Y12 IBDP History Notes Matilda Ryan 2024

NAZI GERMANY CHINA JAPAN

GERMANY BEFORE HITLER 1840-1901 1868-1912
Political Instability RISE OF NATIONAL IDENTITY The Meiji Restoration
Friekorps and Spartacists Foreign Policy 19th Century 21 Demands
Failed 1919 revolution First Opium War: 1839-1842 Russo-Japanese War 1904-05
February 1919, Weimar Republic 1911 Revolution WW1
June 1919, Treaty of Versailles Post-Opium Wars Paris Peace Conference
Kapp Putsch 1920 Taiping Rebellion Post Paris Japan
Weimar Republic Review 1918-23 The Double Tenth (10/10/11) 1912: Taisho Democracy
EMERGENCE OF HITLER Yuan Shikai Taisho Japan 1912-26
Munich Putsch, 1923 The Early Republic Kenseikai and Seyukai
Political: Threats from Left and Right Warlord China Seiyukai
Economic: Hyperinflation Yuan Shikai’s Fault Kenseikai
The Rise of the Nazi Party WW1 The Zaibatsu
Stormtroopers - The SA/Brownshirts May 4th, 1919 Zaibatsu and Kenseikai
1928 Failed Election Chinese Communist Party The Genro
The Great Depression The First United Front Militarism
Growing Popularity of NSDAP Nanjing Decade WW2
HITLER EARLY POWER The Peasants Second Sino-Japanese War
Chancellorship LONG MARCH 1934 Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere 1938
1930-1933 1936 Xi'an Incident
1933-34 Japanese Invasion Tripartite Pact 1940

HITLER IN POWER WW2: 2nd Sino-Japanese War Trade Embargos

Propaganda: charismatic leadership Opposition - Mao’s Emergence - Rectification Indo-China 1940-41

of Conduct Campaign (1942-1944) Pearl Harbour
Use/Threat of Force: Maintenance
Opposition: role of the Gestapo Aim Territory Gained

Camp System Purges The Fall of Singapore

Opposition to Hitler Ding Ling Midway

HITLER FOREIGN POLICY Chinese Civil War Guadalcanal

Disarmament Conference Consolidation of Power, Post 1949 Debate

Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Political changes Island Hopping

World Disarmament Conference Three Antis Iwo Jima + Okinawa

Munich Agreement 100 Flowers Campaign Tokyo Firebombing

The Dollfuss Affair: Land Reforms

Saar Plebiscite First five year plan 1953-57

International Reaction The Great Leap Forward

HITLER TO WAR Lushan Conference 1959

Anglo-German Naval Pact Social Changes

Spanish Civil War 1936 Women under Mao

Rome-Berlin Axis 1936 Mao vs Hitler: use of force

Hossbach Memorandum 66-76 Cultural Revolution

Anschluss 68-69 Cultural Revolution

Czechoslovakia 1938 Foreign policy

Poland 1939 Sino-Soviet relations

HITLER DOMESTIC POLICY 1950s

Schacht, Goering, Spear Economics 1960s

Women In Nazi Germany 1970s

Youth + Education 1976

Minorities Death of Zhao Enlai

Gang of Four Arrests

FASCIST ITALY Deng’s purge and reinstatement

ROAD TO WAR Four Modernisations

1920s Fascism Democracy Wall

The Italian ‘Empire’ 1980s

1930s - Great Depression Power struggle

Abyssinia China under Deng

ALBANIA 1939 Tiananmen Square 1989

Issues with China
Before Tiananmen
NAZI GERMANY
GERMANY BEFORE HITLER
Political Instability
END OF WWI
- Germany was an extremely volatile country.
- Their war economy was unprepared for anything but a swift
victory (failure of the Schlieffen plan).
- Blockades by the British, failure of the Schlieffen plan, and a
second front opening up by the Russians.
- Anger at the government.
1918: SPRING OFFENSIVE
Saw the military government concede and hand power back to the Reichstag
and Chancellor: the civilian government signed the armistice on November
11th, 1918. AVOID BLAME LATER.
DISILLUSIONMENT WITH WAR by workers, navy, and people. Soldiers
councils take control of city governments in Northern Germany.
KAISER WILHELM abdicates to Sweden. Fredrich Ebert was the new
president.
ARMISTICE
People hated the armistice being signed by the civilian government
Blamed different groups(communists, jews, politicians).
The politicians and condemned groups were called the NOVEMBER
CRIMINALS
Friekorps and Spartacists
Who were the Freikorps and the Spartacists?
At the extreme left of German politics was the Spartakusbund(the Spartacist
League), led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. Spartacus, who had
defied the authority of Rome in 73 BCE. The Spartacists were true
revolutionaries, refusing to recognise the authority of the state and committed
to the concept of world revolution. Inspired by Russian communism, they
wanted to overthrow the Ebert government and establish a soviet republic in
Germany. Through their newspaper Die Rote Fahne (The Red Flag) and in a
series of mass meetings and demonstrations, the Spartacists urged
counter-revolution. They believed that the true revolution of the working class
was yet to take place, and in the cold and hungry winter of 1918 political
discontent grew.
Ebert(the leader of the government) had anticipated the possibility of an
armed revolt by the extreme left, and in December 1918 he had appointed a
fellow socialist, Gustav Noske, to be Defence Minister. 'Someone must be the
bloodhound,' Noske is reputed to have said. 'I won't shirk the responsibility,
Although the army had secretly pledged to support the government, Noske
saw the Freikorps (Free Corps) units as a more reliable instrument to counter
any threat from the extreme left. The Freikorps were volunteer groups of
ex-soldiers who formed themselves into independent military units under
former officers. In the unsettled situation in Germany in November 1918,
almost 400,000 former soldiers were involved with the Freikorps as they
emerged all over the country. Politically they were unreliable, and although
they had little sympathy for the moderate socialist government in Berlin, they
saw the threat of communism as the more immediate and present danger.
Describe what happened between these groups following the end of WWI
In late December the Spartacists held their first congress and declared
themselves to be the Communist Party of Germany, Kommunistische Partei
Deutschlands (KPD). Encouraged by the size of the working-class protest, a
group within the Spartacists sought to seize power. In Russia in 1917 a
second revolution had carried the Bolsheviks to power over the moderate
socialists; now in Germany in 1918 a second revolution sought to achieve the
same goal.
The Ebert government, almost besieged in the chancellery, ordered Gustav
Noske to restore order in the capital. Noske's Freikorps units carried out their
task with some brutality; buildings seized by the Spartacists were recaptured,
and after three days of fighting on the streets of Berlin the Spartacist uprising
was crushed. The Spartacists, who were mainly civilians, were no match for
the Freikorps with their military training, and more than 150 Spartacists were
killed. Among those who died were Karl Liebknecht, who had supported the
attempted uprising, and Rosa Luxemburg, who had initially opposed it. They
were arrested and murdered by Freikorps troops. Four months later
Luxemburg's body was dredged out of an ice-covered Berlin canal.
The government of Berlin ordered the suppression of the revolts in Bavaria,
and the Freikorps, along with units of the regular army, moved on the
Bavarian capital, Munich. Throughout April and May the radical protests were
crushed and more than 500 people were killed. One man who observed the
political violence in Munich in 1919 was a 30-year-old ex-soldier who had
returned to the city after service in the war. His name was Adolf Hitler. The
Spartacist uprising and the other attempts at political violence in 1919 were an
important feature of the German Revolution: In the face of this revolutionary
threat from the far left, the elected German government needed the support of
the force of the right, the Freikorps and the German army to ensure its
survival. Even after defeat in war, the role of the German army was important
in determining the government of Germany.
What do the existence of these groups show about the political/social situation
in the early days of the German republic?
The political circumstances were turbulent and the feeling in Germany was
angry. People and groups that had fought for their country were turning on
one another. People were drawn to quite radical ideas as opposed to
moderate views/politics.
Radical politics always leads to tension/volatility
Explain what the 'stab-in-the-back' legend was.
The German army had not been defeated on the battlefield, but because
social democratic politicians had signed the truce in order to take control, the
war was over and the Germans had to declare defeat.
(In reality, the army command had made mistakes and the German army was
in no shape to keep on fighting - but generals like Hindenburg and Erich
Ludendorff spread the story).
What impact do you think the 'stab-in-the-back' legend had on German
civilians?
They were angry with the people that were in power and so were more likely
to rebel and join revolutionary and often extremist groups. It led to political
violence and uncertainty, unnecessary conflict in other areas and the rise of
the Nazi party. This is especially true given the German people were excited
about the prospect of war when it began in 1914.
Why does Kershaw believe the legend was an 'invention of the Right'?
He thinks this because it could be used by the fascists and people who were
not in power to undermine those that were(those who signed the armistice
and ‘betrayed Germany’.
What, according to Kershaw, was one of the longer-term consequences of the
'stab-in-the-back' legend?
It could be used by the fascists and the Nazis to bring people to their side
against the standing civilian government.
Failed 1919 revolution
2 major consequences of the failed 1919 revolution:
The left was fractured → The German Communist Party (KPD) would never
forgive the SPD (led by Ebert) for what happened in Jan 1919. These parties
could have united against Hitler in 1932 but KPD hatred towards SPD denied
this (KPD despised the SPD MORE than the Nazis)
No revolution meant no change in Germany. While Democracy had enacted
itself in Germany, power still lay with those who had power under the Kaiser -
people known as the conservative elites. These people hated democracy and
the idea of a republic but couldn't really do much about this - so they reaped
the rewards of democracy while they could. Later during the Depression, they
looked to destroy the Republic. They wanted Authoritarian rule.
February 1919, Weimar Republic
The first meeting of the new German parliament took place on 6 February
1919 in the quiet town of Weimar, well away from the strife in Berlin some 200
kilometres to the north. In the eighteenth century Weimar had been the home
of the great German writers Goethe and Schiller, and was a major centre of
German culture. In the twentieth century, Weimar gave its name to this new
experiment in German democracy - the Weimar Republic. After the opening
ceremony, Friedrich Ebert, who had held power since November, handed
power back to the newly elected parliament. A few days later the parliament in
turn elected him the first president of the new German Republic. President
Ebert then appointed the new government, a coalition of the Social
Democratic Party (SP), the Centre Party and the German Democratic Party
(DDP). Philipp Scheidemann, the new leader of the Social Democratic Party,
became the first chancellor, and his coalition held 329 of the 423 seats in the
National Assembly. This set the political framework, for every government of
the republic was a coalition government.
Article 48 of the constitution gave the president emergency powers. These
powers included the right to use the armed forces to restore order if stability
was threatened and the power to suspend the basic liberties and rights of the
German people. In this genuine attempt at democracy, the constitution gave
the president, in a time of emergency, the power to suspend the constitution,
and to issue laws by decree regardless of the elected parliament.
June 1919, Treaty of Versailles
Disarmament - Forces limited to 100,000 soldiers, six battleships, no air force
Reparations - this was eventually set at £6600 million. Afterwards, The Dawes
and Young Plans re-scheduled Germany's payments
Land lost - Poland gained Posen from Germany, and also gained East Prussia. Weimar Republic Review 1918-23
This became known as the Polish Corridor. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to
Issu Describe Impact Solution/reactio
France. Germany lost her colonies e (political, economic, ns(short term)
● The Covenant of the League of Nations - Germany was not social)
allowed to join.
● The Rhineland was demilitarised - the German army was not The The Armistice was They were angry with The people
allowed to go there. Arm the ceasefire that the people that were in condemned the
istic ended the struggle power and so were November
● The Saar, with its rich coalfields, was given to France for 15
e, between the Allies more likely to rebel and Criminals and
years. Nov and Germany on the join revolutionary and blamed
● Alsace-Lorraine returned to France. 11 11th of November often extremist groups. politicians,
191 1918. The Armistice It led to political violence communists
● Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria. 8 did not end the First and uncertainty, and minority
● Lands in eastern Germany - the rich farmlands of Posen and the World War itself, but unnecessary conflict in groups.
Polish corridor between Germany and East Prussia - given to it was an agreement other areas and the rise
which stopped the of the Nazi party.
Poland. fighting on the
● Danzig became a free city under League of Nations control. Western Front while
the terms of the
● All Germany's colonies were taken and given to France and permanent peace
Britain as 'mandates'. were
● The German army was restricted to 100,000 men. discussed(Versailles
).
● The German navy was restricted to six battleships and no
submarines.
● Germany was not allowed to have an air force. Spa The Spartacists The Spartacist uprising The Ebert
rtaci were true and the other attempts government,
● Germany was responsible for causing all the loss and damage sts, revolutionaries, at political violence in almost
caused by the war. Jan refusing to recognise 1919 were an important besieged in the
191 the authority of the feature of the German chancellery,
● Germany would have to pay reparations, to be decided later - 9 state and committed Revolution: In the face ordered Gustav
eventually set at 132 billion gold marks. to the concept of of this revolutionary Noske to
The Treaty of Versailles led to punishing reparations, political violence and world revolution. In threat from the far left, restore order in
late December the the elected German the capital.
continued instability in Germany in the short term after its signing. The political Spartacists held government needed the Noske's
impact was immense in that it was turbulent and violent with groups like the their first congress support of the force of Freikorps units
and declared the right, the Freikorps carried out their
Spartacists and the Freikorps emerging. People hated the armistice being
themselves to be the and the German army to task with some
signed by the civilian government and blamed different groups(like the Communist Party of ensure its survival. Even brutality;
communists, jews and politicians). The politicians were called the NOVEMBER Germany, after defeat in war, the buildings seized
Kommunistische role of the German army by the
CRIMINALS and radical protests like the Spartacist uprising were bloody and Partei Deutschlands was important in Spartacists
threatening. The hyperinflation and conflict in the Ruhr that followed also led to (KPD). Encouraged determining the were
more violence socially and politically. Standard of living was low and allowed by the size of the government of recaptured, and
working-class Germany. after three days
extremist groups to take power - leading to WW2. protest, a group of fighting on
within the the streets of
Spartacists sought Berlin the
Kapp Putsch 1920 to seize power. Spartacist
Despite an established constitution and government, the early days of the uprising was
Weimar Republic were filled with political violence - there were hundreds crushed.
of political murders in these early days. Extreme right-wing groups
attempted to overthrow the elected government. Sparked by the mass Tre Disarmament - Punishing reparations -> WWII?
aty Forces limited to hyperinflation.
anger at the treaty of Versaille and in particular the restrictions placed on
of 100,000 soldiers, six Political violence and
the military. The army had been a source of German pride and along with Ver battleships, no air continued instability in
the Freikorps, was the only reason that the government had stayed in saill force Germany in the short
es, Reparations - this term after its signing.
power during the Spartacist uprising. Jun was eventually set at Standard of living
e £6600 million. plummeted as political
In March of 1920, the government ordered the dissolution of a Freikorps 191 Afterwards, The and economic issues
9 Dawes and Young began affecting daily life
Brigade stationed outside Berlin. A conspiracy between the military Plans re-scheduled and mindsets.
commander of the city, General von Luttwitz and other right wing officers Germany's Called a diktat.
payments
and civilians meant that they refused. These officers ordered 12000 men Land lost - Poland
to march on the city. The chancellor and president looked to the military for gained Posen from
support but General von Seeckt - leader of the army - would not intervene. Germany, and also
gained East Prussia.
He thought that by putting soldiers who had fought together during the This became known
great war against each other would destroy the remaining ‘comradeship’ in as the Polish
the officer corps. The Cabinet and the leaders of the country were forced Corridor.
Alsace-Lorraine was
out of Berlin as their army wouldn’t protect them with the rebels taking returned to France.
several important government buildings. They declared a new government Germany lost its
colonies.
led by Wolfgang Kapp(a radical right-wing politician). The rebellion failed in
days because of the lack of support from the working classes. They
declared a general strike in support of the government that paralysed the The Philipp More democratic. Article The people
Con Scheidemann, the 48 of the constitution reacted as well
city. Civil servants who ran the banking system and bureaucracy supported stitu new leader of the gave the president to this as they
the strike and the rebels were forced to flee. The legal government tion, Social Democratic emergency powers. could given that
July Party, became the These powers included they hated the
returned when General von Luttwitz and Kapp left.
191 first chancellor, and the right to use the government for
9 his coalition held armed forces to restore signing the
WHY IT WAS SIGNIFICANT: 329 of the 423 seats order if stability was armistice -
in the National threatened and the thinking that the
● It was the first attempt to seize power by the elements of the Assembly. This set power to suspend the war was far
radical right, and it exposed the weakness of the the political basic liberties and rights from over. They
government, whose president and elected leaders had been framework, for every of the German people. preferred
government of the In this genuine attempt democracy over
forced to flee the capital. republic was a at democracy, the what had
● The left wing of German politics, and in particular the coalition constitution gave the existed before
government. president, in a time of but still thought
German workers, saw the real threat to the political system emergency, the power to of the people in
as coming from the extreme right. Artic suspend the power as
● The Kapp Putsch also revealed the power of the German le constitution, and to criminals.
48 issue laws by decree
army within the state was regardless of the elected
● Showed that the army was prepared to protect the state from also parliament.
threats from the left, but it could not be relied on to neutralise writt
en
threats from the right. In 1933 it was an extreme right-wing in.
movement (the Nazis) that finally overthrew the democratic
system. Kap In March of 1920, It was the first attempt to The rebellion
“Reichswer does not fire upon Reichswer” p, the government seize power by the failed in days
Eventually the coup collapsed, but this showed 2 things: 1. The army could Mar ordered the elements of the radical because of the
ch dissolution of a right, and it exposed the lack of support
not be relied upon to deal with the Right 2. It became clear that the leadership 192 Freikorps Brigade weakness of the from the
of the army was dominated by the conservative elites - right wing elites that 0 stationed outside government, whose working
Berlin. A conspiracy president and elected classes. They
hated the republic → Right wing violence against the Left went unchecked between the military leaders had been forced declared a
commander of the to flee the capital. general strike in
city, General von The left wing of German support of the
Luttwitz and other politics, and in particular government
right wing officers the German workers, that paralysed
 Angry at Germany’s capitulation and uncertain as for how to respond.
and civilians meant saw the real threat to the city. Civil Uncertainty led to extremist ideas.
that they refused. the political system as servants who
These officers coming from the ran the banking
ordered 12000 men extreme right. system and Wanted revolution but unclear of position on political spectrum(for left or
to march on the city. The Kapp Putsch also bureaucracy right). Initial decision was to support the communists when they seized
The chancellor and revealed the power of supported the power in Munich in April of 1919; establishing a revolutionary Soviet.
president looked to the German army within strike and the When they lost power he switched to right wing politics.
the military for the state rebels were
support but General Showed that the army forced to flee.
He joined the right wing socialists and had contacts within the nationalist
von Seeckt - leader was prepared to protect The legal groups of Munich. They had White Emigres; Tsar’s supporters who were
of the army - would the state from threats government anti-semitic and who had fled Russia earlier. They argued that the German
not intervene. from the left, but it could returned when problems came from a Jewish-Bolshevism plot to undermine German
The Cabinet and the not be relied on to General von culture and society. This appealed to the nationalists’ ideas of victimhood.
leaders of the neutralise threats from Luttwitz and
country were forced the right. In 1933 it was Kapp left.
out of Berlin as their an extreme right-wing Played on prejudices by denouncing Germans who had ‘betrayed
army wouldn’t movement (the Nazis) Germany’ at the end of WW1. He hated the November criminals,
protect them with the that finally overthrew the communists and Jews who in league with the communists were engaged
rebels taking several democratic system. in a worldwide conspiracy to destroy international finance as a first step to
important
government
Jewish global domination.
buildings. They
declared a new The Nazi Party under Hitler:
government led by Given Hitler’s views, it was unsurprising that he found himself attracted to
Wolfgang Kapp(a the DAP(the worker’s party). They had ultranationalist ideas and having
radical right-wing
politician).
joined them as they renamed themselves the NAzi party, he became their
leader a year later.

