books, and technical reports. He is the founder and chief editor of both the International
Journal of Hydrology Science and Technology (IJHST) and the Journal of Flood Engineering
(JFE). Professor Eslamian is now associate editor of four important publications: Journal of
Hydrology (Elsevier), Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology (Elsevier), Journal of Water Reuse and
Desalination (IWA), and Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences (Elsevier).
Professor Eslamian is the author of approximately 35 books and 180 chapter books. Dr. Eslamian’s
professional experience includes membership on editorial boards, and he is a reviewer of approxi-
mately 100 Web of Science (ISI) journals, including the ASCE Journal of Hydrologic Engineering,
ASCE Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, ASCE Journal of Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering, Advances in Water Resources, Groundwater, Hydrological Processes,
Hydrological Sciences Journal, Global Planetary Changes, Water Resources Management, Water
Science and Technology, Ecohydrology, Journal of American Water Resources Association,
American Water Works Association Journal, etc. UNESCO also nominated him for a special issue
of the Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology journal in 2015. Professor Eslamian was selected as an out-
standing reviewer for the Journal of Hydrologic Engineering in 2009 and received the EWRI/
ASCE Visiting International Fellowship in Rhode Island (2010). He was also awarded outstanding
prizes from the Iranian Hydraulics Association in 2005 and Iranian Petroleum and Oil Industry in
2011. Professor Eslamian has been chosen as a distinguished researcher of Isfahan University of
xiii
xiv Editors
Technology (IUT) and Isfahan Province in 2012 and 2014, respectively. In 2016, he was a candidate
for national distinguished researcher in Iran.
He has also been the referee of many international organizations and universities. Some exam-
ples include the U.S. Civilian Research and Development Foundation (USCRDF), the Swiss
Network for International Studies, the Majesty Research Trust Fund of Sultan Qaboos University of
Oman, the Royal Jordanian Geography Center College, and the Research Department of Swinburne
University of Technology of Australia. He is also a member of the following associations: American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), International Association of Hydrologic Science (IAHS), World
Conservation Union (IUCN), GC Network for Drylands Research and Development (NDRD),
International Association for Urban Climate (IAUC), International Society for Agricultural
Meteorology (ISAM), Association of Water and Environment Modeling (AWEM), International
Hydrological Association (STAHS), and UK Drought National Center (UKDNC).
Professor Eslamian finished Hakimsanaei High School in Isfahan in 1979. After the Islamic
Revolution, he was admitted to IUT for a BS in water engineering and graduated in 1986. After
graduation, he was offered a scholarship for a master’s degree program at Tarbiat Modares
University, Tehran. He finished his studies in hydrology and water resources engineering in 1989.
In 1991, he was awarded a scholarship for a PhD in civil engineering at the University of New South
Wales, Australia. His supervisor was Professor David H. Pilgrim, who encouraged him to work on
“Regional Flood Frequency Analysis Using a New Region of Influence Approach.” He earned a
PhD in 1995 and returned to his home country and IUT. In 2001, he was promoted to associate pro-
fessor and in 2014 to full professor. For the past 24 years, he has been nominated for different posi-
tions at IUT, including university president consultant, faculty deputy of education, and head of the
department. Professor Eslamian is now director for the Center of Excellence in Risk Management
and Natural Hazards (RiMaNaH).
Professor Eslamian has made three scientific visits to the United States, Switzerland, and Canada
in 2006, 2008, and 2015, respectively. In the first, he was offered the position of visiting professor by
Princeton University and worked jointly with Professor Eric F. Wood at the School of Engineering
and Applied Sciences for one year. The outcome was a contribution in hydrological and agricultural
drought interaction knowledge by developing multivariate L-moments between soil moisture and
low flows for northeastern U.S. streams. Recently, Professor Eslamian has published the editorship
of 12 handbooks published by the Taylor & Francis Group (CRC Press): the three-volume Handbook
of Engineering Hydrology in 2014, Urban Water Reuse Handbook in 2016, Underground Aqueducts
Handbook (2017), the three-volume Handbook of Drought and Water Scarcity (2017), Constructed
Wetlands: Hydraulic Design (2020), and the three-volume Flood Handbook (2020). He has also
published the two-volume Handbook of Water Harvesting and Conservation (2020) by Wiley-
Blackwell and the New York Academy of Sciences. In addition, An Evaluation of Groundwater
Storage Potentials in a Semiarid Climate by Nova Science Publishers is also his joint book publica-
tion in 2019.
Abd Ali Naseri is a full professor of irrigation and drainage in the Faculty
of Water Science Engineering at Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz,
Iran. He earned his PhD in irrigation and drainage engineering from the
University of Southampton, England, 1998. His research focuses mainly
on irrigation and drainage, soil physics, leaching, precision drainage, agri-
cultural water management, and modeling. He has contributed to more
than 350 publications in journals, books, and technical reports. He has
published more than 150 articles in many reputed journals, such as
Agricultural Water Management, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering (ASCE), Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) Chemical
Engineering Journal, Journal of Cleaner Production, Journal of Powder
Technology, International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and
Editors xv
Geoinformation, Journal of Ecological Engineering, Quarterly of RS & GIS for Natural Resources,
Transaction of the Royal Society of South Africa, etc.
Professor Abd Ali Naseri is a member of journal editorial board of Agricultural Research, Journal
of Applied Sciences, Asian Journal of Scientific Research, Journal of Agronomy and Irrigation
Engineering and Sciences. He had supervised more than 120 MSc and doctoral dissertations and
research projects. He earned four scientific awards (The top researcher of 2010 in Shahid Chamran
University of Ahvaz; The top researcher of 2001 from the Sugarcane & by Products Development
Company; The top researcher of 2000 in Hamedan Province, Iran; The winner of the second top
paper in the 2d Conference of River Engineering, Ahvaz, Iran).
Professor Abd Ali Naseri has held several executive posts such as head of irrigation and drainage
department in the Faculty of Water Science Engineering at Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz,
Iran (2009–2011; 2015–2017), member of expert commission of Shahid Chamran University Press
Council (June 2011 to till date), member of the technical and expert committee on Irrigation and
Drainage Research of Khuzestan Water and Power Authority (June 2009 to till date), member of
regional committee of irritation and drainage in Khuzestan province (September 2011 to till date),
head of the Drainage Researches Center (2015–2019) and director manager of Sugarcane and By
Products Development Company (2019 to till date), etc.
Faezeh Eslamian holds a PhD in Bioresource Engineering from

McGill University. Her research focuses on the development of a
novel lime-based product to mitigate phosphorus loss from agricul-
tural fields. Faezeh completed her bachelor’s and master’s degrees in
Civil and Environmental Engineering from Isfahan University of
Technology, Iran, where she evaluated natural and low-cost absor-
bents for the removal of pollutants such as textile dyes and heavy
metals. Furthermore, she has conducted research on the worldwide
water quality standards and wastewater reuse guidelines. She is an
experienced multidisciplinary researcher with interest in soil and
water quality, environmental remediation, water reuse, and drought
management.
Contributors
Mohammad Albaji Boško Blagojević
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Department of Water Management
Faculty of Water Science Engineering Faculty of Agriculture
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz University of Novi Sad
Ahvaz, Iran Novi Sad, Serbia
Farhan J. Mohamed Althyby Saeed Boroomand Nasab

Department of Soil and Water Science Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Faculty of Agriculture Faculty of Water Science Engineering
Anbar University Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz
Anbar, Iraq Ahvaz, Iran
AbdulKarem Ahmed Al-Alwany Niaz Ali Ebrahimi Pak