Hy The reparations The hyperinflation The Dawes Nazism:

per placed by the made day-to-day Plan: ● union of all Germans in a greater Germany.
infl allied powers survival arduous for “It ended a ● the revocation of the treaty of Versailles.
atio through the ordinary Germans, crisis in ● the gaining of territories to accommodate Germany’s surplus
n, treaty of most of whom were European population.
Se Versailles could members of the diplomacy ● the restriction of state citizenship of those of German blood.
pt not be paid in working classes following ● Jews to be denied membership of the Volk:the nation as a
19 time. The employed in World War I community of racially pure Germans.
23 Weimar factories. The and the In the 1920s it was essential for a party to have physical force at its
government exponential price Treaty of disposal. To meet this need, Hitler established the SA as his strong arm
started to print rise made it difficult Versailles”. guards. Under the leadership of Ernst Rohm, the SA recruited members
more money in to obtain even basic from the large number of unemployed young men who were found to be in
order to meet goods like bread, Germany's most German cities. Wearing brown shirt uniforms, they had a keen sense
both the needs of meat, and coal to annual of brotherhood as they were directed by their leaders to attack communists
the people and heat homes. Pay reparation and Jews. They had aggressive marches, singing and torchlight
the demands of received one day payments processions - scaring opponents into silence and recruiting the young.
other countries. was often worthless would be
During the the next. reduced, Munich Putsch, 1923
"Golden increasing November 1923 Hitler believed that the Nazis were strong enough to seize
Twenties" the People turned to over time as power. He took his cue from the hyperinflation little begun earlier in the year
German mark extremist ideas its economy as a consequence of the French occupation of the Ruhr which denied
rapidly lost because the improved;
Germany access to its most economically productive region.
nearly all of its standard of living the full
value, inflation was so low. amount to be Between January and October 1923, the value of the German marque fell
turning into paid, from US$7594 to 4,000,000,000,000. In an attempt to exploit the unrest of the
hyperinflation however, people, Hitler, General Ludendorff(a former head of the German army in the
until a pound of was left First World War) and other leading party members attempted to seize power
butter cost undetermine in Munich in an unarmed uprising.
millions of marks. d. Economic However, when the Nazis marched on the government offices, the Bavarian
Conflict in the policy
police fired on the marchers who scattered in disorder.
Ruhr added to making in
this by Berlin would Hitler was arrested and tried for treason and sentenced to 5 years in prison.
destroying and be The authorities, embarrassed by rumours that a number of officials had been
removing reorganised implicated in the putsch and sympathetic towards Hitler's basic nationalism
Germany’s ability under foreign decided not to treat him too severely - evidenced by his release after less than
to make money supervision a year. Hitler behaved arrogantly during the trial - an indication that he did not
from their most and a new think that the putsch was a failure.
profitable region. currency, the
Significance:
It was a vicious Reichsmark,
cycle. adopted. The putsch quickly became a piece of Nazi lore and was celebrated annually
as ‘martyrs’ in honour of the 16 marchers who had been killed in the uprising.
Matilda 11Z - Weimar Republic 1919-24 It provided the opportunity to spread Nazi propaganda and he vowed that his
time would come again.

EMERGENCE OF HITLER
Why was Germany a crisis state after 1918?
- WW1 defeated and embittered.
- Impoverished Germany
- losses and suffering after WW1 with no gain.

TREATY OF VERSAILLE:
- Disarmament - Forces limited to 100,000 soldiers, six
battleships, no air force
- Reparations - this was eventually set at £6600 million.
Afterwards, The Dawes and Young Plans re-scheduled
Germany's payments
- Land lost - Poland gained Posen from Germany, and also
gained East Prussia. This became known as the Polish
Corridor. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. Germany
lost her colonies
HYPERINFLATION, CONFLICT IN THE RUHR, POLITICAL VIOLENCE,
RELIANCE ON ARMY + EXTREMIST IDEOLOGY.
Using features from each source, how do they view the Weimar
Life before 1918:
Republic in post-war Germany?
- Austrian by birth.
- Vienna in 1907 with the aim of training as an artist, failed the
entrance exam. Politicians The soldier is again In the third
- ‘Drifter’ staying in cheap hostels off of inherited money. are stabbing being ‘stabbed in source, the
- Discovered political ideology that later became the basis of soldiers in the back’ while they German soldier is
his campaign and goals. the back. face forward(the being attacked
They are enemy comes from from behind by a
Early political ideas: fatter and their homeland and masked
German nationalism(Mein Kampf shows no real anti semitism and during richer(clothin the people that they communist. The
war he had no problem with being commanded by Jewish officers or g and status). are trying to communist(for
serving with practising Jewish soldiers).