Center for Desert Studies Department of Irrigation and Soil Physics, Soil
Anbar University and Water Research Institute
Anbar, Iraq Agricultural Research, Education and
Extension Organization (AREEO)
Hossein Bagheri Karaj, Iran
Department of Water Engineering
Faculty of Agriculture Faezeh Eslamian
Bu Ali Sina University Bioresource Engineering Department
Hamedan, Iran McGill University
Montreal, Canada
Amin Behmanesh
College of Water Engineering Saeid Eslamian
College of Agriculture Department of Water Engineering
Isfahan University of Technology College of Agriculture
Isfahan, Iran Center of Excellence in Risk Management and
Natural Hazards
Atila Bezdan Isfahan University of Technology
Department of Water Management Isfahan, Iran
Faculty of Agriculture
University of Novi Sad Shahrokh Fatehi
Novi Sad, Serbia Soil and Water Research Department
Kermanshah Agricultural and Natural
Jovana Bezdan Resources Research and Education Center
Department of Water Management Kermanshah, Iran
Faculty of Agriculture
University of Novi Sad Mona Golabi
Novi Sad, Serbia Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Bhaskara Phaneendra Bhaskar Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz
Regional Centre, ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Ahvaz, Iran
Survey and Land Use Planning
Bangalore, India
xvii
xviii Contributors
Rajendra Hegde Venkataramappa Ramamurthy

Regional Centre, ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Regional Centre, ICAR-National Bureau of Soil
Survey and Land Use Planning Survey and Land Use Planning
Bangalore, India Bangalore, India
Majid Heydari Reza Sadegh Mansouri

Department of Water Engineering Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Faculty of Agriculture Faculty of Water Science Engineering
Bu Ali Sina University Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz
Hamedan, Iran Ahvaz, Iran
Azizallah Izady Maasomeh Salehi

Water Research Centre National Salinity Research Center
Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) Agricultural Research, Education and
Muscat, Oman Extension Organization (AREEO)
Yazd, Iran
Mehdi Jovzi
Soil and Water Research Department Adel K. Salemn
Kermanshah Agricultural and Natural Center for Desert Studies
Resources Research and Education Center Anbar University
Agricultural Research, Education and Anbar, Iraq
Extension Organization (AREEO)
Kermanshah, Iran Radovan Savić
Department of Water Management
Sampura Chinnappa Ramesh Kumar Faculty of Agriculture
Regional Centre, ICAR-National Bureau of Soil University of Novi Sad
Survey and Land Use Planning Novi Sad, Serbia
Bangalore, India
Milica Vranešević
Abd Ali Naseri Department of Water Management
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Faculty of Agriculture
Faculty of Water Science Engineering University of Novi Sad
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz Novi Sad, Serbia
Ahvaz, Iran
Hamid Zare Abyaneh
Lamya Neissi Department of Water Engineering
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Faculty of Agriculture
Faculty of Water Science Engineering Bu Ali Sina University
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz Hamedan, Iran
Ahvaz, Iran
Section I
Introduction
1 Introduction of Parametric
Evaluation System for
Irrigation Purposes
Mohammad Albaji, Saeid Eslamian, Abd Ali
Naseri, and Faezeh Eslamian
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Introduction of Parametric Evaluation System for Irrigation Purposes.................................... 4
1.2.1 General Principles......................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Factors Influencing the Soil Suitability for Irrigation................................................... 6
1.2.2.1 Texture (A)......................................................................................................6
1.2.2.2 Soil Depth (B).................................................................................................8
1.2.2.3 Calcium Carbonate Status (C)........................................................................ 8
1.2.2.4 Soil Salinity (D)..............................................................................................8
1.2.2.5 Drainage (E)...................................................................................................8
1.2.2.6 Slope (F)......................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Land Suitability Maps............................................................................................................. 12
1.4 Conclusions.............................................................................................................................. 13
Acknowledgments�� 14
References......................................................................................................................................... 14
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In arid and semiarid climates, where the study area has been carried out, according to the results of
the climate classification, the most relevant method to improve agriculture production is irrigation.
An adequate supply of water is important for plant growth. When rainfall is not sufficient, crops must
be provided with additional water from other sources. To decide where to apply irrigation and to
choose the appropriate method, natural conditions, previous experience with irrigation, required labor
inputs, type of crops and technology, costs and benefits, and other factors should be considered. As a
matter of fact, irrigation practices can be very expensive and may cause negative phenomena, such as
soil erosion and salinization. For this reason, evaluation systems for irrigation purposes must be devel-
oped. The prevailing semiarid climatic conditions and an insufficient amount of precipitation are a
major limitation to crop yields in the study area. Agricultural fields are often required to be irrigated if
food security is to be ensured, especially with vegetable crops. The purpose of land suitability for irri-
gation was therefore aimed at visualizing parcels of land that may be conveniently irrigated for agri-
cultural production based on the physical and chemical parameters of the underlying soil (IAO 2007).
On the other hand, food security and stability in the world greatly depend on the management of
natural resources. Due to the depletion of water resources and an increase in population, the extent
of irrigated area per capita is declining, and irrigated lands now produce 40% of the food supply
(Hargreaves and Mekley 1998). Consequently, available water resources will not be able to meet
various demands in the near future, and this will inevitably result in the seeking of newer lands for
3
4 Handbook of Irrigation System Selection for Semi-Arid Regions
irrigation in order to achieve sustainable global food security. Land suitability, by definition, is the
natural capability of a given land to support a defined use. The process of land suitability classification
is the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms of their suitability for a defined use.
According to FAO methodology (1976), land suitability is strongly related to “land qualities”
including erosion resistance, water availability, and flood hazards, which are in themselves immea-
surable qualities. Since these qualities are derived from “land characteristics,” such as slope angle
and length, rainfall, and soil texture—which are measurable or estimable—it is advantageous to use
the latter indicators in the land suitability studies and then use the land parameters for determining
the land suitability for irrigation purposes. Sys et al. (1991a) suggested a parametric evaluation
system for irrigation methods that was primarily based upon physical and chemical soil properties
(Dengiz 2006; Liu et al. 2006; Naseri et al. 2009; Albaji 2010; Albaji et al. 2012).
1.2 INTRODUCTION OF PARAMETRIC EVALUATION