They are protect). This time - the red attire)
higher up and unlike the first makes up a third
attacking the source, a Jewish of the German
trenches caricature flag.
while the representation is
soldiers fight the one who is
still, against a stabbing.
different
enemy -
protecting
the people
who betray
them.
Who do you think created these sources? Refer to perspective in each
source and your own knowledge?
I think that a German source who was unhappy with how the war
ended and with both the armistice and the treaty of Versailles
would have created these sources. They would have blamed
minority groups or the politicians and would have referred to
them as the criminals. This person would have been more
susceptible to extremist ideas.
Political: Threats from Left and Right
1. What does the range of parties suggest about the issues
facing the Weimar Republic?
There was infighting and division between the different parties.
Extremism would probably lead to political violence. It would also take
longer to get things done even in a country with desperation following
WW1.
2. With specific reference to elements of the Weimar
Constitution (Article 48, Proportional Representation), how
did this serve to further weaken the democracy?
Article 48 of the constitution gave the president emergency powers.
These powers included the right to use the armed forces to restore order
if stability was threatened and the power to suspend the basic liberties
and rights of the German people. In this genuine attempt at democracy,
the constitution gave the president, in a time of emergency, the power to
suspend the constitution, and to issue laws by decree regardless of the
elected parliament. This would weaken democracy because by allowing
one individual absolute power would mean that they can abuse this
power, without question. This is the hubris of democracy and in Germany,
it is its downfall.
Democracy is for the people, by the people. Article 48 - the
antithesis of this - represented the people’s
need for some consistency and reassurance after a history of
monarchy and totalitarianism.
The use of Article 48 was considered a dangerous game for several
reasons:
- Lack of democratic accountability: By bypassing the
Reichstag and enacting laws without its approval, the
government would be taking actions without proper
democratic oversight or accountability. This would undermine
the principles of parliamentary democracy and the principle
of checks and balances in government.
- Threat to the rule of law: Article 48 was being used as a
means of circumventing the normal legal processes and
procedures established by the German Constitution. The use
of Article 48 in this manner posed a threat to the rule of law
and the protection of individual rights and liberties.
- Unpredictable consequences: The use of Article 48 was
seen as a dangerous game because of the uncertain and
unpredictable consequences that could arise from such
actions. This lack of predictability made it difficult to assess
the potential impact on the stability and security of the
country.
- Risk of escalating conflict: The use of Article 48 could lead to
increased tensions and conflict between the government and
the Reichstag, as well as between different political factions
and interest groups. This could result in further instability and
undermine the functioning of the government and the
democratic process.
Economic: Hyperinflation
The economic situation in Germany in the early 1920s:
According to the first source, the economic situation was dire. Social
implications were severe in that goals and saving were destroyed and in
that the psychological toll on the people left a dislike for democracy and a
fear of instability, giving more power to extremist ideas. Source 2 agrees
that society had been left weakened and that inflation also undermined
political stability. It undermines democracy with reference to despotism in
the political sphere. Source 3 also agrees that a sacrifice was needlessly
made but it is more specific in that it was paid by the middle class.
Germans were drawn to extremist right wing parties (DVP 10.1%,
DNVP 20.5%, NSDAP 3% in Dec 1924)
Extremism promised an end to instability. With more control being in the
hands of the government, more blame on the current government that the
people also hated and by appealing to their hatred of the armistice(also
signed by the current government), they could use nationalism or ideas of
a better society and therefore a better living standard to gain support from
the suffering people.
The Rise of the Nazi Party
- After the war, Hitler held a steady job as a political officer
for the army - the role involved reporting emerging political parties in
Bavaria to the army: one of these small parties was the German
Workers’ Party established in 1919
Read page 108 and describe the German Workers’ Party in 1919
After the war, Hitler returned to Munich, one of hundreds of thousands
of former soldiers
disillusioned by Germany's surrender and facing an uncertain future in a
country unsettled by revolution. He was luckier than many (indeed, luck
often seemed to be on Hitler's side in his rise to power) and was made a
political officer for the army. It was the first steady job he had ever had.
One of his duties was to report to the army command in Bavaria on the
small political parties that flourished in the state.
It was in this capacity that he attended a meeting of a small political
group called the German Workers' Party in September 1919. This
obscure group had been founded earlier that year by a Bavarian
toolmaker, Anton Drexler. It had a confused political program and only
40 members when Hitler attended this meeting in a back room of the
Sternecker Brewery in Munich. On that particular evening the group was
discussing the issue of Bavaria breaking away from the rest of
Germany. With his deeply felt sense of nationalism, Hitler was
vigorously opposed to the proposal. He was stirred to speak, and he
made such an impact that a few days later Drexler invited him to join the
party. Hitler became party member no. 555. To give the impression that
the party had a larger membership, its membership numbering began at
500. "The party had no offices, no employees, no printed letterhead and
not even a rubber stamp to its name. Its entire property consisted of an
old briefcase in which the members kept correspondence and a
battered cigar box containing the party's funds, a little over seven
marks." But Hitler had found what he had been looking for - a small
political party that could become a forum for his own ideas and that he
could shape. 'Only in a party which, like himself, was beginning at the
bottom had he any prospect of playing a leading part and imposing his
ideas,' wrote the British historian Alan Bullock. "In the established
parties there was no room for him, he would be a nobody." Hitler was
put in charge of publicity and propaganda, and from 1919 he devoted all
his energies to the party and sought to broaden its base and its appeal.
In October 1919 he delivered his first speech to a large audience; it was
the first time the party had succeeded in attracting more than 100
people to a meeting. A few months later more than 2000 people
crammed into the Hofbräuhaus, a Munich beer hall, to hear this new
voice. His speeches picked up on familiar themes: the humiliation of the
Treaty of Versailles, the need for Germany to recover its inner strength,
attacks on the democratic government and his public references to the
Jews. Hitler's anti-Semitism had now taken form. He blamed the Jews
for the German military defeat and for the revolution that followed. "We
 refuse to tolerate our destiny being ruled by a foreign race," he told a
political meeting in January 1920, “we demand a stop to Jewish
immigration”! Through the force of his personality, his organisational
skills and his brilliant capacity as an orator, Hitler quickly became the
dominant figure in the party. He understood the power of the spoken
word and knew how to arouse the emotions of his audience.
In February 1920, within a year of Hitler joining the German Workers'
Party, the party changed its name to become the National Socialist
German Workers' Party (National Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter
Partei, NSDAP), or Nazi for short. To give the party a distinct identity it
developed its own set of symbols and emblems, including the swastika,
the party colours of black, red and white, and a distinctive party salute.
The party also attracted increasing financial support and it was able to
establish its own newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter.
Hitler was invited to join the Workers’ Party in 1919 and was put in
charge of propaganda.
Read the primary source on page 109 and explain what made the
author so supportive of Hitler when he heard him speak -
persuasion
The writer was deeply affected by Hitler's charismatic personality and
powerful rhetoric. The writer describes Hitler as having the look of a
fanatic and his words were "like a scourge" that swept away his critical
faculty. At the time, the writer was a man in his early thirties who was
feeling disillusioned and in search of a cause. Hitler's passionate
sincerity and intense will seemed to flow into the writer, causing an
exaltation that was akin to a religious conversion. The writer was won
over by Hitler's ability to connect with him and the thousands of others
who were in attendance. The writer's patriotism and yearning for
heroism were finally given a channel through Hitler, making the writer
highly supportive of him.
The Workers’ party changed its name in 1920 to the National Socialist
German Workers’ Party - NSDAP - or Nazi for short. It also developed
its symbols and colours in order to create a distinct identity
- It also established its 25 points in Feb 1920 an outline of
the Nazi Party’s purpose and ideology
3. Examine the 25 points and create a list of people who might find
something attractive in the ideas expressed in the 25 points
The 25 points were a program and ideology outlined by the Nazi Party in
Germany, which they published in 1920. These points outlined their views
on politics, economics, and society. They covered issues such as
anti-Semitism, the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles, and the need for a
strong leader. The 25 points appealed to people who were dissatisfied with
the status quo, particularly those who felt the effects of World War I, the
Great Depression, and political instability in Germany. They also appealed
to nationalist and anti-Semitic groups who sought a restoration of German
pride and the removal of perceived threats such as Jews and other
minorities. The Nazi's 25 points played a significant role in the rise of the
Nazi party and the eventual establishment of the Third Reich under the
leadership of Adolf Hitler.
1. We demand the unification of all Germans in Greater Germany on the
basis of the right of self-determination of peoples.
2. We demand equality of rights for the German people in respect to the
other nations; abrogation of the peace treaties of Versailles and St.
Germain.
3. We demand land and territory (colonies) for the sustenance of our
people, and colonisation for our surplus population.
4. Only a member of the race can be a citizen. A member of the race can
only be one who is of German blood, without consideration of creed.
Consequently no Jew can be a member of the race.
5. Whoever has no citizenship is to be able to live in Germany only as a
guest, and must be under the authority of legislation for foreigners.
6. The right to determine matters concerning administration and law
belongs only to the citizen. Therefore we demand that every public office,
of any sort whatsoever, whether in the Reich, the county or municipality,
be filled only by citizens. We combat the corrupting parliamentary
economy, officeholding only according to party inclinations without
consideration of character or abilities.
7. We demand that the state be charged first with providing the
opportunity for a livelihood and way of life for the citizens. If it is
impossible to sustain the total population of the State, then the members
of foreign nations (non-citizens) are to be expelled from the Reich.
8. Any further immigration of non-citizens is to be prevented. We demand
that all non-Germans, who have immigrated to Germany since 2 August
1914, be forced immediately to leave the Reich.
9. All citizens must have equal rights and obligations.
10. The first obligation of every citizen must be to work both spiritually and
physically. The activity of individuals is not to counteract the interests of
the universality, but must have its result within the framework of the whole
for the benefit of all
Consequently we demand:
11. Abolition of unearned (work and labour) incomes. Breaking of
rent-slavery.
12. In consideration of the monstrous sacrifice in property and blood that
each war demands of the people, personal enrichment through a war
must be designated as a crime against the people.
Therefore we demand the total confiscation of all war profits.
13. We demand the nationalisation of all (previous) associated industries
(trusts).
14. We demand a division of profits of all heavy industries.
15. We demand an expansion on a large scale of old age welfare.
16. We demand the creation of a healthy middle class and its
conservation, immediate communalisation of the great warehouses and
their being leased at low cost to small firms, the utmost consideration of
all small firms in contracts with the State, county or municipality.
17. We demand a land reform suitable to our needs, provision of a law for
the free expropriation of land for the purposes of public utility, abolition of
taxes on land and prevention of all speculation in land.
18. We demand struggle without consideration against those whose
activity is injurious to the general interest. Common national criminals,
usurers, Schieber1 and so forth are to be punished with death, without
consideration of confession or race.
19. We demand substitution of a German common law in place of the
Roman Law serving a materialistic world-order.
20. The state is to be responsible for a fundamental reconstruction of our
whole national education program, to enable every capable and
industrious German to obtain higher education and subsequently be
introduced into leading positions. The plans of instruction of all
educational institutions are to conform with the experiences of practical
life. The comprehension of the concept of the State must be striven for by
the school [Staatsbuergerkunde] as early as the beginning of
understanding. We demand education at the expense of the State of
outstanding intellectually gifted children of poor parents without
consideration of position or profession.
21. The State is to care for the elevating national health by protecting the
mother and child, by outlawing child-labour, by the encouragement of
physical fitness, by means of the legal establishment of a gymnastic and
sport obligation, by the utmost support of all organisations concerned with
the physical instruction of the young.
22. We demand abolition of the mercenary troops and formation of a
national army.
23. We demand legal opposition to known lies and their promulgation
through the press. In order to enable the provision of a German press, we
demand that a: All writers and employees of the newspapers appearing in
the German language be members of the race b: Non-German
newspapers be required to have the express permission of the State to be
published. They may not be printed in the German language c:
Non-Germans are forbidden by law any financial interest in German
publications or any influence on them and as punishment for violations
the closing of such a publication as well as the immediate expulsion from
the Reich of the non-German concerned. Publications which are counter
to the general good are to be forbidden. We demand legal prosecution of
artistic and literary forms which exert a destructive influence on our
national life, and the closure of organisations opposing the above made
demands.
24. We demand freedom of religion for all religious denominations within
the state so long as they do not endanger its existence or oppose the
moral senses of the Germanic race. The Party as such advocates the
standpoint of a positive Christianity without binding itself confessionally to
any one denomination. It combats the Jewish-materialistic spirit within
and around us, and is convinced that a lasting recovery of our nation can
only succeed from within on the framework: common utility precedes
individual utility.
25. For the execution of all of this we demand the formation of a strong
central power in the Reich. Unlimited authority of the central parliament
over the whole Reich and its organisations in general. The forming of
state and profession chambers for the execution of the laws made by the
Reich within the various states of the confederation. The leaders of the
Party promise, if necessary by sacrificing their.
Stormtroopers - The SA/Brownshirts
The establishment of the Nazi party also saw the establishment of its
own private army.
4. Describe the role and purpose of the Stormtroopers
By 1923, having been in existence for only a few years, National Socialism
had emerged as a political movement in the form of the Nazi Party. Largely
due to Hitler's drive and determination, the Nazi Party had more than
70000 members and was a significant political force in Bavarian politics.
Included in this membership were the 15 000 members of the
Sturmabteilung, or SA. A feature of German political life in the 1920s and
early 1930s was the activity of military groups that supported different
political parties. Most of these groups were made up of men who had
military experience in World War I, and many of them had been in the
Freikorps formations that had played a role in German political life in the
early 1920s. The Sturmabteilung (Storm Detachment or stormtroopers,
SA) developed from groups of ex-soldiers who were initially used to deal
with those who sought to disrupt the early Nazi Party meetings.
THE ORIGINS AND BELIEFS OF THE NAZIS
- In 1919 Hitler joined an unknown political group in Munich
called the German Workers' Party. He quickly became the dominant
influence in the party, and transformed it into the Nazi Party.
- In February 1920 the Nazis issued the 25 Point Program, a
basic statement of what the Nazis believed. Parts of this program would
change when the Nazis finally came to power.
- By 1923 the Nazi Party was a significant political group in
Bavarian politics, with its own identity.
- Like other political parties, the Nazis had their own military
wing, the Sturmabteilung or SA.
5. What evidence of ‘coercion’ by the SA can you find? (clue:
Communists)
Originally called the 'Gymnastic and Sports Division' of the party, by late
1921 the name Sturmabteilung had emerged. 'The SA became in effect
the Nazi Party's own private army, and its membership grew rapidly. With
its extreme right-wing views, its use of violence and its opposition to both
the republic and communism, the Nazi Party attracted growing support
from 155 ex-Freikorps troops, many of them little more than thugs and
street bullies. In their distinct brown uniforms, bought from surplus war
stock in Austria, and their swastika armbands, they became the very
visible face of the Nazi movement. 'Their aim was to promote the party in
rallies and parades, and above all to protect the party leaders from their
political opponents. The SA was to be the 'battering ram' of the movement
in Hitler's words, 'not only an instrument for the protection of the movement
but also primarily the training school for the coming struggle'.'' Violent
street battles between the SA and the supporters of other political groups,
particularly the German Communist Party's equivalent, the Der Rote
Frontkämpferbund (Red Front Fighter's League), became a feature of
political life. In October 1922 the Nazis participated in a 'German Day'.
Arriving by special train, more than 800 SA members marched through the
city of Coburg under the Nazi banner, provoking a major street battle with
their opponents.
6. Describe the role of hermann Goring and Ernst Rohm in relation to
the Brownshirts
By 1923 SA membership had expanded to the point that it was placed
under the command of Hermann Göring, who reorganised the force along
military lines and brought some order to the organisation. Another of the
leading figures in the early movement was Captain Ernst Röhm, who
joined the party and brought considerable army backing to the movement.
7. Read pages 112-117 and add notes to what you already have about
the Munich Beer Hall Putsch 1923 → have a look at what the source
says about the lessons Hitler learned from this event
● Hitler used the trial as a forum to express his views, as
German newspapers reported the proceedings in detail. By
the time the court's verdict was delivered in April 1924, Hitler
was no longer an unknown Bavarian politician but a national
figure.
● Ludendorff was excused, but Hitler was sentenced to five
years' imprisonment, by a court that agreed with him. He was
to be eligible for parole after six months.
● Hitler's lenient treatment by the court reveals the true attitude
of the judiciary to the Weimar Republic. As one of the
conservative right-wing groups that made up German
society, the judiciary had never supported the new republic.
The judges at Hitler's trial basically agreed with Hitler, who
was allowed to dominate the proceedings. Their view
reflected the opinion of the German historian. Friedrich
Meinecke, who wrote that 'loyalty to the Fatherland required
disloyalty to the Republic' To those like Hitler, who displayed
this disloyalty, justice gave a degree of tolerance and
leniency.
● Although the putsch failed and 16 Nazis were killed in the
gunfire of 9 November, the Munich Beer Hall Putsch was in
fact an important turning point for the Nazi movement.
● Hitler learnt one all-important lesson: that power could not be
achieved by force. From that day on, Hitler was committed to
coming to power legally according to the constitution. In
1933, 10 years after the failure in Munich, he did just that,
and was legally appointed chancellor of Germany.
● The events in Munich and the trial that followed gave Hitler
and his movement national publicity. After being a relatively
unknown politician in Bavaria, he had become a national
figure. After the putsch, all of Germany knew of Hitler and his
movement. He increased his following among right-wing
nationalists and emerged as the obvious leader of the
right-wing opponents of the Weimar Republic.
● The Munich Putsch made it clear to Hitler that he could never
hold power without the support of the German army, which
had not been prepared to back his putsch in 1923. Hitler
knew that if he became leader of Germany the army would
be vital for his future plans. After his dictatorship became a
reality from 1934, the army remained the only organisation in
Germany that had the capacity to remove him.
1928 Failed Election
1924: factional divisions within the party, 24 distinct Gaue were established
in order to manage the country more efficiently. Party branches in smaller
villages and towns.
- Hitler Youth and LOGM.
- The SS; Schutzstaffel were established.
- Propaganda and rallies became a big focus.
THE NAZIS COULD NOT TAKE POWER BY FORCE: they had to win an
election.
1925: 27000 members of the Nazi party
1928: DID NOT WIN ELECTION: 12 of 491.
In the 1920s, a number of factors contributed to the limited electoral
success of the Nazi Party in Germany. Some of these factors include:
- Lack of popularity: The Nazi Party was still a relatively
unknown and small political party in the early 1920s, with limited support
among the general population.
- Political opposition: The Nazi Party faced opposition from
other political parties, particularly the Social Democratic Party (SPD),
which had a strong base of support among workers.
- Economic stability: During the mid-1920s, Germany
experienced a period of economic stability and growth, which limited
support for the Nazis' nationalist and anti-capitalist message.
- Fragmented political landscape: The political landscape in
Germany was highly fragmented, with many small parties competing for
support. This made it difficult for the Nazis to gain a significant foothold in
the Reichstag.
- Weak leadership: The Nazi Party was still in the process of
establishing itself as a political force, and its leadership, including Adolf
Hitler, was not yet seen as a strong and effective leader.
These factors, among others, limited the Nazi Party's electoral
success in the 1920s and helped to keep the number of seats it held
in the Reichstag relatively small.
Comparison 1928 vs 1930 Reichstag
May 1928 September 1930
Chancellor Bruning’s coalition government (Centre, DDP and DVP)
would still need to rely on presidential support after the 1930
elections?
The 1930 elections saw a significant increase in support for the Nazi Party
and the Communist Party, while traditional conservative parties such as
the Centre Party, the German Democratic Party (DDP), and the German
People's Party (DVP) lost significant ground. This shift in the political
landscape made it difficult for Chancellor Bruning to maintain a majority in
the Reichstag and continue to govern without relying on support from
President Hindenburg.
In May 1928, Bruning's coalition government was still in its early stages
and was able to pass legislation and implement policies with relative ease.
However, by September 1930, the political situation had become much
more complex and unstable, with increasing opposition from the far-left
and far-right to Bruning's government.
As a result, Bruning was forced to rely on support from President
Hindenburg, who had the power to pass emergency decrees and bypass
the Reichstag in order to pass legislation. This increased dependence on
presidential support made Bruning's government more vulnerable to
outside influence and weakened its ability to govern effectively.
Ultimately, the political situation in Germany in September 1930 was
characterised by increasing instability and polarisation, and Chancellor
Bruning's coalition government was facing significant challenges in
maintaining a majority in the Reichstag and governing effectively.
Both the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, or
NSDAP) and the Communist Party of Germany (Kommunistische Partei
Deutschlands, or KPD) increased their vote in the 1930 election due to a
number of factors.
Firstly, the Great Depression had a profound impact on Germany and
created widespread economic hardship and social unrest. This economic
crisis led many voters to seek alternative political solutions and fueled
support for extremist parties on both the left and the right.

Additionally, the political establishment in Germany was seen as ineffective

and out of touch with the needs of ordinary citizens. This disillusionment
with mainstream parties created an opening for more radical alternatives,
such as the NSDAP and the KPD.

The Nazi Party was able to perform better than the Communist Party in the
1930 election due to a number of factors. Firstly, the Nazi Party was better
organised and had a more effective propaganda machine, which allowed it
to reach a wider audience and appeal to more voters. The Nazi Party also
had a charismatic leader in Adolf Hitler, who was able to rally support and
mobilise the party's base.

Furthermore, the Nazi Party was able to tap into the widespread fear and
anger in Germany over the Treaty of Versailles, hyperinflation, and the
economic crisis, and channel these emotions into support for their party.
The Nazi Party also successfully portrayed itself as a nationalist party that
would restore German pride and rebuild the economy, which appealed to
many voters.

In contrast, the Communist Party was seen as being more radical and was
associated with Soviet-style communism, which was not as appealing to
many voters in Germany. Additionally, the Communist Party was less
well-organised and less effective in terms of propaganda and mobilisation,
which limited its ability to gain support.

Overall, the Nazi Party was able to perform better than the Communist
Party in the 1930 election due to a combination of better organisation,
more effective propaganda, and a more appealing message that resonated
with many voters.

When support for nationalist parties decreases, the support may be taken
by other parties with similar ideologies, such as far-right or conservative
parties, or by parties with opposing ideologies, such as progressive or
liberal parties. However, the decline in the nationalist vote might not
benefit any party because it would instead lead to increased fragmentation
of the political landscape and a decrease in support for established
parties. This can lead to a more fragmented and unstable political
situation, as well as increased polarisation and extremism.
Could create opportunities for smaller parties to gain more support,
including those with similar ideologies, such as left-wing or progressive
parties, or those with opposing ideologies, such as right-wing or
conservative parties. The benefits could have gone to a variety of parties,
including the Communist Party of Germany, the Nazis or other right-wing
or conservative parties.The declining support for established parties and
the rise of extremist parties in the 1930 election suggests that the state of
German democracy was fragile and facing significant challenges. This
eventually led to the collapse of the democratic system and the
establishment of a dictatorship in Germany. The increase in support for
extremist parties(Nazis), who promoted a nationalist and anti-democratic
ideology, also indicates a serious threat to the democratic foundations of
Germany. The rise of the Nazi Party eventually led to the establishment of
a totalitarian dictatorship and the suppression of civil liberties, which had a
profound impact on Germany and the world.

The Great Depression

1920s: despite violence of the early Weimar days, the time from 1924
onwards saw relative economic and political stability.
- The Dawes Plan: 1924-30
Plan devised by the allies to support Germany in paying reparations.
Ended French occupation of the Ruhr. Germany would be loaned 25
Billion between 24’ and 30’ to support economic recovery - which in theory
would also benefit other allied countries.
- The Young Plan: 1929
Also aided Germany economically by reducing the total amount of
reparations to be paid.
Paul Von Hindenburg:
With the death of Ebert in 1925, Hindenburg was elected chancellor.
Hindenburg was a conservative elite - an individual who did not believe in
the constitutional republic. Nonetheless, he worked to uphold the
constitution and democracy and brought some legitimacy to the republic.
THE WALL STREET CRASH:
America’s economic boom in the 1920s was driven by the growth of
corporations and shareholder confidence in these companies.
- Given the success of the stock market through the 1920s,
many Americans saw investment into the market as an easy and quick
way to get rich - many borrowed money to invest into the market; a
process known as speculating.
Consumer confidence began to decrease as the output of industry and
consumer goods also dipped into the latter half of the 20s. Decrease in
consumer confidence was reflected in the panic selling of shares between
Sep-Oct 1929.
- Black TUESDAY: signals the crash of the stock market.
Growing Popularity of NSDAP
Unemployment increased from 650000 in 1928 to 6,100000 in 33’. It
increased steadily with a sharper increase between 30 and 31’. In addition,
the Nazi support had a direct correlation with unemployment which shows
that happy people do not turn to extremism.
Hitler’s personal campaign
- The campaign was to take over Germany through democratic
means.
- The slogan represented either a threat or salvation.
- His vision was unmatched by any politician.
- He seemed omnipresent which promoted the idea that he
was more than a politician.
- It was well organised and he was a good orator.
- He promised different circumstances
- He was a man of the people and stood with them in their
struggles - unlike other politicians. He did not relate to other
politicians and saw himself as a saviour.
- He was assertive and offered protection
- Appealed to all classes
- The republican government could not stop him because he
was always on the move.
- Record number of meetings with the people.
- He represented victims or the government and the
circumstances in which Germany turned to the extremists.
German industrialists
Financial support. They provided significant financial support to the Nazi
party in its early days. This allowed the party to fund its propaganda and
political campaigns, helping it gain traction among the German people.
Political influence. Industrialists had significant political influence and used
it to further the Nazi cause. They used their connections to the media, the
military, and the government to push their agenda.
Economic interests. Some saw the Nazis as a means to promote their own
economic interests, such as rearming the German military and expanding
German industry.
 2

J To support Papen, Schleicher renewed a contract with the

u Nazis and secured an understanding with Hitler that they
l would cooperate if the ban on SA/SS was lifted. This resulted
y in 86 people being killed through clashes between
1 Communists and NSDAP, notably in Hamburg on 17 July, in
9 which 19 people were killed and more than 200 injured. Hitler
3 took to the air again, visiting more than 50 cities reiterating
2 common themes. The NSDAP were successful winning
37.4% of the vote, doubling their representation to 230 seats,
whilst Papen was left with only 44/608 seats.