SYSTEM FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES
1.2.1 General Principles
The parametric approach in the evaluation of land characteristics consists of a numeral rating of
the different limitation levels of the land characteristics in a numerical scale from a maximum
(normally 100) to a minimum value. If a land characteristic is optimal for the considered land utili-
zation type, the maximum rating of 100 is attributed; if the same land characteristic is unfavorable,
a minimal rating is applied.
The successful application of the system implies the respect of the following rules:
1. The number of land characteristics to consider has to be reduced to a strict minimum to
avoid repetition of related characteristics in the formula, leading to a depression of the
land index. Therefore, all land qualities expressed by one characteristic should be rated
together. As such, the single rating of texture should be done with regard to the capacity to
retain nutrients, water availability, permeability, and one should avoid introducing separate
ratings for these single qualities.
2. An important characteristic is rated in a wide scale (100–25), a less important charac-
teristic in a narrower scale (100–60). This introduces the concept of a weighting factor.
Example: studying the suitability for irrigation the very important factor of texture is rated
from 100 to 25, the less important factor of calcium carbonate content from 100 to 80.
3. The rating of 100 is applied for optimal development or maximum appearance of a charac-
teristic. If, however, some characteristics are better than the usual optimal, the maximum
rating can be chosen higher than 100. Example: if the most common organic carbon con-
tent of the top 15 cm in a specific area varies from 1% to 1.5%, the rating of 100 is applied
for that carbon level. Soils with more than 1.5% O.C are attributed a rating of more than
100 for organic matter.
4. The depth to which the land index has to be calculated must be defined for each land utiliza-
tion type. If one considers that for a specific land utilization type all horizons have a similar
importance, the weighted average of the profile section until the considered depth is calculated
for each characteristic. If, on the other hand, one considers that the importance of a horizon
becomes greater when this position is nearer to the surface, a different proportional rating can
be given to the depth sections of the profile in such a way that they increase when approach-
ing the surface. Therefore, the profile can be subdivided into equal sections; to each of these
sections one attributes a “depth correction index” (weighting factor) starting with a minimum
value in depth and becoming gradually greater when approaching the surface section.
The depth to be considered should coincide with the normal depth of the root system in a deep soil.
The weighting factors or depth correction indices suggested are given in Table 1.1.
Introduction of Parametric Evaluation System for Irrigation Purposes 5
TABLE 1.1
Number of Sections and Weighting Factors for Different Depths
Depth (cm) Number of Equal Sections Weighting Factors
125–150 6 2.00,1.50,1.00,0.75,0.50,0.25
100–125 5 1.75,1.50,1.00,0.50,0.25
75–100 4 1.75,1.25,0.75,0.25
50–75 3 1.50,1.00,0.50
25–50 2 1.25,0.75
0–25 1 1.00
A land suitability classification for surface, sprinkler, and drip irrigation was provided. It was
carried out by a parametric system according to the methodology proposed by Sys et al. (1991a).
The aim of this parametric evaluation system (Sys et al. 1991a) is to provide a method that permits
evaluation for irrigation purposes, and that is based on the standard granulometrical and physico-
chemical characteristics of a soil profile. It has been estimated that the soil as a medium for plant
growth under irrigation should in the first place provide the necessary water and plant nutrients in
an available form, and in the most economic way. A method to improve the agriculture production
can be the application of irrigation; the decision regarding if it is possible, how and in which area,
should be taken according to economic and agronomic factors. In order to avoid bad effects such
as salinization or water stagnating and in order to estimate the impact of agronomic parameters, an
evaluation of irrigation suitability has to be applied (IAO 2002).
In the system proposed by Sys et al. (1991b), the factors affecting soil suitability for irrigation
purposes can be subdivided into four groups:
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES determine the soil-water relationship in the solum such as per-
meability and available water content both related to texture, structure, and soil depth;
also, CaCO3 status could be considered here.
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES interfere in the salinity/alkalinity status, such as soluble salts
and exchangeable Na.
3. DRAINAGE PROPERTIES.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, such as slope.
The soil drainage, depth, slope, texture, electric conductivity, and CaCO3 content were the con-
sidered parameters. The parametric method is based on the concept that index rating (capability
index for irrigation) is obtained by multiplying all the parameters involved in the evaluation. Thus,
any factor may dominate or control the final rating. Recall that according to the specific suitability
evaluation, this multiplication is applied considering all parameters involved in the evaluation.
The different land characteristics that influence the soil suitability for irrigation are rated, and a
capability index for irrigation (Ci) is calculated according to the formula:
B C D E F
Ci = A × × × × × (1.1)
100 100 100 100 100
where:
Ci = Capability index for irrigation
A = Soil texture rating
B = Soil depth rating
C = Calcium carbonate content rating
D = Electrical conductivity rating
E = Drainage rating
F = Slope rating.
TABLE 1.2
Suitability Classes for the Irrigation Capability Indices
(Ci) Classes
Capability Index Definition Symbol
>80 Highly suitable S1
60–80 Moderately suitable S2
45–59 Marginally suitable S3
30–44 Currently not suitable N1
<29 Permanently N2
not suitable
The suitability classes are defined according to the value of the capability (or suitability) index (Ci)
(Table 1.2).
The classes S2 to N2 can have the following subclasses with regard to the nature of the limiting factors:
s = Limitations due to physical soil properties (A, B, C)

n = Limitations due to salinity/alkalinity (D)
w = Wetness limitations (E)
t = Topographic limitations (F).
The land suitability classification consists of assessing and grouping the land types in orders and
classes according to their aptitude (FAO methodology 1976). The order defines the suitability and
is expressed by:
• S (suitable) characterizes a land were sustainable use giving good benefits is expected.
• N (not suitable) indicates a land with qualities that do not allow the considered type of use
or are not enough for sustainable outcomes.
The classes (S1, S2 and S3 for suitable order; N1 and N2 for unsuitable order) express the degrees of
suitability or unsuitability. Thus, there are five classes according to Table 1.3 for irrigation.
1.2.2 Factors Influencing the Soil Suitability for Irrigation

1.2.2.1 Texture (A)
Texture is rated (Table 1.4) with regard to permeability and available water content, and weighted
average is calculated for the upper 1.5 m.
TABLE 1.3
Land Suitability Classes
Order Class Description
Suitable S1 (Highly suitable) Land having no or insignificant limitations for irrigation
S2 (Moderately suitable) Land having minor limitations for irrigation
S3 (Marginally suitable) Land having moderate limitations for irrigation
Not Suitable N1 (Currently not suitable) Land having severe limitations for irrigation but can be improved by specific
management
N2 (Permanently Land having such severe limitations for irrigation that are very difficult to
not suitable) overcome
TABLE 1.4
Rating of Textural Classes for Irrigation
Rating for Surface Irrigation Rating for Sprinkler Irrigation Rating for Drip Irrigation
Fine Gravel (%) Coarse Gravel (%) Fine Gravel (%) Coarse Gravel (%) Fine Gravel (%) Coarse Gravel (%)
Tex a <15 15–40 40–75 15–40 40–75 <15 15–40 40–75 15–40 40–75 <15 15–40 40–75 15–40 40–75
CLb 100 90 80 80 50 100 90 80 80 50 100 90 80 80 50
SiL 100 90 80 80 50 100 90 80 80 50 100 90 80 80 50
SCL 95 85 75 75 45 95 85 75 75 45 95 85 75 75 45
L 90 80 70 70 45 90 80 70 70 45 90 80 70 70 45
SiL 90 80 70 70 45 90 80 70 70 45 90 80 70 70 45
Si 90 80 70 70 45 90 80 70 70 45 90 80 70 70 45
SiC 85 95 80 80 40 85 95 80 80 40 85 95 80 80 40
C 85 95 80 80 40 85 95 80 80 40 85 95 80 80 40
SC 80 90 75 75 35 95 90 80 75 35 95 90 85 80 35
SL 75 65 60 60 35 90 75 70 70 35 95 85 80 75 35
LS 55 50 45 45 25 70 65 50 55 30 85 75 55 60 35
Introduction of Parametric Evaluation System for Irrigation Purposes
S 30 25 25 25 25 50 45 40 30 30 70 65 50 35 35
a Tex: Textural Classes.

b CL: Clay Loam; SiL: Silty Loam; SCL: Sandy Clay Loam; L: Loam; SiL: Silty Loam; Si: Silty; SiC: Silty Clay; C: Clay; SC: Sandy Clay; SL: Sandy Loam; LS: Loamy
Sand; S: Sandy.
7
1.2.2.2 Soil Depth (B)

Soil depth is defined as the thickness of the loose soil above a limiting layer, which is impenetrable
for roots or percolating water. The most common types of such limiting layers are:
• An unconsolidated gravelly or stony horizon with at least 75% coarse fragments (by weight)
• A continuous, more or less consolidated, calcium carbonate or gypsiferous layer with a
minimum thickness of 30 cm, and containing at least 75% calcium carbonate or gypsum
(or both together)
• A continuous hard rock or hardpan more than 10 cm thick.
Table 1.5 gives the soil depth ratings used for the suitability classification for irrigation.
1.2.2.3 Calcium Carbonate Status (C)

The presence of free lime in the soil has not only an effect on the structural arrangement of the soil
mass, interfering thus directly in water infiltration rate and evaporation processes, but also plays
a role in the soil reaction and the physicochemical constitution of the solum as a whole. Thus, the
calcium carbonate status influences at the same time the soil-water relationship of the soil and its
available nutrient supply for plant growth.
A moderate CaCO3 content has a favorable effect on soil suitability for irrigation. Table 1.6 gives
the CaCO3 ratings used in the system. The CaCO3 content of the profile represents the weighted
average over the superficial 150 cm.
1.2.2.4 Soil Salinity (D)

The unfavorable effect of salinity hazards depends on soil texture. Ratings are given in Table 1.7.
The values for electrical conductivity (Ec) are weighted averages for the upper 150 cm.
1.2.2.5 Drainage (E)

Imperfect or poor drainage is an evident limiting factor. The drainage problems for irrigation are related
to soil texture and to the depth and salinity status of the groundwater. Ratings are given in Table 1.8.
TABLE 1.5
Rating of Soil Depth for Irrigation
Soil Depth (cm) Rating for Surface Irrigation Rating for Sprinkler Irrigation Rating for Drip Irrigation
<20 25 30 35
20–50 60 65 70
50–80 80 85 90
80–100 90 95 100
>100 100 100 100
TABLE 1.6
Rating of CaCO3 for Irrigation
CaCO3 (%) Rating for Surface Irrigation Rating for Sprinkler Irrigation Rating for Drip Irrigation
<0.3 90 90 90
0.3–10 95 95 95
10–25 100 100 95
25–50 90 90 80
>50 80 80 70
Introduction of Parametric Evaluation System for Irrigation Purposes 9
TABLE 1.7
Rating of Salinity for Irrigation
C, SiC, SiCL, S, Other C, SiC, SiCL, S, Other C, SiC, SiCL, S, Other
EC (ds. m−1) SC Texturesa Textures SC Textures Textures SC Textures Textures
<4 100 100 100 100 100 100
4–8 90 95 95 95 95 95
8–16 80 50 85 50 85 50
16–30 70 30 75 35 75 35
>30 60 20 65 25 65 25
a C: Clay; SiC: Silty Clay; SiCL: Silty Clay Loam; S: Sand; SC: Sandy Clay.
TABLE 1.8
Rating of Drainage Classes for Irrigation
C, SiC, SiCL, Other C, SiC, SiCL, Other C, SiC, SiCL, Other
Drainage Classes S, SC Texturesa Textures S, SC Textures Textures S, SC Textures Textures
Well Drained 100 100 100 100 100 100
Moderately Drained 80 90 90 95 100 100
Imperfectly Drained 70 80 75 85 80 90
Poorly Drained 60 65 65 70 70 80
Very Poorly Drained 40 65 45 65 50 65
Drainage Status 70 80 70 80 70 80
Not Known
a C: Clay; SiC: Silty Clay; SiCL: Silty Clay Loam; S: Sand; SC: Sandy Clay.
TABLE 1.9
Rating of Slope for Irrigation
Slope Classes (%) Non-terraced Terraced Non-terraced Terraced Non-terraced Terraced
0–1 100 100 100 100 100 100
1–3 95 95 100 100 100 100
3–5 90 95 95 100 100 100
5–8 80 90 85 95 90 100
8–16 70 80 75 85 80 90
16–30 50 65 55 70 60 75
>30 30 45 35 50 40 55
1.2.2.6 Slope (F)

The dominant topographic factor that influences the irrigation suitability concerns the slope. Rating
the overall slope can be considered as sufficient. It is also estimated that a difference should be made
between terraced and nonterraced slopes. Ratings are given in Table 1.9.
TABLE 1.10
Some of Physicochemical Characteristics for Reference Profiles of Soil Series Coded 1
Soil Depth (cm) Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) CaCO3 (%) ECe (ds.m−1) Drainage Classes Slope (%)
0–15 20 64 16 40.50 1.00 Moderately Drained 2–5
Example
Calculating the Ci and land suitability classes of different irrigation methods based on the para-
metric evaluation in Dasht Bozorg Plain, Soil series coded 1.
Some of the physicochemical characteristics for reference profiles of soil series coded 1 are
shown in Table 1.10.
1. The textural rating of the profile calculates as follows:
First section (0–25 cm) 15 × 2 × 20 = 600

10 × 2 × 18 = 360
Second section (25–50 cm) 25 × 1.5 × 18 = 675
Third section (50–75 cm) 2 × 1 × 18 = 36
23 × 1 × 15 = 345
Fourth section (75–100 cm) 25 × 0.75 × 15 = 281.25
Fifth section (100–125 cm) 25 × 0.5 × 15 = 187.50
Sixth section (125–150 cm) 25 × 0.25 × 15 = 93.75
Sum = 2,578.50
Use six sections of 25 cm with weighting factors: 2.00, 1.50, 1.00, 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25.
The amount of sand particle in the profile calculates as follows:
The amount of sand particle in the profile: (2,578.5)/(150) = 17/19%
The amount of silt particle in the profile calculates as follows:
First section (0–25 cm) 15 × 2 × 64 = 1,920

10 × 2 × 55 = 1100
Second section (25–50 cm) 25 × 1.5 × 55 = 2,062.50
Third section (50–75 cm) 2 × 1 × 55 = 110
23 × 1 × 54 = 1,242
Fourth section (75–100 cm) 25 × 0.75 × 54 = 1,012.50
Fifth section (100–125 cm) 25 × 0.5 × 54 = 675
Sixth section (125–150 cm) 25 × 0.25 × 54 = 337.50
Sum = 8,459.50
The amount of silt particle in the profile: (8,459.5)/(150) = 56.39%

The amount of sand particle and silt particle in the profile are 17/19% and 56.39%,
respectively; therefore, by referring to the triangular soil texture, the soil texture of
profile is silty loam.
The rating of silty loam textures for different irrigation systems are as follows (Refer to
Table 1.4):
Soil Texture Rating for Surface Irrigation Rating for Sprinkler Irrigation Rating for Drip Irrigation
Silty Loam 100 100 100
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A week after we went to Gauhati, news came from Manipur that
Mr. Heath, our successor, was very ill indeed with dysentery. And as
every day went by, bringing reports of his condition, sometimes
better, and then worse again, we began to fear that he would not
recover. At last one day a telegram came saying that all was over,
and that he had died the previous evening. We were both very sorry
to hear it. We had liked what we saw of him so much, and had been
so sorry to leave him there, apart from our own sad feelings at going,
knowing that he disliked and dreaded the place so much. It seemed
terribly sad. I knew well, too, that it would mean our returning there,
and much as I had regretted leaving, I did not want to go back.
I cannot tell why the dislike had arisen within me at the thoughts of
returning; but the journey was so long, and the time of year so trying,
and on the top of that there was the feeling that a man whom we had
known and liked had just died in the house, and that if we went back
it would be to rooms that were full of his things, and associations
quite unlike those we had left behind us. Maybe that a warning of all
that was yet to come filled me with some unknown presentiment of
evil; but it seemed as though our return there was inevitable.
Within twenty-four hours after we had heard of Mr. Heath’s death
came the letter offering Manipur again to my husband. I watched his
face light up as he read it, full of eagerness to get back to the place
he loved, and I knew that I could never tell him that I did not want
him to go. My reasons for not wishing to return seemed childish, and
I thought he would not understand the superstitious ideas which filled
me with dread at the idea of going back. So when he came to me
with the letter and asked me to decide whether we should say yes or
no to it, I said we had better accept what it offered.
As it was so late in the year for travelling, and the weather so hot
and unhealthy, my husband decided to leave me in Shillong on his
way to Manipur, and let me follow in October. It was with a heavy
heart that I superintended the arrangements for the return journey.
An undefinable dread seemed to predominate over all I did, and I bid
good-bye to my husband when he left me behind in Shillong with a
very heavy heart, and my anxiety was not lessened when I heard
from him day after day, giving me terrible accounts of all he was
going through on the way. Every one of his servants, with the
exception of the Khitmutghar, got ill with fever and other complaints
peculiar to the time of year. They had to be carried the whole way,
and my husband had to cook his own dinner and groom his horses
himself every day, besides having to unpack all the necessary tables
and chairs at each halting-place, and do them up again before
starting off next morning. It was only a mercy that he did not get ill
himself to add to the other miseries, and that I was not there to make
extra work for him. Very glad was I to hear from him at last that he
had arrived safely at Manipur. I don’t think he felt very bright at first.
He was quite alone there. The regiment was still away in the Chin
Hills, and rumours were afloat that when it did return most of the
men were to be drafted to Shillong, and only a wing left to garrison
Langthabal. My husband complained, too, that the Residency had
somewhat gone to seed since we left. During Mr. Heath’s illness and
the time which elapsed between his death and our return the
servants had all taken a holiday, so there was a good deal to be
done to get things into order again. Several rooms in the house that
contained the dead man’s effects were kept locked up, and it was
some time before my husband could get the whole house opened
and the things sent away down to Calcutta.
Meanwhile I was enjoying myself very much, having got over my
first feelings of loneliness, and made friends with everyone in the
place, more or less. Shillong is a lovely little station nestling away
amongst the Khasia Hills, in the midst of pine woods, and abounding
in waterfalls and mountain-torrents. The climate is delicious all the
year round, and the riding and driving as good, if not better, than any
hill-station in India. Life there was very pleasant, not a
superabundance of gaiety, but quite enough to be enjoyable. I have
spent some very happy days there with some good friends, many of
whom, alas! I can never hope to see again; and the memories that
come to me of Shillong and my sojourn there are tinged with
sadness and regret, even though those days were good and
pleasant while they lasted.
Things have changed there now, that is, as far as the comings and
goings of men change, but the hills remain the same, and the face of
Nature will not alter. Her streams will whisper to the rocks and
flowers of all that has been and that is to be. So runs the world.
Where others lived and loved, sorrowed and died, two hundred years
ago, we are living now, and when our day is over and done there will
be others to take our place, until a time comes when there shall be
no more change, neither sorrow nor death, and the former things
shall have passed away for ever.
CHAPTER VIII.
A terrible experience—A Thoppa and a journey in it—Its difficulties and dangers—
The Lushais—Arrive at Sylhet—Find the Coolies have levanted—A pony
journey ends disastrously—A night walk—Accident to Mr. A⸺.—Arrive at a
teahouse—Not a shadowy dinner.
I left Shillong early in November, 1889, travelling part of the way