1 Despite the rejection of Papen, Hindenburg refused to

3 appoint Hitler as Chancellor and instead offered him the
A position of vice-chancellor which he refused. Goebbels wrote
u in his diary “nothing is more difficult than to tell victory-flushed
g roops that victory has been snatched out of their hands”
u
s
t

S Reichstag met for the first time. Papen had no support and
e the parliament carried a vote of no confidence which was
p passed 512 to 42. The parliament dissolved and new
1 elections were called for November.
9
3
2
HITLER EARLY POWER
N The NSDAP party did not welcome new elections, as their
Chancellorship o fierce campaigning had drained funds. This resulted in a
v decrease in vote from 37.4% to 32%, whilst the DNVP
1 Prior to election Nazi strength stood at 450,000 and in an e (right-wing) and KPD (communists) both increased their
4 intense 3-week campaign the party organised 30 m representation. Post-election Hitler asked Hindenburg to be
M meetings/day across the country. In presidential elections no b appointed Chancellor which Hindenburg wrote “A Presidential
a candidate received a majority (Hindenburg - 49.6%/ Hitler e Cabinet led by you would inevitably develop into a party
r 30.1%), therefore a second round of voting was scheduled for r dictatorship with the consequences of drastic antagonism
c 10 April 1 within the German nation” `
h 9
1 3
9 2
3
2 1 Papen proposed to Hindenburg that the Reichstag be
D suspended until the emergency could be solved. Schleicher
1 Goebbels launched the “Hitler over Germany Campaign” in e used this to undermine Papen and persuade Hindenburg that
4 which he became the first politician to fly cross country, c the army had lost confidence in Papen and that the army
M visiting 21 cities in a week, appearing at mass rallies, 1 could not afford to take sides if civil war erupted
a speaking in as many as 5 cities in one day. 9
r 3
c 2
h
- 2 Hindenburg request Papen to resign and appointed
1 D Schleicher as new chancellor
0 e
A c
p 1
ri 9
l 3
2
A Defence Minister General Groener banned the SA and SS
p due to their violent behaviour J Hitler attempted to gain support of industrialists when he met
ri a with Ruhr industrialist Fritz Thyssen. Whilst they still
l n supported conservative parties, Hitler had secured donations
1 1 from some industrialists, which improved the party’s poor
9 9 financial position.
3 3
2 2

1 In second round Hindenburg was elected president, securing D Schleicher attempted to bring the Nazis into power by offering
0 53% of vote, whilst Hitler advanced his percentage to 36.8% e Gregor Strasser the position of vice-chancellor. Strasser was
A c accused of treason, and resigned, and Hitler instituted an
p 1 oath of loyalty from all party members.
ri 9
l 3
2
M President Hindenburg withdraws support for Bruning, having
a been convinced by Schleicher (leader of the Ministerial 4 Papen and Hitler secretly met in Cologne in which
y Service of the army). Schleicher convinced Hindenburg that J Hindenburg’s son Oskar and advisor Meissner also attended.
1 Bruning was too left and stated that the SS/SA ban had a Papen planned for a coalition government of Nazis, DNVP
9 unsettled the Nazis. Schleicher believed that the Nazi party n and his own conservative supporters. This government would
3 should take control and although they were “not very decent 1 be the first since Muller in 1930 that would have a majority in
2 chaps” they “must be stomached with greatest caution. If they 9 the Reichstag
did not exist we would certainly have to invent them”. 3
3
3 Chancellor von Papen was appointed chancellor and formed
0 his ‘Cabinet of Barons’ called such as it was made up of 2 Hindenburg dismissed Schleicher as chancellor
M right-wing industrialists and members of Prussian nobility. It 8
a had no support in the Reichstag and thus rule by decree J
y resumed. a
1 n
9 u
3 a

r widespread economic hardship and social unrest in Germany. The Nazi
y Party, led by Adolf Hitler, capitalised on this discontent and promised to
3 Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor with the following
0 stipulations
J - Papen would serve as vice-chancellor
a - The vice-chancellor would be present whenever
n the president met with the chancellor
u - 3/11 cabinet posts would go to the Nazis
a - Other cabinet posts would be held by the
r conservatives
y - Minister for Economic would be held by
Hugenberg, leader of DNVP
- Hindenburg appointed Minister for Defence,
General von Blomberg
1930-1933
1930 gov. collapsed in March 1930- great depression
- Bruning was elected as chancellor by Hindenburg to solve
problems. He didn’t have popular support within the Reichstag and so
couldn’t pass any reform/policy.
- However, he had the support of Hindenburg who would
support him in any way through article 48: enabling act.
- Democracy had ended 3 years before Hitler came to power.
- Bruning introduced austerity measures: decrease
government expenditure and increase taxes.
- Survives 1930 election with the support of the
socialists(SPD)
- Nazi party made significant gains in support.
- Hitler was one of the first mobile campaigning politicians.
1932 meant the end of the Von Hindenburg 7 year presidential campaign.
- Despite vigorous campaigning by the Nazis, von Hindenburg
was reelected by a slim margin on the second round of voting in April.
- By this point Military conservatives believed that Germany
needed a strong Authoritarian to deal with the political and economic
problems.
Kurt von Schliecher believed removing bruning and giving power to the
Nazs would solve Germanys’s problems.
On Schleicher's advice. Hindenburg removed Bruning from power.
July - November 1932:
Franz Von Papen was appointed chancellor and to solidify his leadership,
Shliecher sought the support of Hitler and the Nazis - they agreed to
cooperate with the new government if the ban on the SA and the SS were
lifted.
With furious campaigning the Nazis saw their best result to date in the
July 1932 election. Similar to the presidential election months prior, Hitler
took to the air to campaign in as many as 50 cities.
With a majority in the Reichstag, Hitler demanded the position of
Chancellor which was rejected by Hindenburg. Papen, however, had no
support from the Reichstag and so it was dissolved once again and set for
elections in 1932. 4 elections in 8 months!
November 1932: new elections: the Nazis actually lost seats to other
parties in the November elections but were still the largest party. Hitler
again asked for the chancellorship. Hindenburg refuses AGAIN.
Papen still had no support within the Reichstag and so, at the request of
Schlieher, was removed by Hindenburg in December 1932 and replaced
by Schliecher - a last ditch attempt to keep Hitler from the chancellorship.
- December 1932: Schliecher offered Gregor Strasser the
vice-chancellorship which enraged Hitler and solidified his control of the
party - both were shot by the SS 18 months later.
- Papen worked actively against Schliecher. He met Hitler in
secret and offered a pathway to power: a coalition government led by a
puppet-chancellor in Hitler.
- Hitler also at this point, had the support of big business in
Germany.
- Hindenburg was finally convinced to hand the chancellorship
to Hitler on the belief that the real power would lie with Papen and his
conservative supporters.
30th January, 1933: Hitler was summoned to Hindenburg’s office and
appointed chancellor of Germany. HITLER HAS CHANCELLORSHIP.
The Nazis were able to increase their representation in the Reichstag,
Germany's parliament, through a combination of factors, including the
Great Depression, Hitler's charisma and propaganda, and the weaknesses
of their political opponents.
- The Great Depression, which began in 1929, led to
restore order and prosperity to the country. Their message resonated with
many Germans who were desperate for change and a way out of their dire
economic situation.
- Hitler was a strong orator and could rally crowds and spread
his message of nationalism, anti-Semitism, and anti-communism. He
presented himself as a strong and decisive leader who would restore
German pride. This message appealed to many Germans who were
disillusioned with the political establishment and sought a radical
alternative.
- The Nazis also benefited from the weaknesses of their
political opponents. The traditional parties of the Weimar Republic, such
as the Social Democrats and the Center Party, were seen as ineffective
and out of touch with the concerns of ordinary Germans. In addition, the
Communists, who were another popular alternative for many disaffected
Germans, were increasingly marginalised by the government and the
mainstream media.
There was no real democracy and the times were tumultuous and it was
difficult to agree on something and because there was so much division,
nothing could get done. There were 4 elections in 8 months.
1933-34
Hermann Goring’s election as the new Minister for Prussia:
Goring was a loyal supporter of Hitler and a prominent member of the Nazi
Party. His appointment as Minister for Prussia, the largest German state at the
time, gave the Nazi Party direct control over a crucial region of Germany.
As Minister for Prussia, Goring had significant power and influence over the
state's police and security forces. This allowed the Nazi Party to use these
forces to suppress opposition and dissent, and to strengthen their control over
the state.
His appointment was part of a broader strategy by Hitler to centralise power
and eliminate potential rivals within the Nazi Party. By giving Goring significant
power and influence, Hitler ensured that he remained a loyal supporter and
prevented him from becoming a potential challenger to his own authority.
The Reichstag Fire in February 1933:
Allowed Hitler to gain public support by portraying the event as a Communist
plot against the government. Immediately after the fire, the Nazis arrested and
blamed a young Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, for the arson.
Hitler and other high-ranking officials used this event as an opportunity to rally
the German people against Communism and portray themselves as the only
ones who could save the country from a Communist takeover.
Provided Hitler with the pretext to enact emergency powers that allowed him
to suspend civil liberties and eliminate political opposition. Within hours of the
fire, Hitler convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag
Fire Decree, which suspended many basic rights and allowed the government
to arrest and detain political opponents without trial. This decree paved the
way for the Nazi regime to consolidate power and establish a one-party
dictatorship.
Allowed Hitler to remove any remaining checks and balances on his power.
The fire provided a pretext for Hitler to push through the Enabling Act of 1933,
which gave him dictatorial powers and allowed him to rule by decree. This act
effectively ended the Weimar Republic and gave Hitler complete control over
the government and the country.
March 1933 election:
In the election of 5 March 1933 the Nazis increased their representation in the
Reichstag from 196 to 288 seats. Their coalition ally, the German National
People's Party (DNVP), won 52 seats. Of the 647 seats in the Reichstag, the
government held 340, which was a working majority.
The Enabling Act March 1933
Was a key piece of legislation that helped Adolf Hitler consolidate power and
establish his dictatorship in Nazi Germany. The act granted Hitler and his
government sweeping powers to pass laws without the need for parliamentary
approval or debate, effectively giving him dictatorial control over the country.
Proposed in the wake of the Reichstag fire in February 1933, which was
blamed on communist agitators and used as a pretext for cracking down on
political opposition. The Nazi party used the fear and chaos of the moment to
push the Enabling Act through the Reichstag, using their majority to
overpower any objections from other parties.
Hitler was able to quickly consolidate his power by passing a series of laws
that eliminated political opposition, curtailed civil liberties, and paved the way
for his aggressive expansionist policies. He was able to establish
concentration camps for political dissidents, ban all other political parties, and
crack down on civil liberties such as freedom of speech and assembly.
Allowed him to bypass parliamentary procedures and establish himself as an
all-powerful dictator. It marked the beginning of the end of democracy in
Germany and paved the way for the atrocities and horrors of World War II.
HITLER IN POWER
Hitler in power: 33’
- Reichstag Fire: 4 weeks later - allows him to blame
communists and pass the enabling act.
- Legislation gave him power to bypass the president.
- In effect, this allowed him to do whatever he saw fit. He then
arrested all of his political enemies(including the communists).
- Hitler and the party in total control.
Cleichschaltung: the process by which the party imposed terror as a
means of suppression and obedience. Process didn't end until the end of
WWII in 45’.
- Hitler still needed more power…
Ernst Rohm and the SA:
- By 1934, the SA had 3.5 million members and in control was
Rohm. He was a loyal Nai follower who had been with Hitler since before
the Munich Putsch.
- Rohm saw the expansion of the SA as a great thing -
envisioned that the army would be absorbed into this organisation.
- Saw the need for a second revolution which was more
socialist in nature and did not align with Hitler’s actions of befriending
capitalists and businessmen.
- Rohm became a threat to Hitler in 1934.
Hitler wanted Lebensraum(he needed living space, and the army AND
GUNS - funded by capitalists). He wanted to combine the position of
president and chancellor(needed the army). Hitler could not control the
SA and needed to reign them in.
- In 1934, he met with leading military figures on board a
battleship to plan his purge of the SA.
- Led to NOTLK
One problem for Hitler in 1934 was that President von Hindenburg's health
was failing,
and he had only a few months to live. When Hindenburg died, Hitler
intended to abolish the office of president and take for himself the position
of commander-in-chief of the armed forces. To do this, he needed the
backing of the army, not the SA. The army was the only remaining force in
German society that could bring Hitler down - it was essential that it move
its loyalty from Hindenburg to Hitler. One of the prices of that loyalty was
the removal of the threat of the SA.
OVERALL: Adolf Hitler, fearing a potential threat to his power, ordered the
SS to eliminate members of the SA, a paramilitary organisation that had
helped him rise to power but had become too powerful and potentially
threatening. In a brutal operation, the SS arrested and executed several
high-ranking members of the SA, as well as other political opponents and
critics of the regime. Following Hindenburg's death on August 2, 1934,
Hitler consolidated his power and declared himself Führer of Germany.
The military and civilian leadership of Germany swore an oath of
allegiance to Hitler personally, rather than to the state or constitution. The
Nazi regime continued to suppress opposition and dissent, leading to the
establishment of a totalitarian state.
The Night of the Long Knives, 30 June 1934
The army had made it clear that they expected the SA to be brought under
control. In April 1934 Hitler met with army and navy leaders on board the
pocket battleship Deutschland on his way to attend military exercises in
East Prussia. In a secret arrangement, Hitler agreed to deal with the SA if,
in return, the armed forces would support Hitler as Hindenburg's
successor. Hitler also assured his commanders that the German armed
forces would be 'the sole bearer of arms in the Reich. By June the army's
patience was almost at an end. Röhm had been meeting with the former
chancellor, Schleicher, and there were rumours that the SA planned to
force a change of government. On 20 June Hitler had a brief but tense
meeting with the ailing president. In the presence of the Defence Minister,
General von Blomberg, Hindenburg told Hitler that unless the government
resolved the present tension, the president would declare martial law and
hand over the government to the army. Hitler could delay no longer. The
following day, on 21 June, he gave his approval for action against the SA
leadership.
The role of the SS
The elimination of Röhm and the leadership of the SA was planned by
Herman Göring and
Heinrich Himmler, the head of the Schutzstaffel (SS). Both men actively
conspired to create the threat of a Röhm/SA conspiracy and both,
particularly Himmler and his SS, who would carry out the purge, had much
to gain from the elimination of the rival SA. Death lists were drawn up for
what was code-named 'Operation Hummingbird'. The army was not
involved in the elimination of the SA, although there is little doubt that its
leadership knew Hitler was about to act. On 25 June General von Fritsch,
the commander of the German army, placed the army on alert and ordered
all troops confined to barracks.
NOTLK: took place on 30 June 1934.
SS troops took the SA leadership by surprise and, in a coordinated activity
in Berlin and Munich, Röhm and hundreds of SA officers were arrested
and accused of plotting to overthrow the state. Hitler himself travelled to
the Bavarian resort town of Bad Wiessee, where Rohm was on holiday, to
personally supervise the arrest. The next day, many SA officers, including
Röhm, were shot. The death list was expanded to include others that the
Nazis wanted removed. General von Schleicher, the former chancellor,
and his wife were shot in their home. Gustav von Kahr, who as prime
minister of Bavaria had used the police to oppose Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch
1923, was gunned down in Munich. Gregor Strasser, a once-loyal Nazi
who had opposed Hitler in 1932 was also included on the death list.
Vice-Chancellor von Papen was saved only because of his close
friendship with Hindenburg, but his associates were murdered and Papen
himself was placed under house arrest. In all, more than 200 people were
murdered. The army was pleased with the way Hitler had dealt with Röhm
and the SA leadership, and offered little complaint when two of their
number, General von Schleicher and General von Bredow were also
murdered in the process.
Privately, the Night of the Lone Knives had shaken Hitler and he forbade
any mention of the
events in his presence. Publicly, the event not only reaffirmed the brutality
of the regime but was also a major step in further strengthening Hitler's
power base. In one move Hitler had put down the threat of the SA and
satisfied the German army.
"The bloodbath of 30 June 1934”, wrote British historian AIP Tavlor,
'washed away the last scruples. It was the clear assertion that there was
no turning back." It was a view shared by Victor Klemperer, who kept a
diary for much of the Third Reich "The horrible thing, he wrote, 'is that a
European people has delivered itself up to a band of lunatics and criminals
and continues to tolerate them.
Summary:
THE LAST STEP TO TOTAL POWER
● By 1934 the SA had grown to a powerful and unstable force
within the German state, and appeared as a possible threat
to Hitler's authority.
● The German army viewed the position and standing of the
SA with increasing concern.
● As Hindenburg's health failed and Hitler planned to assume
the powers of the president, he needed the support of the
German army.
● On 30 June 1934, in what is known as the Night of the Long
Knives, Hitler, with the SS, eliminated the leadership of his
own SA, including his old comrade SA leader Ernst Röhm.
The army was not involved in the elimination of the SA
leadership but was supportive of the move.
● After the death of President von Hindenburg a few weeks
later, in August 1934, the last trace of the Weimar Republic
ended as Hitler united the powers of the president and
chancellor to become the Führer of the German people.
Propaganda: charismatic leadership
Dissemination of propaganda:
Roger Moorhouse: 1955 gave an introduction to a book by a photographer
who knew Hitler and who worked with them. Heinrich Hoffman was the
name of the photographer.
Introduction says: Hitler had concerns about public persona, spellbinding
speaker who practised speeches and gestures. He worked hard to
develop his oratory skills and while now we may see him as a ‘ranting
maniac’, he was very persuasive.
Hitler was important because he was very persuasive as of his oratory
skills and it was clearly something he spent a lot of time on: knowing its
value. Munich beer hall Putsch. Only spent 8 months in jail.
Joseph Goebbels
- The propaganda ministry was led by Dr Joseph Goebbels -
the most intellectual of th Nazi leadership and an individual that
understood the power of the psychology of propaganda. Hitler dedicated 2
chapters in Mein Kampf to propaganda and its worth.
- His key role was to promote Nazi ideology and the idea of
Volksgemeinschaft(the people’s community) and the common enemy(Jews
and communists).
Radios were integral in the spread of Nazi propaganda - state issued
radios were affordable and effective.
1933: 1 million radios in circulation
1938: 9 million radios in circulation.
- Propaganda is ineffective when people are aware of it.
- Goebbels liked the idea of mixing propaganda into
entertainment so that messages were conveyed in a more indirect way(as
if they could form their own opinions).
- Making it seem as though they have formed their own
independent thought but directing the entertainment to give them their
ideas.
Triumph of the Will: a propaganda film.
Film was a popular medium by which Goebbels implemented propaganda.
While early films were quite explicit in their messages, later films had
messages that were subtle and were mixed into entertainment. This
incorporated footage from the 1934 Nuremberg Nazi party congress -
thematically, the film incorporated ideas of Germany being a great power
with Hitler as its leader. Not only was it incredibly popular in Germany, but
it was also well received in France and Italy. It was widely considered the
greatest propaganda film produced in history.
The Eternal Jew:
A 1940 antisemitic Nazi propaganda film, presented as a documentary.
The film's initial German title was Der ewige Jude, the German term for the
character of the "Wandering Jew" in mediaeval folklore.
In order to consolidate his power, Hitler used many different means of
controlling the people. The threat of force by the SS and gestapo, political
violence, building reliance on himself and then mental control. This control
was formed by personal success and skill as well as building a cult of
personality through propaganda.
Propaganda: Hitler built a cult of personality in order to frame his actions
as though they were part of a bigger image and a righteous cause. The
Nazis started advocating clear messages tailored to a broad range of
people and their problems. The messages were filled with motifs and
symbolism and aimed to exploit people’s fear of instability while posing
Hitler as a ‘strongman’ who could lead the masses into the future. It also
framed him as a man of the people; coming from the middle class and
having fought in the previous war, his outrage seemed justified. He tailored
the German people’s anger in a way that made him the poster child of a
new reich. These messages varied from ‘Bread and Work’, aimed at the
working class and the fear of unemployment, to a ‘Mother and Child’
poster portraying the Nazi ideals regarding women and him in a paternal
position. Jews and Communists were also portrayed as enemies of the
German people. He used propaganda to facilitate an overthrow of not only
the government system but of the streets and even people’s minds. By
integrating subtle messages of nationalism and dependency on the Fuhrer
into cinema and radio, people began to believe that what they were
presenting was their own idea.
Use/Threat of Force: Maintenance
● SS from 1930 onwards!
● Heinrich Himmler in control of SS from 1929.
● SS begins as Hitler’s personal bodyguard: purged the SA
during the NOTLK.
● Similar to the police:
● Deportation of people from conquered lands.
● Execution of racial policies.
● Enslavement of foreign labour and illegal use of PoWs.
● Running of the concentration camps.
● SS are completely loyal to Hitler and Nazi party. They were
selected based on physical fitness and elite racial purity.
● The WAFFEN SS: The Allgemeine SS was responsible for
enforcing the racial policy of Nazi Germany and general
policing, whereas the Waffen-SS consisted of the combat
units of the SS, with a sworn allegiance to Hitler.
Opposition: role of the Gestapo
● Himmler was made head of police in 1936. Gestapo is formed:
the third Reich's secret police.
● Secret Police!
● Their role was internal security: to investigate and suppress all
anti-state activities.
● Reputation for ruthlessness and brutal methods of repression -
propaganda made Germans believe that the gestapo could and
would detect all opposition.
● “Perception is more important than reality”.
● The reality was that despite what was skewed by propaganda
and government-spun rumours, there were actually not that
many members of the Gestapo. 69 million Germans for 15000
Gestapo.
● What made them effective was the system of denunciation - run
predominantly by German citizens themselves. Germans were
encouraged to report unstately and illegal behaviour(many Jews
and homosexuals were ‘flushed’ out this way). MOST of the
Gestapo’s work was completed this way(60%-90% of cases
began with citizen reports).
● While most of these denunciations were based on a sense of
duty to the Riech, many were simply based on malicious
rumours or people settling old scores.
Camp System
The Nazis used different types of camps to persecute, control and murder
their opponents. Concentration camps were used to imprison people without
trial, and inmates were exploited for their labour and kept under harsh
conditions. Extermination camps were used to murder Jews and Roma, and
six purpose-built extermination camps were established on Polish soil. These
were Chełmno, Bełżec, Sobibór, Treblinka, Majdanek, and
Auschwitz-Birkenau. The aim of the Nazi concentration camps was to contain
prisoners, while the aim of extermination camps was to annihilate races
deemed "degenerate." Approximately one million people died in concentration
camps during the Holocaust, while the number killed at extermination camps
is much higher.
Concentration Camps: These were places where people were imprisoned
without trial, exploited for their labour, and kept under harsh conditions.
Inmates were subjected to brutal treatment, torture, and humiliation. Initially,
political prisoners were detained, but later, Jehovah's Witnesses,
homosexuals, Roma, and so-called "a-socials" were also detained.
Imprisonment in the Nazi concentration camps was usually indefinite, and
sanitation and facilities were extremely poor. Approximately one million people
died in concentration camps over the course of the Holocaust.
Extermination Camps: These camps were used by the Nazis from 1941 to
1945 to murder Jews and Roma. Six purpose-built extermination camps were
established on Polish soil. Victims were murdered by carbon monoxide
poisoning using stationary gas chambers, and the camps were specifically
built near railway lines to make transportation easier. The majority of those
selected for any kind of work within this type of camp would ultimately be
murdered.
Forced Labor Camps: In these camps, inmates were forced to work long
hours of hard physical labour. Many camps worked their prisoners to death.
These camps were usually established near military or industrial installations,
and prisoners were used as a source of cheap labour.
Transit Camps: These camps were established to hold people who were in
transit, such as those who were being transported to other camps or who
were awaiting transportation to other destinations. Conditions in transit camps
were often very poor, and inmates were often subjected to brutal treatment.
Prisoner of War Camps: These camps were established to hold prisoners of
war. Inmates were usually treated in accordance with the Geneva Convention,
but conditions in these camps were often very poor.
Opposition to Hitler
- People were relatively loyal to Hitler and the Nazi party(out of
fear or awe).
- People would line the streets to see him, calling him the
father - fuhrer. Cult of personality - not just in Germany.
- There was still opposition to his rule.
Martin Niemöller (pastor):
First they came for the Communists
And I did not speak out
Because I was not a Communist
Then they came for the Socialists
And I did not speak out
Because I was not a Socialist
Then they came for the trade unionists
And I did not speak out
Because I was not a trade unionist
Then they came for the Jews
And I did not speak out
Because I was not a Jew
Then they came for me
And there was no one left
To speak out for me
August Lamdmesser:
 - 95% of Germans agreed with the decision to withdraw from
the league in November 1933: referendum was in conjunction with a
Reichtag election where the Nazis won 661.