towards Manipur quite alone, and had a terrible experience too. I had
arranged to journey a distance of thirty-eight miles in one day. I sent
one of my horses on the day before, and started in a ‘Khasia
Thoppa’ down the last hill of the range upon which Shillong is
situated, which brings you down into the plain of Sylhet. A Thoppa is
a very curious mode of locomotion. It is a long cane basket, with a
seat in the middle, from which hangs a small board to rest your feet
upon. Over your head is a covered top made of cane, covered with a
cloth. You sit in this basket and a man carries you on his back,
supporting some of the weight by tying a strap woven of cane on to
the back of the Thoppa, which he puts over his forehead. The
Khasias, luckily, are very strong men, but they think it necessary
always to begin by informing you that you are much too heavy to be
lifted by any single individual, unless that said individual be
compensated at the end of the journey with double pay.
You ask him what you weigh, and he scratches an excessively
dirty head, shuts up one eye, spits a quantity of horrible red fluid out
of his mouth, and then informs you that he should put you down as
eighteen or nineteen stone, and he even will go as far as twenty
sometimes. This, to a slim, elegant-looking person, partakes of the
nature of an insult, but eventually he picks you up on his back and
proceeds along the road with you as fast as he can, as if you were a
feather weight. Going along backwards, and knowing that, should
the man’s headstrap break, the chances are you will be precipitated
down the Khud,[7] are certainly not pleasurable sensations; but it is
astonishing how exceedingly callous you become after a lengthy
course of Thoppa rides up in the hills. Sometimes your Thoppa
wallah[8] may be slightly inebriated, when he will lurch about in a
horrible manner, emit a number of curious gurgling noises from the
depths of his throat, and eventually tumble down in the centre of the
road, causing you grievous hurt.
At other times he will take into consideration that it is a cold night,
the Memsahib is going to a Nautch,[9] and will be there four or five
hours, while he is left to his own reflections outside, waiting to carry
her home again when her festivities have subsided. Having arrived
at the conclusion that the cold will probably by that time be intense,
he will come to take you to the scene of action enveloped in every
covering that he can get together. After he has carried you a short
way he begins getting hot, and rapidly divests himself of his many
wrappers, placing them on the top of your machine, where they
flutter about, hitting you now and then playfully in the mouth or eye,
as the case may be, and making themselves as generally
unpleasant as they possibly can. Having done so, they end by falling
off into the road. Your Khasia perceives them, and immediately
descends with you on to his hands and knees, and grovels about
until he recovers the fallen raiment. During this process your head
assumes a downward tendency, and your heels fly heavenwards;
and should you move in anyway ever so slightly, you immediately
find yourself sitting on the ground in a more hasty than dignified
attitude, upbraiding your Khasia in English. You may swear at a
native and abuse all his relations, as their custom is, in his own
language, and you will not impress him in any way; but use good
sound fish-wife English, and he will treat you as a person worthy of
respect.
On my journey from Shillong, at the time of which I write, I fell in
with two very amiable Khasias. One could speak Hindostanee rather
well, and he walked beside me as I travelled down the hill and talked
to me on various interesting subjects. He asked me a great deal
about the Lushais, and I invented some wonderful anecdotes for his
delectation. When we parted, I think I had impressed him with the
idea that I was a person of great moral worth.
At the foot of the hill I got into a small train, the only railway to be
found at present in that side of Assam. I think it only extends over
about twelve miles of country, and there are about four trains, two up
and two down daily. They do not trouble themselves by putting on
too much speed. We, my servants and I, travelled as far as we could
in it, and then I found myself within twenty miles of Sylhet—my
proposed destination—in lots of time to ride in comfortably before
dark, and get my servants and baggage in at the same time. But,
alas! the inevitable fate of the traveller in Sylhet was destined to be
mine, too, on this occasion; and when I got out of the train, expecting
to find my coolies waiting for me, I found a wretched police inspector,
who informed me that the coolies had all run away, and he could not
get me any more. What was to be done I knew not, but after some
delay I met a young fellow whom I knew slightly, as he was
connected with the railway, and I had seen him passing through the
district once before. He was a perfect godsend to me on this
occasion, and after some hours’ hunting for coolies he managed to
get the requisite number, and started them off with my luggage.
The next thing to be done was to start myself. Mr. A⸺ kindly
offered to go with me half-way, as it was then four o’clock, and only
two hours of daylight left. Off we started, he on the most
extraordinary pony I have ever seen, that looked as though it might
fall down at any moment, and I on a small Manipuri pony I had taken
with me up in the hills. We started off galloping, and went as hard as
we could for six miles. I hoped that about seven miles from Sylhet I
should find a pony-trap waiting for me which a planter had offered to
send to meet me, so I did not spare my small steed, as I knew he
would not think anything of twelve miles.
By the time we got to the river, where I expected the cart to meet
me, it was almost dark. My poor pony was terribly tired and hot, but
Mr. A⸺’s curious old beast seemed none the worse. We crossed
the river on a ferry, and then found there was no cart on the opposite
side. It was a terrible blow, for our ponies had done enough as it
was. Night was rapidly overtaking us, and seven miles of the road
lay before us to be got over somehow. I had passed all my coolies
three miles away on the road from the railway, and knew that they
would not be in for hours. There was nothing to be done but to go on
as best we could. There were tracks of the cart-wheels in the road,
so I knew it had been there, and it made it all the more annoying. It
was no good trying to gallop on, as my pony was so tired he could
scarcely crawl.
We proceeded slowly for about two miles. It was getting darker
every minute, and at length we could see nothing at all, but knew
that we had still five more weary miles to travel over. Mr. A⸺
suggested our urging our horses into a canter, which ended
disastrously for me, as my pony caught his foot in something on the
road and landed on his head. That was the end of all idea of riding,
so I got off, hauled him up on his legs by dint of much persuasion,
and started off walking. The road was ankle-deep in loose sand,
jackals hurried by us at every moment, and noises startled me at
every turn. At last I remembered that the planter who had sent the
cart out lived somewhere in that neighbourhood. When we had been
quartered in Sylhet, I had often ridden past his house, though I had
never been actually up to it, and I told Mr. A⸺ that I thought we
had better steer for his bungalow, if we could only find the road up to
it. We went on as fast as we could, considering, and at length saw
the lights of the house standing some distance to our left away from
the road.
The next thing was to find the way up to it. My companion asked
me to look after the ponies—a rather unnecessary precaution, as
they were too tired to need any looking after—and he proceeded to
try and find the road. After a little while I heard a stifled call in the
distance, which was repeated, and then I discovered that poor Mr. A
⸺ had fallen into a horribly wet, slushy rice-field, and needed my
help to extricate him. Having given him the necessary aid, and
hauled him out, we decided that any more searching for the road up
to the house would be a futile waste of energy, and were preparing
to make the best of our way into Sylhet, when a coolie woman came
by, and we rushed at her and asked if she could show us the way to
the Sahib’s bungalow. She seemed very much alarmed at our
sudden appearance, as we were then only dimly visible by the light
of the rising moon. However, she said after a little that she would not
mind conveying us up to the house, provided that we would allow her
a fair start in front of us, as she professed to be much alarmed at our
horses.
We proceeded slowly and solemnly behind her, and at length
found ourselves not at the bungalow, but at the tea-house, an
erection made of corrugated iron in which the tea was manufactured.
All round this building there were wire stays which were fastened in
the ground and attached to the roof, to prevent the latter being blown
off in storms of wind. My poor tired pony caught his feet in one of
these wires and tumbled down; so, thinking that it was better to take
what rest he could, he did not trouble himself to get up again. It was
not much good scolding our guide, but we seemed no better off than
we had been in the road below, and the lights of the bungalow
gleamed just as far away as before. Mr. A⸺ suggested shouting,
so simultaneously we all lifted up our voices and shouted as loud as
we could.
At length, after doing this a great many times, a light appeared in
the door of the bungalow; and a few minutes afterwards the figure of
my friend the planter became visible descending the hill upon which
his house was situated, and coming armed with a big stick to see
what evil spirits were in possession of his tea-house.
Very much surprised was he when he found there was a lady in
the case, and not a little disconcerted over his own appearance, as
he was not clad in raiment suitable to the entertaining of female
visitors.
I was much too tired, however, to notice whether he was got up for
the occasion or not, and he seemed a perfect godsend to us both
after all we had gone through.
He soon took us up to his house, and in half an hour gave us
dinner. Real dinner, too—not a shadowy make-belief; but soup,
entrée, and joint, just as though we had come by invitation, and this
had been the result of some days’ preparation.
How we did eat! There was little doubt that we appreciated the
excellent fare set before us, and at the end of it I felt a different
being.
Our friend the planter had meanwhile got himself up regardless of
expense, and offered to drive me into Sylhet, an offer which I most
gladly accepted, leaving the poor Jabberwock in a comfortable
stable, with a large bundle of grass in front of him, which he was too
tired to eat.
We did not take long to get over the four miles to Sylhet, where I
bade farewell to the planter and Mr. A⸺, who returned with him to
the garden.
I had the pleasure of lying down on a bed with no bedding, and
waiting until my coolies and baggage should arrive, with part of my
muddy habit rolled up to serve for a pillow; and very well I slept for
three good hours, when at two o’clock in the morning my goods and
chattels commenced dropping in, and I was able to go to bed in real,
sober earnest.
Next morning the Jabberwock arrived, looking rather miserable,
with a very large swelling on his leg, and a bad girthgall; so there
was no possibility of our continuing our journey that day, as the
servants all said they were dying, and could not move on at any
price. However, the day following they had recovered sufficiently to
proceed another fifteen miles; and after three more days I arrived at
Cachar, where I found my husband, who had come down from
Manipur to meet me.
CHAPTER IX.
Return to Manipur—Mr. Heath’s grave—Old Moonia—A quarrel and fight between
Moonia and the Chupprassie’s wife—Dignity of the Chupprassies—The
Senaputti gets up sports—Manipuri greetings and sports.
It was strange finding myself back in Manipur after nearly nine