Remilitarisation of the Rhineland

Decision to rearm: 1935

● Were actually rearming in secret.
● Hitler publicly announces on the 16th of March, 1935, that
they will be rearming.
● Rebuilds the Luftwaffe: reintroducing conscription(with aim of
building an army up to 750,000).
● Production of weaponry.
● This was unbelievably popular among the people.
● Reversing the hated terms of the treaty of Versailles,

The Remilitarisation of the Rhineland took place on March 7, 1936, when

Hitler sent German troops into the demilitarised zone along the Rhine
River, violating the Treaty of Versailles. The move was a significant risk, as
it could have led to war with France and Britain.

Level of Explanation Examples “Hitler had consistently campaigned for reversing the Treaty of Versailles
oppositio
and restoring Germany's military and nationalism. As a result, many
n
European nations felt threatened and wished to maintain their armaments
to protect themselves from German aggression.
Dissent Low-level, - Reading banned
private acts literature
● The Rhineland was demilitarised as part of the Treaty of
of defiance - Listening to banned
music Versailles - it came under allied control and there was an
- Ignoring Nazi agreement that allied soldiers would leave by 1930
publications ● May 1935: the Franco-Soviet pact was signed as between
France and the USSR to address the growing threat of
Oppositi Public acts - Not giving the Nazi Germany
on of defiance salute/greeting Heil ● Hitler, fearing encirclement, used this (along with domestic
Hitler problems in France) to justify his decision to march troops
- Expressing back into the Rhineland
sympathy to Jews ● 7th March 1936: 20,000 German troops marched back into
the Rhineland → in clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles
Resistan Active - Producing anti-nazi
ce resistance of material
the regime - Meeting with others UK:
to criticise the Hitler’s decision to remilitarise the Rhineland is often posed as a gamble -
regime
it was the most blatant violation of the Treaty to date and in theory, should
- Planning to
overthrow/assassin have seen allies react.
ate Hitler While the reaction was mixed, many were in fact sympathetic to Hitler →
the idea being that Germany were simply marching back into their
backyard
HITLER FOREIGN POLICY David Lloyd George in an address to the Parliament:
The moment the Russo-French Pact was signed, no one responsible for
the security of Germany could leave its most important industrial province
without defence of any sort or kind when—and here is a thing which is
never dwelt upon—France had built the most gigantic fortifications* ever
seen in any land, where, almost 100 feet underground, you could keep an
army of over 100,000 and where you have guns that can fire straight into
Germany. Yet the Germans are supposed to remain without even a
garrison, without a trench. I am going to say here that if Herr Hitler had not
taken some action with regard to that—whether it is a wise action or not I
am not going to argue and whether he could have set it right by
negotiation or not I do not know, but I am a little doubtful having regard to
the past—but if Herr Hitler had allowed that to go without protecting his
country he would have been a traitor to the Fatherland.

Winston Churchill was, however, in favour of an Anglo-French alliance to

address and challenge German aggression

Disarmament Conference
60 nations met in Geneva in February of 1932 to discuss the reduction of
armaments - particularly those offensive in nature.
Germany, having had their military/navy limited by the Treaty of Versailles,
argued that other countries(FRANCE) should disarm to the level of
Germany. They also argued that they should be allowed to re-arm to the
level of other countries.
France, given its history, wanted assurances for its security and delayed
negotiations = four power pact(Ger, Fra, Eng, Ita) proposed by Mussolini
which France did not agree to.
- HITLER having come to power in January of 1933, unhappy
with the negotiations, withdrew Germany from not only the conference, but
also the league of nations. Confirmed by the Locarno treaties of 1925 -
which also confirmed Germany, France and Belgium’s commitments to
keep the Rhineland demilitarised.
Germany’s withdrawal:
Met with approval from the people. They had been slighted at the treaty
and this was righting a wrong.
France:
France had built the Maginot Line along the Rhineland from 1929 in
anticipation of a future Franco-German conflict.
However, despite the clear violation of the Versailles and Locarno Treaties
and despite the fact that France had a capable military, the French did not
want to risk an open conflict with Germany
Domestic political and economic issues limited France’s ability to
challenge Germany marching back into the Rhineland and were
instrumental in its decision to not react.
Find evidence of political and economic issues in France that influenced
this decision
This also effectively signalled the end of the Stresa Front: which
consequently became important for Italian-German relations which fully
manifested during the Spanish Civil War
World Disarmament Conference
At the World Disarmament Conference, Hitler demanded that Germany be
allowed to increase their armaments in the interest of Self-Defence.
He believed that while Germany had reduced their armaments to a very
low level under the Treaty of Versailles, no other countries had reduced
their armaments according to their commitments at the Paris Peace
Conference. Therefore, Germany was still in no position to defend itself
against foreign powers.
Some of the delegates felt that Hitler's proposals were reasonable,
however, France remained concerned of a German invasion, and refused
to consider disarming or allowing the Germans to re-arm.
Due to the French refusing to negotiate, Hitler withdrew from the World
Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations in October 1933”
Hitler's withdrawal from the League of Nations and the disarmament
conference was a success for him because it allowed him to pursue his
expansionist policies without any international interference or restrictions.
Hitler had openly stated his intentions to rearm Germany and to reclaim
territories that he believed had been taken from Germany by the Treaty of
Versailles. By withdrawing from the League of Nations and the
disarmament conference, Hitler was able to pursue his aims without any
opposition. Moreover, this move also increased Hitler's popularity among
the German people, who saw it as a sign of Germany's return to a position
of power and independence. Hitler's withdrawal from the League of
Nations and the disarmament conference contributed to his maintenance
of power by boosting his image as a strong leader who was willing to stand
up for Germany's interests, even if it meant going against the international
community. This move helped him consolidate his support within Germany
and reinforced the idea that he was the only leader who could restore
Germany's greatness. The international reaction to Hitler's withdrawal from
the League of Nations and the disarmament conference was negative,
particularly among the UK, France, and the USSR, who saw it as a threat
to the stability of Europe. The UK and France responded by increasing
their military preparedness, while the USSR sought to form an alliance
with France and Czechoslovakia. However, their actions were not enough
to prevent Germany from pursuing its expansionist policies.
Munich Agreement
The Munich Agreement was signed on September 29, 1938, with the
appeasement of Nazi Germany by Britain and France. The agreement
allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia, which
was home to many ethnic Germans. The agreement was seen as a
betrayal by Czechoslovakia and a victory for Hitler.
The Anglo-German naval agreement was signed on June 18, 1935, and it
allowed Germany to build a navy that was up to 35% the size of Britain's
navy. It was a significant diplomatic victory for Hitler, who was able to
break the naval restrictions imposed on Germany by the Treaty of
Versailles.
3. Explain the outcome of the event
The outcome of these events was mixed. The Disarmament conference
was a failure and did not achieve its goals. The Remilitarisation of the
Rhineland was a success for Hitler, as he was able to break the terms of
the Treaty of Versailles without any significant opposition. The
Remilitarisation of Austria was also a success, as Hitler was able to annex
the country without any significant opposition. The Munich Agreement was
seen as a victory for Hitler and a defeat for Czechoslovakia, but it also
marked the beginning of the end of appeasement policies toward Nazi
Germany. The Anglo-German naval agreement was a significant
diplomatic victory for Hitler, as it allowed him to build up his navy and
challenge British naval supremacy.
4. Explain the impact of the event on Hitler’s maintenance of power
(ask students to think of popularity and Hitler’s aims to reverse the
terms of the ToV):
The impact of these events on Hitler's maintenance of power was
significant. The Remilitarisation of the Rhineland and the annexation of
Austria were popular movies among many Germans, and they increased
Hitler's popularity and support among the German people. The Munich
Agreement also increased Hitler's popularity, as many Germans saw it as
a diplomatic victory for Germany. The Anglo-German naval agreement
allowed Hitler to build up his navy, which was crucial for his aims of
reversing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and expanding German
power in Europe. Overall, these events allowed Hitler to consolidate his
power in Germany and pursue his aims of expansion and domination in
Europe.
Influences on Hitler’s foreign policy beliefs:
Legacy of WW1, November criminals, political instability, weaknesses of
Weimar republic
Impact of Versailles, War guilt, reparations, loss of territories
Economic consequences, reparations, ensuing hyperinflation and the
great Depression.
Aims: (broadly)
Destroy the treaty
Unite all Germans
Extend living space
Achieve world conquest as befits German power.
The Dollfuss Affair:
July Putsch 1934
Austria was an important country to hitler and the Nazis given the number of
ethnic Germans living in this territory. He wanted to unite/reunite all Germans.
Austrian Nazis attempted to overthrow the Austrian government - all with
Hitler’s approval and assistance.While the coup was unsuccessful, the
Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss was assassinated.
Called the ‘Fatherland Front’: a super conservative state: a brand of fascism.
Benito Mussolini, a close ally of Dolfuss, was enraged by the assassination
and moved Italian armies to the Brenner Pass in a bid to deter Hitler from
invading Austria.
Hitler in response to the Dollfuss Affair/failed July Putsch/mobilisation of italian
armies in May.
Hitler ‘backed off’: attempted to distance himself from the events in Austria.
Wanted good relations with Italy.
The Dollfuss Affair was a failure for Hitler because his attempt to engineer
a coup in Austria failed. Hitler had hoped to install a sympathetic
government in Austria and to merge Austria with Germany, but his plan
was foiled by the Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, who was
assassinated by Austrian Nazis in July 1934. This event weakened Hitler's
position and damaged his reputation, particularly among the international
community, which saw it as evidence of his aggressive intentions. The
failure of the Dollfuss Affair contributed to Hitler's maintenance of power by
reinforcing the idea that Germany was surrounded by enemies who were
determined to thwart its ambitions. Hitler used this event to justify his
aggressive foreign policy and to portray himself as the only leader who
could protect Germany from external threats. The international reaction to
the Dollfuss Affair was one of condemnation, particularly among the UK,
France, and the USSR, who saw it as evidence of Hitler's aggressive
intentions. The UK and France responded by increasing their military
preparedness, while the USSR sought to form an alliance with France and
Czechoslovakia to contain Germany's expansionist policies.
Saar Plebiscite
The Saarland was a coal-rich German territory given to France after WW1 in
compensation for the destruction of French mines. Administered by the LoN
and economy controlled by the French.
The ToV stipulated that a plebiscite would be held to determine which country
the people wanted to be reverted to.
Plebiscite is a national vote.
Unsurprisingly, over 90% of votes were in favour of rejoining germany.
The Saar Plebiscite was a success for Hitler because it allowed him to
regain control of the Saar region, which had been under French control
since the end of World War I. Hitler had promised the German people that
he would reclaim territories that had been taken from Germany by the
Treaty of Versailles, and the Saar Plebiscite was seen as a sign that he
was delivering on his promises.The success of the Saar Plebiscite
contributed to Hitler's maintenance of power by reinforcing the idea that he
was a strong leader who could restore Germany's territorial integrity. This
move also increased Hitler's popularity among the German people, who
saw it as evidence that he was delivering on his promises. The
international reaction to the Saar Plebiscite was mixed. While the UK and
France saw it as a violation of the Treaty of Versailles, the US and Italy
recognized the result of the plebiscite and accepted Germany's control
over the Saar region. The USSR opposed the Saar Plebiscite and saw it
as a violation of the Treaty of Versailles. They viewed the plebiscite as an
attempt by Hitler to expand Germany's territory and increase his own
power. The USSR was concerned about the growing power of Germany
under Hitler and saw it as a threat to the stability of Europe. As a result,
the USSR did not recognize the result of the plebiscite and condemned
Germany's actions in the Saar region.
International Reaction
St Reaction Evidence
at
e
U The United Kingdom In a speech to the House of
K was disappointed with Commons on October 16,
Germany's decision to 1933, British Prime Minister
Stanley Baldwin stated that
withdraw from the
Germany's withdrawal from
Disarmament the Disarmament
Conference and the Conference and the
League of Nations. League of Nations was "a
The British very serious blow indeed to
government believed the cause of peace"
that Germany's (source: Hansard).
In a joint statement with
actions were a blow
French Prime Minister
to international peace Édouard Daladier on
and security. They October 14, 1933, Baldwin

also saw it as a sign
that Germany was not
committed to
disarmament and was
pursuing a policy of
aggression.
Fr France was deeply
an concerned about
ce
Germany's withdrawal
from the
Disarmament
Conference and the
League of Nations.
The French
government saw this
as a sign of German
aggression and a
threat to their national
security. They called
for an international
response to ensure
that Germany would
not be allowed to
pursue its military
ambitions.
U The Soviet Union was
S critical of Germany's
S decision to withdraw
R Foreign Minister Maxim
from the
Disarmament
Conference and the
League of Nations.
The Soviet
government saw this
as a sign of the
weakness of the
international system
and the inability of the
League of Nations to
maintain peace and
security. They called
for a new international
organisation that
would be more
effective in preventing
war and aggression.
P Worried but placated
ol by Hitler
an Poland was also
d concerned about
Germany's withdrawal
from the
Disarmament
Conference and the
League of Nations.
The Polish
government saw this
as a sign that
Germany was
preparing for war and
that Poland was in
danger. They called
for an international
response to ensure
that Germany would
not be allowed to
threaten the peace
and stability of
Europe.
HITLER TO WAR
Anglo-German Naval Pact
After the breakdown of the disarmament conference, the UK feared that
another naval arms race with Germany was imminent.
The naval reductions of the London Naval Conference of 1930 and the Great
Depression had left the British navy facing an economic shortfall.
Given these factors, British admirals were content to see treaties signed with
foreign powers to restrict their navies
warned that "if the efforts
for disarmament fail, the
safety of nations will be
imperilled, and the menace
of a new and terrible war
will grow" (source: The New
York Times).
In a speech to the French
Parliament on October 25,
1933, French Foreign
Minister Louis Barthou
stated that Germany's
withdrawal from the
Disarmament Conference
and the League of Nations
was "an act of aggression
against the peace of
Europe" (source: The New
York Times).
In a letter to British Foreign
Secretary Sir John Simon
on October 18, 1933,
Daladier wrote that "we
must react, for this
withdrawal of Germany is a
serious challenge which
calls for an immediate and
firm response" (source:
Documents diplomatiques
français).
In a speech to the Soviet
Congress of Soviets on
December 7, 1933, Soviet
Litvinov criticised the
League of Nations for its
inability to prevent
Germany's rearmament
and called for the creation
of a new international
organisation that would be
"based on the principles of
collective security and
equality of all states"
(source: International
Organization).
In a letter to the League of
Nations on October 23,
1933, Litvinov wrote that
"the present situation is
fraught with danger for the
entire world" and called for
urgent action to prevent
war (source: League of
Nations Archives).
10 year non-aggression
pact
In a statement to the press
on October 15, 1933,
Polish Prime Minister
Walery Sławek warned that
"Germany's withdrawal
from the Disarmament
Conference and the
League of Nations means
that Poland is in danger"
(source: The New York
Times).
In a letter to the League of
Nations on October 20,
1933, Polish Foreign
Minister Józef Beck called
for the establishment of an
international system of
collective security to
counter Germany's
aggressive policies (source:
League of Nations
Archives).
In turn, this would mean that the UK would not have to embark on expensive
rearmament.
1935: June:
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement was signed which enabled Germany to
build a fleet 35% of the size of the British Royal Navy
While Hitler saw this as the start of a potential alliance with the UK against the
USSR, UK saw this very differently as a way to limit German rearmament
The agreement was met with criticism from other states:
Germany was allowed to rebuild their Navy (Kriegsmarine) beyond ToV
limitations
The pact was signed without consultation of France or Italy which effectively
was a betrayal of the Stresa Pact giving cause for Italy to act freely in
Abyssinia.
Spanish Civil War 1936
- July 17 1936: Outbreak of the Spanish Civil War -
nationalists vs the republicans (Christian nationalists vs socialists who
were in favour of less power for the monarchy) - the first of the wider battle
between the left and the right.
- Within days of the announcement of war, Hitler committed
Germany to support General Francisco Franco → leader of the
Nationalists
Reasons:
- Test his new armaments: AIRFORCE
- Prevent communism from taking hold in Western Europe
- Saw this as an opportunity to encircle France (Fascist Spain,
Italy and Germany)
- So although Mussolini and Hitler intervened in separate
manners, both were motivated by their desire (hatred) to stop the spread
of Bolshevism
- Involvement in the Civil War marked Hitler’s first foray into
international diplomacy → a new era where Germany would become
involved in European affairs to address the future conflict that was to
come.
Italy:
With the recent election victory of the French popular front, Mussolini was
worried about the spread of leftist ideology and revolutionaries in France
and Western Europe:
To his wife:
“Bolshevism in Spain would mean Bolshevism in France, Bolshevism at
Italy’s back and the danger of the Bolshevization of Europe”
Germany:
- The potential consequences of the left winning in Spain (and
fears of the spread of Communism) prompted (according to the German
Ambassador to Italy Ulrich von Hassell) a “sudden increase in the warmth
of German-Italian cooperation.”
- Hitler had confirmed as much to the Hungarian Minister at
Rome of “his intention of following an active anti-Communist policy. He
said that in Spain it was working effectively, and that, in this connection, he
was happy to provide further proof of the good relations between Italy and
Germany, since the operation in Spain in support of General Franco had
been carried out in common.”
- Hitler even told Chamberlain in 1938 that if hadn’t
intervened, that Communism would have spread to France, Holland and
Belgium
German contributions Italian contributions
16,000 troops over the course of 40-50,000 troops over the
the war course of the war
The Condor Legion - 5000 tank
and air personnel
- Historians have suggested Hitler’s decision to contribute
minimally to the war was because he did not want the conflict on a larger
scale and did not want to invoke the UK, France and they USSR (think
about the remilitarisation of Rhineland being framed as a gamble)
- Germany was very clear about not wanting to escalate the
situation in Spain to an all out conflict.
- Mussolini was not slighted by the German unwillingness - in
the words of Italy’s ambassador to Spain:
“If we close the door of Spain to the Russians, only to open it to the
Germans, we can kiss our Latin and Mediterranean policy goodbye”