months’ absence; but though the house had had several
improvements made to it, and the grounds were prettier than when
we had left in February, I could not settle down in the place as I had
done before. Poor Mr. Heath was buried in our own garden, quite
close to the house—so close, in fact, that I could see his grave from
my bedroom window. There had been two graves there before—one
was Major Trotter’s, who was once political agent at Manipur, and
died there from wounds which he had received fighting in Burmah;
the other was that of a young Lieutenant Beavor, who had also died
at the Residency, of fever. But we had never known either of these
two men, so that I did not look upon them in the same light as I did
on Mr. Heath, and his sudden, sad death seemed to haunt me. Once
a friend of mine remarked to my husband, ‘What an unlucky place
Manipur is! I have seen so many political agents go up there, and
something always seems to happen to them.’ Hearing this gave me
a cold shudder, and I longed to get my husband to give up a place so
associated with gloomy incidents, and take some other district in the
province. Not that I was ever really afraid of anything tangible.
THE GARDENS OF THE RESIDENCY AT MANIPUR.
I rode alone all over the country, fearing nothing from the
inhabitants, who knew me, and would have been only too ready to
help me had I needed aid; and I have been left for days together
quite alone at the Residency while my husband had to be out in
camp. Once he had to go down to Tammu in Burmah, five days’
journey from Manipur, and I was too ill to go with him, so stayed
behind.
For sixteen days I was there all alone. We had no neighbours
nearer than a hundred miles off, and I never even heard English
spoken until my husband returned. The old ayah used to sleep on
my doormat at night, and I always had sentries outside the house,
back and front. I used to hear, or imagine I heard, all kinds of noises
sometimes, and get up, waking the old woman from her noisy
slumbers to come and do a midnight parade all round the house,
searching in every nook and corner for the disturber of my rest,
which was probably nothing more harmful than an antiquated bat
roaming about in the roof, or a rat in the cellars beneath the house.
The poor old ayah used to pretend to be very valiant on these
occasions and carefully hunt in every dark corner which I had
already turned out; but she was always glad to get back when the
search was ended to her own venerable blanket, in which she used
to roll her attenuated form, and snore away the long vigils of the
nights.
Poor old Moonia! she was a faithful old soul, and has tramped
many a mile after me in my wanderings backwards and forwards.
She was a lazy old woman, but if I told her so, she gave me warning
on the spot. She did this very frequently—on an average, six times a
month; but after a little I got accustomed to it—in fact, I may say I got
rather to like it—and I never by any chance reminded her of her
promised flitting, or took any notice of the warning when she gave it
to me. She was a very quarrelsome old creature, and had some very
bitter enemies. First and above all she detested the head bearer.
She hated him with a deep and deadly hatred, and if she could do
him a bad turn she would do it, even though it caused her much
fatigue, bodily and mental, to accomplish it. Next to the bearer she
disliked the wife of one of the Chupprassies. This female was a
powerfully-built Naga woman, with a very good opinion of herself;
and she returned the ayah’s dislike most fully. They were always at
war, and on one occasion they had a stand-up fight. We had gone
out into camp, and as Moonia (the ayah) had not been well, I left her
at home instead of taking her with me, as I generally did. Two days
after we had started, a report reached us that she had had a terrible
fight with the Chupprassie’s wife, and the latter had injured her very
seriously. We heard nothing more about it at that time, so I imagined
that the ayah’s wounds were healing, and that I should not be
informed as to details at all. Not so, however. We returned to the
Residency a fortnight later, and I sent for my abigail as usual,
receiving in return a message saying that she could not come, as
she was still dangerously ill. Having, however, insisted on her
appearing, she came—very slowly, and with her head so enveloped
in coverings that I could not see even the tip of her nose. Groans
issued forth at intervals, and she subsided on to the floor directly she
entered the room. After a little parleying, I persuaded her to undo her
various blankets, and show me the extent of her injuries. They were
not serious, and the only real wound was one on the top of her head,
which certainly was rather a deep cut. However, I soon impressed
upon her that I did not think she was as near death’s door as she
evidently imagined, and let her return to her own apartments, vowing
vengeance on her adversary.
Moonia presented a petition soon afterwards, and my husband
had to try the case, which he proceeded to do in the veranda of the
Residency. The evidence was very conflicting. All the complainant’s
witnesses bore testimony against her, and vice-versâ; and the
language of the principal parties concerned was very voluble and
abusive. The ayah made a great sensation, however, by producing
the log of wood she had been beaten with, covered with hair and
blood, and the clothes she had worn at the time, in a similar gory
condition. The hair in the stick was very cleverly arranged. Where it
had originally come from was not easy to define; but it was stuck in
bunches the whole length of the stick, and must have been a work of
time and ingenuity. However, there were many exclamations of
commiseration for the complainant, and eventually the defendant
was fined one rupee, and bound over to keep the peace.
Then ensued a funny scene. The ayah argued that the fine
imposed was not heavy enough, and the adversary threatened her
with more violence as soon as she should leave the presence of the
Sahib; and they swore gaily at each other, as only two native women
know how to swear, and had to be conveyed from the court in
different directions by a small guard of the 43rd Ghoorkas, who were
mightily amused at the whole business. I thought at the time that
should the Chupprassie’s wife ever get an opportunity of wreaking
vengeance on the ayah, she was just the sort of woman to make that
revenge a deep one; and I pitied the ayah if she ever fell into her
hands. The day did come before very long; but of that I shall speak
later on.
Our Chupprassies were very useful, but very lazy, and puffed up
with pride in their own loveliness. Their red coats with the ‘V.R.’
buttons, covered with gold braid, lent them much dignity; and there
were many little offices which they absolutely refused to perform
because they wore the Queen’s livery, and considered themselves
too important. For instance, I requested four of them once to go into
the garden and catch grasshoppers out of the long grass with which
to feed a cage full of little birds. One of the four alone condescended
to go; the rest solemnly refused, saying that they could not demean
themselves by such a performance, and that I must get the Naga
boys out of the village to do it for them. And I had to give in to them
ignominiously.
These ten Chupprassies were all supposed to be interpreters of
some kind or another; but for the most part they could speak no
other dialect but their own, whatever that happened to be, and had
no idea of translating it into any other tongue.
Altogether, they were decidedly more ornamental than useful. Two
of them rode extremely well, and they acted as my jockeys in some
pony-races which the Senaputti got up one Christmas Day, amongst
other sports, for the amusement of our Sepoys and his own.
The Senaputti had got the idea of this Gymkhana from having
seen the 44th Ghoorka sports on one occasion at Langthabal, when
that regiment was stationed there, and besides the ordinary races
and competitions the Manipuris had some which I have never seen
anywhere else. One feat they performed was to lay a man on the top
of six bayonets. The bayonets were fixed to the rifles, and the latter
were then driven into the ground like stakes with the points upwards.
A man then lay down flat on the ground and made himself as stiff as
possible, when he was lifted up by four other men, and laid along the
tops of the bayonets. Had he moved they must have gone into him,
and we never knew how the performance was managed, or whether
they fixed anything on the points of the bayonets to prevent their
piercing his flesh; but it did not look a nice trick at all, and one always
dreaded an accident. There was wrestling, too, in which the princes
took part, and foot races, and the Senaputti gave the prizes, mostly
in money. And to wind up there was a play. The Maharajah had three
jesters, exactly like the old English fashion of having court-jesters to
amuse royalty.
The Manipuri specimens were very funny indeed. Their heads
were shaved like the back of a poodle, with little tufts of hair left here
and there; and their faces were painted with streaks of different-
coloured paints, and their eyebrows whitened. They wore very few
clothes, but what they had were striped red and green and a variety
of shades. They walked up to the tent where we were sitting to watch
the sports, all leaning against each other, and carrying on a lively
conversation in Manipuri, which seemed to amuse the spectators
very much. On reaching the door of the tent they all fell down at our
feet, making terrible grimaces by way of greeting, and then they
picked each other up and retired a few yards off and commenced the
performance. One disguised himself as an old woman, and another
as a native doctor, and the third as a sick man, lying on the ground
covered with a white sheet. Someone out of the crowd was
impressed into the play, and he had to call the doctor to the sick
man, who was meanwhile heaving up and down upon the ground in
a very extraordinary manner. The doctor came and poked him about,
making observations in Manipuri, at which everyone roared with
laughter; and then the old woman arrived and dragged the doctor off
home. She was supposed to be his wife, and as soon as she
appeared a scuffle ensued, in which the old woman’s clothes fell off.
We thought best to beat a retreat, as the play was beginning to be
rowdy and the dialogue vulgar; but I believe that it went on for some
hours afterwards, as we heard shouts of laughter proceeding from
the direction of the polo-ground, where the sports were held, late at
night; and the princes told us the next day that it had been a very
good play, and the only pity was that we had witnessed so little of it.
CHAPTER X.
Bad relations between the Pucca Senna and the Senaputti—Rival lovers—
Quarrels in the Royal Family—Prince Angao Senna—Pigeon contests—The
Manipuris’ fondness for gambling—Departure of the Ghoorkas—Too much
alone.
All was peaceful at Manipur around us until September 11, 1890.

As day after day went by, we seemed to get to know the royal family
better. Rumours of strife amongst the brothers reached us from time
to time, and petty jealousies showed themselves in some of their
dealings—jealousies that the weak will ever have for the strong, in
whatever country or community it may be. But we were good friends
with them all, though it was difficult at times to avoid giving cause for
disputes between the Pucca Senna and his more powerful brother,
the Senaputti. If one came more often than the other, that other
would get annoyed, and refuse to come at all for some time. The
Pucca Senna got very angry, because the Senaputti frequently
escorted the young princesses on their visits to me, and on one
occasion he tried to arrest some of their attendants in the road when
they were leaving the Residency, which might have been the
beginning of a very serious disturbance, had not my husband,
hearing privately that something of the kind was meditated, sent an
orderly and a Chupprassie with the girls to see them safely as far as
the palace.
The Senaputti had left the Residency on that occasion some time
before the young princesses went away. Poor children! they were
very much alarmed at the attempt to waylay their attendants, and it
was a very long time before they summoned up enough courage to
pay us another visit.
We knew that the Pucca Senna and the Senaputti were rivals, too.
Both wished to marry a girl who was supposed to be the most
beautiful woman in Manipur. She rejoiced in the name of Maïpâkbi,
but I never thought her as pretty as some of the young princesses
who used to come and see me. She was not a royalty herself, but
was the daughter of a wealthy goldsmith who lived near the palace;
her father was a prominent member of the Maharajah’s durbar, or
council. She was taller, though, than the average Manipuri, about
sixteen years of age, and very fair, with quantities of long black hair.
She was always very well dressed, and had a great many gold
bracelets on her arms, and some necklaces of pure gold which
weighed an enormous amount.
‘Fine feathers make fine birds,’ says an old proverb, and in this
case it was certainly true; but the two princes thought her beautiful,
and were at daggers drawn about her. We had a big nautch one
night, to which Maïpâkbi came as chief dancer. All the princes were
there to see it, and the two rivals for the young lady’s affections sat
one on each side of me. The Senaputti was all cheerfulness and
good-humour, but the Pucca Senna was very gloomy and morose,
and at the end of the evening my husband said we must never ask
the two brothers together again. Shortly afterwards we heard that
they had had a terrible quarrel, in which the Maharajah had taken the
part of the Pucca Senna, and that the Senaputti had sworn never to
speak to the latter again, an oath which he kept to the letter.
Meanwhile I went away to the hills, and all seemed to go on quietly
for two or three months, though a storm was brewing in the
meanwhile, which only needed an opportunity to burst forth and
overwhelm the reigning power in destruction. The eight brothers split
up into two factions—the Maharajah, Pucca Senna, Samoo
Hengeba, and the Dooloroi Hengeba formed one side; whilst the
Jubraj, Senaputti, Angao Senna, and the young Zillah Singh all
leagued together. Of the first four named, the Samoo Hengeba and
the Dooloroi Hengeba are the two that have not been mentioned
previously. The first of these was the officer in charge of the
Maharajah’s elephants, numbering about sixty. It was his duty to
manage all the arrangements in connection with them, and on grand
occasions, when the Maharajah rode on an elephant, his brother, the
Samoo Hengeba, acted as Mahout.[10] The name means Chief over
elephants, Samoo being the Manipuri name for an elephant, and
Hengeba head or chief.
The Dooloroi Hengeba had command of all the Maharajah’s
doolies.[11] This mode of travelling was confined to the rich, and was
considered a mark of great dignity; not everyone could indulge in this
luxury, and those who did had to get special permission to use them,
though sometimes they were conferred upon ministers of state by
the Maharajah as a mark of recognition for their services. The
Maharajah seldom travelled in any other style, as he was a very
stout, apoplectic kind of personage, and it suited him better to be
carried than to ride or go on an elephant. His dooly was a very
magnificent affair, made of wood, with gilt hangings all round it, and
a gilt top, which could be put over it in wet weather.
Prince Angao Senna was in charge of the road between Burmah
and Manipur. He was supposed to travel up and down it to see that it
was kept in a state of repair, but I don’t think he ever did so. He was
quite young, about two or three and twenty, and I never remember
seeing him without his having a large piece of betel-nut in his mouth,
which he used to chew. It gave him the appearance of having a
swollen face, as he stuffed enormous bits of it into his mouth all at
once, exactly as a monkey will do with nuts or anything of the kind,
and people said he never cared for anything but eating and drinking
and watching pigeon-fights.
The Manipuris are great gamblers, and they used to make these
pigeon-fights the occasion for betting considerably. A good fighting
pigeon was worth a lot of money—forty or fifty rupees. They were
handsome birds, larger than the ordinary pigeon sold in the market
for an anna apiece, and they had most beautiful plumage. The
contests between two of them were generally held in the middle of
one of the principal roads. Each owner brought his pigeon to the
scene of action tied up in a cloth, and they were then put under a
wicker cage, something like a hen-coop, where they fought until one
conquered.
It was very unexciting to watch it, we thought; but the crowd of
spectators used to take a breathless interest in the combatants, and
bet considerably upon them. I never quite understood how they
decided which bird had won, as they simply beat each other with
their wings, cooing loudly the whole time, and sometimes one
seemed victorious, and sometimes the other. However, there were
doubtless points in the combat which we did not understand, and the
Manipuris always took the deepest interest in them.
Latterly, after the expulsion of the Maharajah, his brother, the
regent, put a stop to these pigeon-fights, as the gambling over them
was becoming excessive, and several of the younger princes had
been seriously involved, and the state had had to pay their debts. A
heavy punishment was inflicted upon anyone found encouraging a
pigeon-fight, and even the casual spectators received a beating,
whilst the owners of the birds, and whoever had instigated the
proceedings, were hauled up before the durbar and fined large
sums. However, Prince Angao Senna was never caught red-handed,
though we heard that he still continued to encourage and attend
these séances on the quiet.
June, July, and August went by. Day by day came letters from my
husband at Manipur full of all the little details which went to make up
his life there, and never a dream of future trouble arose to disturb our
peace of mind. The only thing that rather worried my husband was
the approaching departure of our only neighbour, an officer in the
44th Ghoorkas, quartered at that time at Langthabal. Since the
regiment had left in the winter of 1888 for Burmah, we had never had
more than a wing of it back at Langthabal, and in the winter of 1889
it was decided that the troops should be removed altogether, and our
escort increased from sixty to a hundred men under a native officer.
But this decision took some time to effect. Barracks had to be built in
our grounds for the accommodation of extra men, and these took
time in building. So that it was not until January, 1891, that the
garrison at Langthabal departed.
CHAPTER XI.
The Princes quarrel—Attack on the Maharajah—His retreat—His cowardice and
accusations—The Pucca Senna departs also—Conduct of the Jubraj.
Early in September, 1890, the storm that had long been gathering
amongst the princes at Manipur came to a head and burst. The
spark that kindled the blaze arose out of a very small matter indeed.
The young prince Zillah Singh had been quarrelling with the Pucca
Senna over everything and anything that could be found to quarrel
about, and at length the Pucca Senna got the Maharajah to forbid
Zillah Singh to sit in the durbar, at the same time depriving him of
some small offices of state which he usually performed.
The young prince lost no time in consulting with his powerful
brother and ally, the Senaputti. The result was that one night, about
midnight, when the Maharajah had retired and the rest of the palace
was wrapped in slumber, the young prince collected a handful of
followers, and with his brother Angao Senna climbed the wall leading
to the Maharajah’s apartments, and began firing off rifles into the
windows. The Maharajah had never had much reputation for
courage, and on this occasion, instead of rousing his men to action
and beating off the intruders, he rushed away for safety out at the
back of the palace, and round to the Residency.
Meanwhile, the first note of alarm was brought to my husband by
the bearer, who woke him up at two in the morning with the report
that a fight was taking place in the palace, which report was fully
confirmed by the whiz of bullets over the house; and in a few
minutes the Maharajah and his three brothers arrived in hot haste
from the palace, trembling for their safety. Some Sepoys came with
them, and a great many followers armed with swords and any sort of
weapon they had managed to snatch up in the general melée.
My husband went out as he was, to receive the Maharajah, and
got him to go into the durbar room and lie down, as he was in such a