Guernica, a town in the province of Biscay in Basque Country, was
seen as the northern bastion of the Republican resistance movement
and the centre of Basque culture. This added to its significance as a
target. Around 4:30 p.m. on Monday, 26 April 1937, warplanes of the
Nazi Germany Condor Legion, commanded by Colonel Wolfram von
Richthofen, bombed Guernica for about two hours
Because a majority of Guernica's men were away, fighting on behalf
of the Republicans, at the time of the bombing the town was
populated mostly by women and children.
In his journal for 30 April 1937, von Richthofen wrote:
“When the first Junkers squadron arrived, there was smoke everywhere
(from the VB [VB/88] which had attacked with 3 aircraft); nobody would
identify the targets of roads, bridges, and suburbs, and so they just
dropped everything right into the centre. The 250s toppled a number of
houses and destroyed the water mains. The incendiaries now could
spread and become effective. The materials of the houses: tile roofs,
wooden porches, and half-timbering resulted in complete annihilation.
Most inhabitants were away because of a holiday; a majority of the rest left
town immediately at the beginning [of the bombardment]. A small number
perished in shelters that were hit.”
Rome-Berlin Axis 1936
Given the success of German-Italian cooperation during the civil war (a fascist
dictatorship led by Franco was eventually established in Spain), Germany and
Italy formalised the relationship on the 23rd of October 1936.
It was not a military agreement (however, it did eventually turn into this in
1939 with the formalisation of the Pact of Steel) but more a confirmation that
the two nations would work more closely together (and condemn Communism
as the most dangerous threat).
Mussolini on 1st November:
The Berlin encounters have resulted in an agreement between both countries
on specific problems which are particularly acute these days. But this
agreement ... this vertical axis Berlin–Rome is not a diaphragm, but rather an
axis with which all European states animated by the will to collaborate and to
peace can collaborate.
Hossbach Memorandum
The Hossbach Memorandum was a record of a meeting held on
November 5, 1937, between German dictator Adolf Hitler and his top
military and foreign policy advisors. During the meeting, Hitler outlined his
plans for Germany's expansion and his desire to acquire new territories,
particularly in Eastern Europe.
The Hossbach Memorandum recorded the main points of Hitler's speech
and the discussions that followed. Among other things, Hitler stated his
intention to take Austria and Czechoslovakia, and eventually to wage a
war of conquest against the Soviet Union. He also emphasised the
importance of rearming Germany and preparing for war.
It is a justification for their later actions with the war in a practical and
logical way - the actions they have been forced to take or even consider, a
set timeline, potential reactions by different nations and three cases where
they should take advantage of the opportunities presented. For example, if
France has internal conflict that distracts them, they may be able to take
Austria or Czechoslovakia.
They outline the increasing demand for Living Space, why they have a
short time frame because of other countries growing stronger, how they
cannot be self sufficient if they continue on this path - with a growing
population, good standard of living and lack of resources to provide for
their people -
By 1937, Hitler had transformed Germany from a weak and isolated nation
into a rapidly arming economic powerhouse which had managed to isolate
France and the USSR. What had supported germany in its reemergence
was Britain’s appeasement policies, weakness of the League of nations
and the support of Italy.
On the 5th of November 1937, hitler has met with his top
advisors/Generals to discuss and lay out his aims for foreign policy over
the next ten years.
Hossbach Memorandum is the recording of the meeting detailing Hitler’s
aims. Confident that Germany’s position was not secure, Hitler argues for
the need to quickly conquer both Austria and Czechoslovakia(7th largest
economy at the time - industry and resources). This would remove any
chance of France surrounding Germany in opposing alliances. Hitler
argued that war was inevitable, so it was better to strike first before France
and the UK could rearm this had to happen by 1943 at the earliest, 45’ at
the latest.
Anschluss
1938: the diplomatic alignment in Europe had changed. Mussolini had
adopted a pro-german stance and in turn gave tacit consent - would not
oppose Anschluss.
Remilitarisation of the Rhineland showed that neither the UK or France
would oppose Hitler in annexing Austria.
Kurt von Schuschnigg(replaced Dollfuss), opposed Anschluss but also had
little internal political support. No longer had Italian support.
Many Austrians were increasingly viewing a potential Anschluss as a way
to solve the existing economic problems that had plagued the country
since the end of WW1.
On February 12th, 1938, Chancellor Schuschnigg travelled to meet with
Hitler expecting to discuss the tensions between Austria and Germany.
Instead, he was met with a series of demands from Hitler insisting on
German domination of Hitler.
● Foreign and military policies must be in line with germany
● Austrian Nazis who had been imprisoned by the government
were to be amnestied.
● Austrian Nazi: Arthur Seyss-Inquart was to be placed in
charge of policing and security matters, interior minister who
would effectively work as Schuschnigg’s deputy.
Hitler used the presence of several German generals to intimidate the
Austrians into signing the agreement.
March Schuschnigg called for a plebiscite despite signing the agreement
hoping to show that they wanted to remain independent.
The referendum asked voters to support or reject the following call for
Austrian independence:
“For a free and German, independent and social, for a Christian and united
Austria! For peace and work and the equality of all who profess the Volk
and Fatherland”
Hitler was understandably enraged by this and presented an ultimatum to
Schuschnigg: cancel the plebiscite and resign or Germany would invade.
Schusgnigg - not wanting to spill Austrian blood - resigned and was
promptly replaced by Seyss-Inquart and an Austrrian-Nazi cabinet.
Despite meeting all of Hitler’s demands, German troops crossed the
border early on in the 2th of March, 1938.
They were not met with armed resistance and Hitler had effectively
annexed Austria without a single shot fired. When they marched on
Austria, they were met with celebrations and a parade.
Second plebiscite in April. With Austrian independence eliminated, its
status reduced to a province of Germany - known as Ostmark - and the
Austrian Reichtag dissolved, a new plebiscite was held on the issue of
Austrian resistance.
99% of Austrians agreed with the referendum.
Czechoslovakia 1938
Czechoslovakia was founded in 1918 following the dissolution of the
Austro-Hungarian empire.
Despite its multinational population - 50% Czech, 22% German, 16%
Slovak, 5% Hungarian, 4 % Ukrainian, 1% Jewish, < 1% Polish - and
consequent calls for individual sovereignty, it functioned as parliamentary
democracy.
The majority of the German minorities lived in the border region of the
Sudetenland which is also where the majority of the Czech defences
happened to be
29 September- with UK, Italy, France and Germany all present, the Munich
agreement was signed between the four powers which ceded the whole
Sudetenland to Germany in return for promises of peace.
1-10th of October- Germans troops occupied the Sudetenland.
- Czechoslovakia lost 41,000km sq of land, its best defences
and its best industries. This area included 3 million ethnic Germans, yet it
also handed to the Germans 66% of Czechoslovakia’s coal, 70% of its iron
and steel, and 70% of its electrical power. Without these resources,
Czechoslovakia was left vulnerable to complete German dominion.
- As early as October 1938, Hitler made it clear that he
intended to force the central Czechoslovakia government to give Slovakia
its independence. Slovakia did declare its “independence”, which was in
fact complete dependency on Germany, on March 14 1939, with all
protests within Czechoslovakia completely silenced due to the threat of
invasion.
- Then, on March 15, 1939, during a meeting with Czech
President Emil Hacha- a man considered weak, and possibly even senile-
Hitler threatened a bombing raid against Prague, the Czech capital, unless
he obtained from Hacha free passage for German troops into Czech
borders. He got it. That same day, German troops poured into
Czechoslovakia. By evening, Hitler made a triumphant entry into Prague.
- Economic issues in Germany forced Hitler’s hand to invade
the rest of Czechoslovakia.
Bela Tuka:
- Bela Tuka was appointed as Prime Minister of Slovakia in
October 1939, after Slovakia’s declaration of independence.
- On 3 September 1940 Tuka led the Slovak Assembly to
enact Constitutional Law 210, a law authorising the government to do
everything necessary to exclude Jews from the economic and social life in
the country. Previous laws had already stripped them of political
participation. With Wisliceny, an SS officer sent to act as an adviser in
“Jewish affairs” to Tuka’s government, Tuka composed the Jewish Code,
of the 9th of September 1941. This contained 270 articles
comprehensively denying rights to Slovak Jews. It required that Jews wear
the yellow star, confiscated Jewish property, and expelled Jews from
Bratislava, the Slovak capital.
- Slovakia was the first state outside of direct German control
to agree to the deportation of Jewish citizens.
President Hacha:
- During the night of 14-15 March 1939, he was in a Berlin
meeting with Hitler and Hermann Goring, where he was threatened with
military action if he did not surrender Czechoslovakia to Germany. So he
signed the document which allowed Hitler to annex Czechoslovakia. The
nation was split up into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the
Slovak Republic.
Bohemia and Moravia:
- In the wake of the Munich Pact, the leaders of the
democratic government in Czechoslovakia resigned.
- On March 15, 1939, Nazi Germany invaded and occupied
the Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, in flagrant violation of the
Munich Pact.
- The German occupation authorities refashioned the two
provinces as a German protectorate, annexed directly to the Reich, but
under the leadership of a Reich protectorate.
Hungary and Ruthenia:
- Ruthenia was a region in the easternmost part of
Czechoslovakia. It declared its independence as the “Republic of
Carpatho- Ukraine” on 15 March 1939, however it was occupied and
annexed by Hungary the same day. The remnants of the Czechoslovakia
Army immediately abandoned the newly-formed republic. On 18 of March,
resistance by the new republic, mainly composed of local self-defence
groups, ended.
Economic issues in Germany forced Hitler’s hand to invade the rest of
Czechoslovakia.
In 1939, Adolf Hitler, the Chancellor of Germany, sought to expand the
German Reich by annexing parts of Czechoslovakia, a country with a
significant German minority population. Hitler's plans were opposed by
many in the international community, but he continued his efforts to
achieve his goals.
In March 1939, the German military occupied the Czech region of
Bohemia-Moravia, effectively ending Czechoslovakia's independence.
During the occupation, German officials exerted control over the region's
political and economic systems.
At the same time, Hungary and Poland, two neighbouring countries, took
advantage of the situation to seize parts of Czechoslovakia's territory.
Hungary annexed Ruthenia, a region in the country's east, while Poland
took control of the Teschen region, which was divided between
Czechoslovakia and Poland.
In the midst of these events, Bela Tuka, a Slovak politician, played a
significant role in supporting the Nazi occupation. Tuka was the Prime
Minister of Slovakia, a newly-formed state that had gained autonomy from
Czechoslovakia just a few months earlier. Tuka's collaboration with the
Germans ultimately led to his downfall, as he was executed in 1946 for his
role in the Nazi occupation.
Another key figure in this period was President Emil Hacha, who was the
President of Czechoslovakia during the German occupation. Hacha was
forced to negotiate with Hitler and ultimately signed an agreement that
allowed German troops to occupy Bohemia-Moravia. Hacha remained in
his position as President, but he was essentially a puppet of the German
government, and his role was largely ceremonial.
Overall, the events of 1939 marked a turning point in the history of Europe
and set the stage for the outbreak of World War II later that year. The
annexation of Czechoslovakia by Germany was a clear sign that Hitler was
willing to use military force to achieve his territorial ambitions, and it
sparked a global response from other countries that feared German
aggression.
Poland 1939
● Like Czechoslovakia, Poland was also a new country formed
in 1919 with lands taken from Russia, Germany, and
Austria-Hungary. Over 800,000 Germans were living in
Poland which Hitler resented.
● After the Munich Conference, Hitler began to demand the
restoration of Danzig (renamed Gdansk) as well as access
through the ‘Polish Corridor’ that split German territory.
● Despite offering to renew the Non-Aggression Pact 1934,
Polish leaders rejected this, fearing they would become the
next Czechoslovakia.
● In response, in April 1939 Hitler started drawing up plans for
invasion.
● In an effort to gain further diplomatic support, in May 1939
Hitler signed the ‘Pact of Steel’ with Italy, a military alliance.
Hitler also courted the USSR, hoping to destroy any hopes of
a Franco-British-Soviet alliance.
● By 22nd August, Hitler announced to his generals that the
time for invasion was now.
● 23 August: Von Ribbentrop was sent to Moscow. The
outcome was the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Both agreed to divide
Poland in the event of war.
● On 31st August, SS troops ‘attacked’ a German border post,
dressed as Polish soldiers.
● This incident is used as a pretext to invade on 1st September
1939.
● On 3rd September Britain and France declared war.
● On 17th, the USSR invaded Poland from the East.
● Italy declared itself a ‘non-belligerent’.
● It was still recovering from its April 1939 invasion of Albania.
HITLER DOMESTIC POLICY
Schacht, Goering, Spear Economics
The Great Depression:
- Severe impact: by the time Hitler became chancellor in 1933,
1 in 3 Germans were unemployed - 6.1 million.
- Bruning’s austerity measures were unpopular earlier and
more importantly, they were unsuccessful. Domestic economic policy was
a major issue that Hitler needed to deal with.
- In 1934, Hjalmar Schacht was appointed as Hitler’s Minister
of Economics.
- Key to economic revival were the issues of ending
unemployment and achieving Autarchy.
Deutsche Arbeitsfront: DAF: German Labour Front
May 2, 1933: Trade unions were banned. Hitler believed that powerful
trade unions could disrupt the economy.
May 6, 1933: The DAF was the Nazi labour organisation that replaced the
various trade unions that were established during the Weimar Republic.
Key role is to ensure that the economy works for the interests of the state:
DAF propaganda led workers to believe that this new system of labour
would rend class differences and build the foundation for a national,
harmonious society.
In reality, workers lost the means by which they were represented
politically and working conditions were not completely dictated by
employers and the state.
What did they DAF do:
Controlled the power of the employers
Set out new employment rights of all workers in factories, mines, munition
plants and shipyards.
Regulated working hours and rates of pay.
Organised activities for workers to do in their leisure time.
SPREAD THROUGH JOY
Punished workers
Organised holidays
Advantages: established what the minimum working standards would be
Disadvantages:
Workers lost their freedom to act collectively against employers.
Reichsarbeitsdienst: National Labour Force: RAD
- The RAD was established in July of 1934 and was a major
labour organisation that conscripted unemployed men into vast work
teams.
- This helped mitigate the effects of mass unemployment
- Militarised the workforce
- Indoctrinated the workforce with Nazi ideology: Nazification:
Gleichschaltung
- By 1935, service was compulsory for young men.
- Their public works: work creation schemes: Schacht
encouraged Hitler to introduce a programme of public works: government
expenditure on large, public infrastructure projects that would require a
large labour force.
- Building/repair of schools, hospitals and railways
- The AUTOBAHN: 80,000 men to build.
- 1941, nearly 4000 km of highways had been built across the
Reich
- Could be argued that this was a form of rearmament.
Transport of people and resources + Pansa tanks.
- Reich Chancellery Building: Hitler ordered the construction of
a new building. This building was demolished by the Soviets post-war.
- Detlev Rohwedder House: Luftwaffe Administration.
Herman Goering
- Adolf Wagner at the September 1936 party rally at
Nuremberg. Wagner read out a proclamation from Hitler:
- “I present the following as the new Four-Year Plan. In four
years Germany must be wholly independent of foreign areas in those
materials which can be produced in any way through German ability,
through our chemical and machine industry, as well as through our mining
industry. The re-building of this great German raw material industry will
serve to give employment to the masses. The implementation of the plan
will take place with National Socialist energy and vigour. But in addition,
Germany cannot relinquish the solution of its colonial demands. The right
of the German people to live is surely as great as that of other nations.
The success of this plan is merely a question of our energy and
determination. National Socialists have never recognised the word
‘Impossible’.”
In the proclamation read out by Adolf Wagner on behalf of Hitler, the new
Four-Year Plan is presented. The goal of the plan is for Germany to
become completely independent of foreign areas in producing materials
that can be created through German industry, such as chemicals,
machinery, and mining. The rebuilding of the German raw material industry
is seen as a way to provide employment to the masses. Additionally, the
plan calls for the solution of Germany's colonial demands, as the German
people have the right to live just as other nations do. The success of the
plan is said to depend on the energy and determination of the National
Socialists, who do not recognize the word "impossible."
- Hermann Goering played a significant role in Nazi economic
policy from 1936 onwards. In September 1936, Hitler appointed Goering
as the Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan, giving him broad powers to
coordinate and oversee the economic development of Nazi Germany.
- Goering's main focus was on achieving economic
self-sufficiency and preparing Germany for war. He established a system
of production quotas and centralised planning, directing resources towards
key industries such as armaments, steel, and chemicals. The goal was to
make Germany independent of foreign imports and able to sustain itself in
the event of war.
- To achieve this, Goering implemented a series of measures,
including the expansion of state-owned industries, the creation of new
industrial research centres, and the imposition of strict controls over raw
materials and production. He also established the Reichswerke Hermann
Goering, a state-owned conglomerate that controlled a range of industries,
from mining to arms production.
- Goering's economic policies were successful in achieving
some of their goals, such as reducing unemployment and increasing
industrial production. However, they also led to shortages of consumer
goods and a growing reliance on forced labour, including the use of
concentration camp prisoners.
- Overall, Goering's role in Nazi economic policy was
instrumental in preparing Germany for war, but it came at a high cost in
terms of human suffering and economic sustainability.
Albert Speer:
- Creation of the German War Machine
- Was decisive in his role as the Minister of Armaments
(1942-45)
- Was able to successfully reorganise armament production
which was able to significantly increase access to weapons for the
German Army.
- Speer also fostered innovation within the industry, leading to
great creation of new military technology.
- Originally responsible for the Armaments industry, however,
through his establishment of the Central planning Office, a
‘super-ministerial body’, assumed almost full control of the economy.
- Some historians suggest that Speer prolonged the war by
focusing on technological process and level of output.
- V2: innovation: one of Speer's biggest contributions;
envisioned as a miracle weapon to win the war. Produced at Dora
concentration camp, at which thousands of detainees worked. During the
Nuremberg Trials, he denied any knowledge of the Final Solution, it is
clear that he was responsible for the reorganisation of the economy and in
part assisted in the continuation of the war.
‘Autarky’:
- Autarky refers to a policy of economic self-sufficiency and
isolation, where a country attempts to produce all the goods and services it
needs domestically without relying on imports or exports. The concept of
autarky is often associated with the economic policies of Nazi Germany
during the 1930s and 1940s.
- Under the autarky policy, the German government aimed to
reduce the country's dependence on imported goods and raw materials,
such as oil, rubber, and iron ore, which were essential for the country's
industries and military operations. The Nazis sought to achieve this goal
by implementing a series of protectionist measures, such as imposing high
tariffs on imports, limiting foreign investment, and promoting domestic
production.
- The German government also pursued policies to increase
agricultural production and reduce reliance on imported food. For instance,
they introduced the "Blood and Soil" ideology, which emphasised the
importance of German farmers and their connection to the land. The
government provided subsidies and other incentives to encourage farmers
to produce more food, and also implemented policies to limit the
consumption of meat, in order to redirect resources towards crop
production.
- While the autarky policy was designed to make Germany
more self-sufficient, it ultimately proved to be unsustainable, particularly in
the face of wartime shortages and disruptions to international trade. The
policy also contributed to the economic and social isolation of Germany
from the rest of the world, and to the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany in
World War II.
Women In Nazi Germany
The rights and status of women had advanced during the Weimar
Republic.
BEFORE THE NAZIS WERE IN POWER:
- Arguably reflective of the social climate surrounding women
in western world post WW1.
- The rate of employment for women in Germany was 4 times
higher than the US.
- Germany also had more female members of parliament than
any other European country.
NAZI WOMEN:
● Volksgemeinschaft: the people’s community. Preached by
the Nazis as the new Reich society - one where class and
social divisions were replaced by racially pure Germans who
all had a strong sense of national unity.
● Women had an inferior role because Hitler viewed them as
weaker - their role was effectively reduced to child bearing
and looking after the family.
○ Women were excluded from political life- only 6
% of the party was made up by women and
none were in high positions.
○ Single women were allowed to work but
married women were absolutely forbidden to do
so and were forced back into the home.
○ University entrances were drastically cut
○ Women were unable to practise law and could
not serve on jurors as they were considered to
be too emotional.
○ 80,000 left the labour market between 1933
and 35’.
● Despite this, women remained strong supporters of hitler
 ● Many were happy to return to the home and have different
roles in society.
● The German women's league was established to encourage
the new role of women in the rich.
● A new number of party funded social services prepared
women for their role as housewives and also offered a
variety of courses that taught women about pregnancy,
housekeeping, child rearing and ‘racial hygiene’.
● Kinder, Kirche, Küche (children, church, kitchen)
Indoctrination:
The Nazi regime actively promoted the idea of Volksgemeinschaft or
"people's community" which aimed to replace social and class divisions
with a racially pure German society united under the Nazi ideology. As part
of this ideology, women were expected to play an inferior role, primarily
focused on motherhood and family life. Hitler viewed women as weaker
and inferior, and their role was reduced to childbearing and looking after
the family as seen in his above quote. Girls were taught at school that their
future role was one of motherhood and looking after their husband. As
seen with Hitler’s quote, her role is to be taken up for the benefit of the
nation. The concept of Kinder, Kirche, Küche; "Children, Church, and
Kitchen" was constantly reinforced through posters depicting healthy blond
children in the care of their Aryan parents. Indoctrination of these women
is depicted in how their support for him did not waver even though most of
their rights had been revoked. Even after experiencing a Weimar
government policy that was taking great strides with feminism and equality,
many were happy to have these rights stripped of them. Not only with
childbearing but with lifestyle, they were indoctrinated into believing that
they had to embody the perfect aryan image of femininity. Women were
discouraged from smoking or wearing make-up. German women were
expected to be homely, concerns about fashion were considered
un-German, and weight reduction and slim figures were considered bad
for childbirth. Goebbels outlines that their sole mission is one of physical
service in the same way that men were asked to serve - only women did
so by birthing children and “being beautiful”. Despite the restrictions placed
on women's lives, many women remained strong supporters of Hitler and
his policies. Some were happy to return home and have different roles in
society. However, the reality was that women were excluded from political
life, with only 6% of the Nazi party being women, and none of them holding
high positions.
Marriage:
The Nazi government introduced policies aimed at increasing the number
of births for the "racially pure" sections of society. Marriage and family
were encouraged, and the ideal family was seen as one with at least four
children. This meant that families of four or more children; the kinderreich
gained concessions such as reduced gas prices. In written policy, the Law
for the Promotion of Marriage provided a loan of 1000 reichsmarks to
married couples who were deemed genetically healthy, provided the
woman gave up her job and took no paid employment as long as her
husband was earning an income. Between 1933 and 1939, more than 1
million marriage loans were granted, increasing the marriage rate by 20%
Childless couples and single men paid more taxes to help fund this
financial arrangement. Women gained respect for the children that they
had - seen to be supporting the growing Reich and ideas of Lebensraum.
Married women were strictly forbidden from working outside of the home,
while single women were allowed to work but only in certain professions.
University entrances for women were drastically cut, and women were not
allowed to practise law or serve on juries. In the labour market, around
80,000 women left their jobs between 1933 and 1935 due to the new
policies. The German Women's League was established to promote and
encourage women to embrace their new role in the family. The league
offered a range of party-funded social services to prepare women for their
roles as housewives. These services also provided courses on pregnancy,
housekeeping, child-rearing, and "racial hygiene," which reflected the Nazi
belief in eugenics and perfect family life. The societal norms surrounding
marriage and the judgement towards those who could not or would not
take part - few in their numbers - was more emphasised by the traditional
roles of women as wives and mothers, and it reinforced the Nazi ideology
that women's primary duty was to reproduce and raise children for the
betterment of the Aryan race.
The quotes by Goebbels and Hitler reflect the Nazi regime's belief that
women's primary role was to bear children and maintain the household. As
Goebbels stated, "The mission of women is to be beautiful and to bring
children into the world," while Hitler said, "The woman has her own
battlefield…with every child she brings into the world she fights a battle for
the nation." These quotes align with the Nazi propaganda's portrayal of the
ideal woman as one who is focused on motherhood and the domestic
sphere, which was encapsulated in the slogan "Kinder, Kirche, Küche"
(children, church, kitchen). Under the Nazi regime, women were
discouraged from working outside the home, and their education and job
opportunities were severely restricted. Instead, they were encouraged to
take courses on pregnancy, housekeeping, and child-rearing, all of which
were aimed at preparing them for their primary role as wives and mothers.
The government's policies incentivized women to have multiple children,
as larger families were viewed as contributing to the growth and strength
of the nation. The ultimate goal of these policies was to ensure the survival
and prosperity of the German people, as defined by the Nazi ideology of
racial purity and superiority.
Women - indoctrination - reshaping lives
Female education focussed on motherhood
The birth rate had been in decline since WWI and given the ideology of
racial purity and lebensraum, marriage and family were encouraged.
Pronatal policies also aimed at increasing ‘racially pure’ births: families
with 4 - kinderreich - or more children were given benefits including
concessions in utility bills (gas, electricity).
12 Aug 1939 (Hitler’s Mother’s birthday)
Mothers were awarded Mother’s Cross (Mutterkreuz)
4 children → Bronze
6 children → Silver
8 Children → Gold ← were
saluted by Hitler Youth
Hitler himself served as godfather to the 10th child in any family
Women - marriage
Law for the Promotion of Marriage - June 1934:
Genetically healthy married couples were eligible for 1000RM loan (approx
$2500 USD) given:
Women gave up employment at the time of the wedding
Women had no paid employment for as long as her husband was
employed
¼ of the loan was cancelled with the birth of each child
1933-1939: more than 1 million marriage loans were granted and the
marriage rate increased by 20%
Childless couple and single men were taxed more to pay for this
Nuremberg Laws - September 1935:
The Reich Citizenship Law
Only racially pure Germans were allowed to hold citizenship “of German
or related blood”
The Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour
Mixed marriages were made illegal
Specifically intermarriages or sexual relations with Jews was illegal
Youth + Education
When an opponent says ‘I will not come over to your side’, I calmly say
your child belongs to us already. What are you? You will pass on. Your
descendants, however, now stand in the new camp. In a short time they
will know nothing but this new community…”
Adolf Hitler, 1933
In order to continue the might of the Reich, the Nazis invested heavily in
the young - the future generation
The Hitler Youth (Hitler-Jugend) had been a part of the Nazi party since
1922, but when the Nazis took power in 1933, all other youth organisations
were banned and membership for 14-18 year old boys was made
compulsory.
The League of German Girls (Bund Deutscher Madel) was established in
1930 for girls aged 14-18
By the start of WWII in 1939, membership of the Hitler Youth stood at 7.2
million
By 1936, membership to a Nazi Youth organisation was made compulsory
There were a number of things emphasised with the Hitler Youth:
1. Love for the Fuhrer
Oaths were sworn to Hitler and boys were taught into unquestioning
obedience to Hitler and the state
2. Physical, military activity
Healthy children make healthy soldiers and healthy soldiers create
Lebensraum
3. Racial purity
Young Germans could not pollute the racial stock and were taught about
the importance of racial purity
Where boys were taught to be physically fit and ready to defend the Reich,
young girls were also taught physical fitness but the true emphasis was on
the preparation for their future roles as wives and mothers. Emphasis
included training in domestic skills - cooking, sewing and preparation for
marriage
With the Waffen-SS and regular army now depleted of men, Hitler ordered
Hitler Youth boys as young as fifteen to be trained as replacements and
sent to the Russian Front. Everyone, both young and old, would be thrown
into the final fight to stop the onslaught of "Bolshevik hordes" from the East
and "Anglo-American gangsters" from the West. If the boys happened to
get cornered by American patrols, they often battled until the last boy was
killed rather than surrender. And the boys kept getting younger. American
troops reported capturing armed 8-year-olds at Aachen in Western
Germany and knocking out artillery units operated entirely by boys aged schools Training Institutes
twelve and under. Girls were also used now, operating the 88mm (NAPOLAS) and Adolf
Hitler-Schule to
anti-aircraft guns alongside the boys. prepare future Nazi
leaders
At the Pichelsdorf bridges, 5,000 boys, wearing man-sized uniforms
several sizes too big and helmets that flopped around on their heads,
Teachers Required to join the National Socialist Teachers'
stood by with rifles and Panzerfausts, ready to oppose the Russian Army.
Alliance, Jewish teachers and those who
Within five days of battle, 4,500 had been killed or wounded. In other parts challenged the changes were removed
of Berlin, HJ boys met similar fates. Many committed suicide rather than
be taken alive by the Russians
Universitie Quality of teaching fell as courses placed more
s emphasis on science and technology, Jewish staff
Education were removed, enrolments declined, number of
Before 1933, Germany had one of the best education systems in the world women at universities fell
→ Kindergarten (a German concept) to University
The Nazis saw education as a tool for indoctrination and there was clear
opposition to intellectual thought and free inquiry. Education also had to be Dr Bernhard Rust was appointed Minister for Science, Education and
controlled so it reflected traditional German values. Culture in 1934 → he sought to create an education system that would
Boys and girls were educated separately: support the Nazi state

As part of this, ideologies on race received special attention in schools.