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ISBN: 9780367505363 (hbk)

Chapter 1 Introduction of Parametric Evaluation System for Irrigation Purposes........................ 3

Chapter 2 Using Analytical Hierarchy Process Integrated with GIS in an Arid

Section II Strategies for Irrigation Development

Chapter 3 Crop Yield Response to Partial Root Drying Compared

Chapter 4 Solute Leaching Modeling under Different Irrigation Regimes,

Chapter 5 Performance Evaluation of the BUDGET Model in Simulating

Chapter 6 Investigation of Water Stress on Kochia Scoparia L. in Arid

Chapter 7 Coefficients of Infiltration Equations: Determination and Evaluation........................ 93

Chapter 8 Determination of the Optimized Equation of Leaching........................................... 107

Section III Case Studies: Irrigation Method

Chapter 9 Multi-Criteria Decision-Making for Irrigation Management in Serbia.................... 119

Chapter 10 Appraisal of Agricultural Lands for Irrigation in Hot Subhumid Region

Section IV Case Studies: Irrigation System Selection

Chapter 12 The Best Irrigation System in Hamidih Plain, Iran.................................................. 183

Chapter 15 The Best Irrigation System in Dezful Plain, Iran.....................................................209

Chapter 16 The Best Irrigation System in Shirin Ab Plain, Iran................................................ 221

Chapter 17 The Best Irrigation System in Mian-Ab Plain, Iran.................................................. 231

Chapter 20 Best Irrigation System Determination in Ramshir Plain, Iran................................. 261

Chapter 21 Irrigation System in Khalf Abad Plain, Iran............................................................. 269

Chapter 23 Irrigation System Preference in Dehmola Plain, Iran............................................... 287

Chapter 24 Irrigation System Suggestions in Sudjan Plain, Iran................................................. 295

Chapter 25 Irrigation System Choice in Miheh Plain, Iran.........................................................307

Dr. Mohammad Albaji

Professor Saeid Eslamian

Professor Abd Ali Naseri

Dr. Faezeh Eslamian

Saeid Eslamian is a full professor of environmental hydrology and

Faezeh Eslamian holds a PhD in Bioresource Engineering from

Farhan J. Mohamed Althyby Saeed Boroomand Nasab

AbdulKarem Ahmed Al-Alwany Niaz Ali Ebrahimi Pak

Rajendra Hegde Venkataramappa Ramamurthy

Majid Heydari Reza Sadegh Mansouri

Azizallah Izady Maasomeh Salehi

1.2 INTRODUCTION OF PARAMETRIC EVALUATION

s = Limitations due to physical soil properties (A, B, C)

1.2.2 Factors Influencing the Soil Suitability for Irrigation

a Tex: Textural Classes.

1.2.2.2 Soil Depth (B)

1.2.2.3 Calcium Carbonate Status (C)

1.2.2.4 Soil Salinity (D)

1.2.2.5 Drainage (E)

1.2.2.6 Slope (F)

1. The textural rating of the profile calculates as follows:

First section (0–25 cm) 15 × 2 × 20 = 600

First section (0–25 cm) 15 × 2 × 64 = 1,920

The amount of silt particle in the profile: (8,459.5)/(150) = 56.39%

I left Shillong early in November, 1889, travelling part of the way

It was strange finding myself back in Manipur after nearly nine

All was peaceful at Manipur around us until September 11, 1890.

Section II Strategies for Irrigation Development

Section III Case Studies: Irrigation Method

Section IV Case Studies: Irrigation System Selection

1.2 INTRODUCTION OF PARAMETRIC EVALUATION