Boys Girls
“No boy or girl should leave school without a complete knowledge of the
Subjects Taught maths and Taught basic maths necessity and meaning of blood purity”
science at higher and science,
levels domestic courses, no History courses were revised and textbooks re-written to emphasise
foreign languages nationalism, militarism, a study of Germany’s heroic past and the rise of
National Socialism.
Emphasis Emphasis on physical Emphasis on
activity, sports, nationalism and Mein Kampf became a set book for study
toughness and militarism
hardship Minorities
Anti-Semetism: the hatred/hostile treatment of Jewish people - was a
Religious Made optional and later abolished central theme in the Third Reich and was actively encouraged by the Nazi
Education party.

Race and Taught the principles of National Socialism, science Co

ideology of races, blood purity

Special National Political N/A

mmon in Europe pre-Third Reich but the Nazi interpretation was the most
brutal/horrific.
Fascism became popular in Europe during the early 20th century due to a
number of factors. These included the aftermath of World War I, economic
instability, and the rise of radical political movements. Many people in
Europe were disillusioned with traditional political parties and were drawn
to the promise of strong, decisive leadership that fascism offered.
Additionally, fascist movements often exploited popular fears and
prejudices, such as anti-Semitism, to gain support. Extremism blossoms
when solutions SEEM scarce.

How does Fascism view the role of the individual in society?

According to the source, some of the key dangers associated with fascist
regimes include the erosion of democracy and individual rights, the
promotion of violence and war, the use of propaganda and censorship to
manipulate the masses, and the glorification of authoritarian rule. Fascist
regimes can also lead to the persecution of minorities and the suppression
of dissenting voices, as well as the concentration of power in the hands of
a few elites.

Aims Leading cause Impact

of

FASCIST ITALY Fascis

m on
foreign
policy?
ROAD TO WAR
Matilda Ryan: Road to War - Italy To increase Most Italians believed Italy had been mistreated at Strong
What is Fascism and where did it originate? national the Treaty of Versailles, humiliated even. 460,000 leader
Benito Mussolini, comes from the Italian word Fascio meaning ‘a bundle’. pride Italians died in the war, yet their sacrifice was ship in
Idea that things are stronger together. Goes back to Roman times; symbol ignored. So Mussolini wanted to restore the Roman Musso
Empire, which greatly appealed to the humiliated lini-
of strength.
people. Musso
To many Italians, the Fiume became an emblem of lini
Group Action Revolutionary, 1950. national pride and international victimhood. had to
Annexing Fiume became a matter of national pride. depict
What are the key characteristics of fascist ideology? himsel
The key characteristics of fascist ideology include a belief in the superiority f as
Consolidate Italy’s liberal democracy had a profound lack of strong
of one's own race or nation, a rejection of liberal democracy and individual
domestic national identity, as well as many divided opinions and
rights, a belief in the use of violence and war as tools of statecraft, and a confid
support for and a lot of regionalism. Mussolini needed to unite
commitment to authoritarian rule. Fascists often promote the use of ent.
the people under a common cause, and loyalty to
propaganda to manipulate the masses, and they tend to glorify the military regime that cause.
and use symbols of nationalism and patriotism to rally support. Nation
The separation between the church and state in Italy al
What are some of the reasons why Fascism became popular in took place in 1929 furthered the separation of the pride
Europe during the early 20th century
 The Italian ‘Empire’
people, heightening the importance of a united was Eritrea - 1890
nation for the regime. extrem Somaliland - 1925
ely Even Libya in 1934 wasn’t exactly a massive gain given oil had yet to be
import
Dominate Matter of national pride, to prove their importance discovered…
ant to
the Balkans to the world. Musso Not exactly a revival of the Roman empire envisioned by Mussolini or even
lini, massive gains economically given how poor these territories were.
with it
Dominate Matter of national pride, to prove their importance being
the to the world. Wished to improve the economy of one of
Mediterrane Italy, and believed Italy should be allowed a sphere the
leadin
an of influence in the Mediterranean sea as he believed
g
that Italy was the most powerful of the cause
Mediterranean countries. s for
his
action
Build an Matter of national pride, to prove their s.
empire- importance to the world. Mussolini saw Africa as
expand an opportunity to provide land for unemployed
Italians and acquire more mineral resources to
territories in fight off the effects of the Great Depression.
Africa

Foster the Resist the spread of Communism, which started

spread of spreading after the 1917 revolution, as Mussolini
Fascism in feared the spread of Bolshevism.
other
countries
Revise Mussolini wanted Italy to gain more colonies and
settlements importance in the world. The Paris Peace Conference
of 1919-20 did not give Italy the land that had been promised
Long-term weaknesses of Italy’s liberal democracy (consider lack of
national identity, divisions between church and state, working class protest
and nationalist opposition)
The impact of World War One and the Treaty of Versailles on Italy
The Fiume Affair
The appeal of fascist ideology
Post-war economic problems
The Bolshevik revolution of 1917
The March on Rome
1920s Fascism
October 1922: Benito Mussolini was named as Prime Minister by King Victor
Emmanuel III in response to his March on Rome - where he and nearly
30,000 other Blackshirts threatened to march on Rome to replace the
government
Italy was a nation severely divided politically, economically and socially
The war had served to cause further discontent and instability that already
existed pre-war.
With the fascist government firmly established, dissent was quelled by:
- banning publications that opposed anti-fascist views
- banning trade unions and replacing them with government organisations
- inciting violence against opposition
- creating youth groups to teach fascist ideology
Domestic social policy also promoted conservative values
e.g. women were meant to stay at home to rear children
Fascism is important in the context of the move to global war given its strong
emphasis on nationalism and empire-building ← both of which could be
achieved through war
1930s - Great Depression
Italy, like many other countries, was impacted severely by the Great
Depression - tariffs imposed by traditional trading partners (UK, FRA, USA)
forced ITA to look towards the Balkans - Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria,
Romania - for trade.
This also allowed for some protection from economic sanctions for potentially
aggressive foreign policy
Like other countries impacted by the Depression - USA, Germany - Mussolini
introduced large public works programs → Battle for Land (1928) created
thousands of jobs during the depression:
What the Italian state also did as part of addressing the economic impacts of
the Depression was to take control of industries and increase government
intervention:
May 1931: The Italian banks failed BUT were bailed out by the government
(funded by the treasury)
Jan 1933: the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) was established and
took control of the shares in bank owned companies → what this meant was
that the state was the major shareholder in many key companies. The IRI also
provided loans to industry.
So although industry/businesses were never nationalised, Fascist Italy by
1939 had the highest rate of state ownership of an economy in the world -
second only to the Soviet Union. Quite ironic
More importantly, what this all meant was that Italy in fact suffered less that
other capitalist nations at the time and it actually prepared Italy to pursue
more aggressive foreign policy given its relative economic stability
Abyssinia
The reality was that even with this relative stability, the Italian economy was
still not prepared to finance or support a war for any purpose (e.g production
were at 60% of 1913 levels)
- Abyssinia (modern day Ethiopia) made sense for Mussolini - it
neighboured the Italian colonies and its borders were loosely defined.
- Potential also for economic gain?

Despite the grandiose visions of foreign policy espoused by fascism, the

reality was that Italy was a weak country economically and militarily when
Mussolini came to power in 1922:
Their economy relied on the UK, FRA and USA throughout the 1920s
- an oil embargo by the US or UK would severely restrict their
economy
- reductions in food imports from France would also have
impacts

Territories promised to Italy in post-war settlements were not conceded to

them
Given these issues, Italy’s foreign policy throughout the 1920s was largely
opportunistic
Mussolini's style abroad, as at home, was that of the bully rather than the
negotiator..In foreign policy he was concerned less to reduce international
animosities than to foster them…
Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 1983

Examples of opportunism/bullying came in the form of the Corfu incident 1923

and Fiume 1924 where Greece and Yugoslavia - both even smaller and
weaker than ITA - both conceded territory or pride to the Italians
 the League's attempts at collective security had failed. The war also
highlighted the limitations of economic sanctions as a means of enforcing
international law. The League's failure to prevent Italy's invasion of Ethiopia
contributed to its eventual demise, as it exposed the organisation's inability to
effectively maintain world peace and security.

ALBANIA 1939

Italy's invasion of Albania in 1939 was a significant event that occurred during
the lead-up to World War II. Here are some notes outlining the key details of
the invasion:

Causes of the invasion:

Mussolini's desire to expand Italy's territory and influence in the Balkans

Italy's desire to compete with other European powers, particularly France and
the United Kingdom
Albania's perceived weakness and lack of a powerful ally

Occupation:
Italy invaded Albania on April 7, 1939, with over 100,000 troops
The Albanian army offered little resistance, and the invasion was swift and
successful
Italy established a puppet government led by King Victor Emmanuel III and
installed Italian military and civilian officials throughout the country
Albania was made a protectorate of Italy, with Italian control over its foreign
policy, economy, and military
Reaction and impact of the invasion:

The invasion was met with condemnation from other European powers,
particularly France and the United Kingdom, who saw it as a violation of
Albanian sovereignty and a threat to the balance of power in Europe
Abyssinia also made sense given it was the site of an embarrassing Italian
Albania's independence was effectively ended, and it became a satellite state
defeat in 1896 → First Italo-Ethiopian War: the first instance of an African
of Italy until Italy's surrender in 1943
state defeating a European one.
The invasion and occupation of Albania were important in establishing Italy's
- Mussolini looked to vindicate this loss
position as a major European power under Mussolini's fascist regime
Potential influence of fascism and economics:
“It is not only our army that marches to its objective, 44 million Italians march
Mussolini's fascist ideology placed great importance on territorial expansion
with that army, all united and alert. Let others try to commit the blackest
and the establishment of Italy as a dominant European power
injustice, taking away Italy's place in the sun. When, in 1915, Italy united her
Italy's economy was suffering from the effects of the Great Depression, and
fate with the Allies, how many promises were made? To fight the common
Mussolini saw the invasion of Albania as a way to boost the economy through
victory Italy brought her supreme contribution of 670,000 dead, 480,000
the acquisition of new resources and markets
disabled and more than one million wounded. When we went to the table of
Source analysis work:
that odious peace, they gave us only the crumbs of colonial booty.”
- Mussolini on the eve of invading Abyssinia, October 1935
Students could analyse primary sources such as Mussolini's speeches or
official government documents related to the invasion to gain a deeper
November 1934: The Wal-Wal incident
understanding of the motivations behind the invasion and the reasoning used
Aggression between Abyssinians and Italians caused Mussolini to build up
to justify it
Italian forces in Eritrea and Somaliland
Students could also analyse secondary sources such as historical accounts or
2 factors to also consider in Mussolini’s decision in invade Abyssinia:
academic articles to gain a broader perspective on the invasion and its impact
on European politics and society at the time.
- Stresa Pact 1935
The UK and FRA were concerned about Hitler’s growth in power - they

CHINA
needed Italy as an ally. The pact was a loose agreement to “maintain the
peace in Europe” Mussolini interpreted this to be a free pass to do whatever
he wanted as long as he appeased UK and FRA concerns.

- Anglo-German Naval Pact 1935

1840-1901
In contradiction to the Stresa Pact, the UK signed a deal with the Germans to
RISE OF NATIONAL IDENTITY
allow them to rebuild their navy - but only to 35% of the UK’s navy. Neither
China, up until 1911, was governed by imperial dynasties from 2200 BC.
France nor Italy were consulted in what allowed Hitler to directly breach the
The Qing/Manchu Dynasty went from 1636-1912
Treaty of Versailles
Imperial rule in China was characterised by certain factors but at the core was
the rule of the emperor and the deference by the people to the royal/imperial
An international crisis in 1935 between Italy and Ethiopia, also known as the
court.
Second Italo-Ethiopian War.
The crisis originated from the Walwal incident, where Italy built a fort well
Confucianism also had a degree of influence over society in that is said that
beyond the 21-league limit in eastern Ogaden.
harmony and order in China could be achieved through adhering to 5 large
On November 22, 1934, Ethiopian militia arrived at Walwal and formally asked
pillars:
the Italian garrison stationed there to withdraw, but they refused.
Acceptance of the status quo.
On December 5-7, a skirmish occurred between the Somalis in Italian service
Obedience of children to parents.
and the Ethiopians, resulting in approximately 107 Ethiopians and 50 Italians
Obedience of wives to husbands.
and Somalis killed.
Obedience of people to the emperor.
The League of Nations ruled against Italy and voted for economic sanctions,
but they were never fully applied.
Foreign Policy 19th Century
Italy ignored the sanctions, quit the League, made special deals with the UK
Chinese people viewed Chinese society as the ‘middle kingdom’.
and France, and annexed and occupied Abyssinia.
Thinking that Chinese society was culturally and materially self-sufficient and
The crisis discredited the League of Nations and is generally regarded as a
therefore did not require contact with foreign nations.
precursor to WWII.
- There was SOME trade (minimally).
The crisis raised questions about the effectiveness of treaties and
international covenants in preventing aggression.
Reform and progress were not necessary when the nation had all that it
required.
The League of Nations' handling of the Second Italo-Abyssinian War had a
Autarchy!!
significant impact on the organisation's credibility and effectiveness. The
Confucianism determined that adherence to the way that things were was a
League's passive response to Italy's aggression, as well as the controversial
way of maintaining order and society.
Hoare-Laval Pact, showed a lack of commitment to the League's principles
and undermined the trust of its member states. Hitler's remilitarization of the
Rhineland, which violated the Treaty of Versailles, further demonstrated that
In fact, foreign nations were considered barbaric and this thinking had huge Unlike previous peasant uprisings, the Taiping Rebellion lasted for fifteen
influence on the limited trade that occurred between China and the rest of the years, affected large areas of China, and was difficult to suppress.
world up to 1839. The rebellion was initially a movement among the Hakka people in
Guangdong province, protesting against economic conditions and heavy
“I set no value on objects strange or ingenious and have no use for your government taxation.
country’s manufactures” Led by Hong Xiuquan, the rebellion combined nationalist resentment against
- Emperor Qianlong’s letter to King George the third. the ruling Manchu dynasty with demands for improved peasant conditions.
The Taiping Rebellion had a religious aspect, with Hong proclaiming the era of
First Opium War: 1839-1842 the Taiping as the Celestial Kingdom of Heavenly Peace.
Treaty of Nanjing (1842) Despite the rebels' initial success and growth in numbers, their methods of
Cession of Hong Kong: China ceded Hong Kong to Britain, which became a control, including torture and beheadings, alienated many Chinese.
British colony until 1997. Western sympathies for the rebellion faded due to the rebels' ferocious
Opening of Ports: China had to open up several ports, including Shanghai, methods and the threat the rebellion posed to Western interests in China.
Canton, Ningbo, Amoy, and Fuzhou, for trade with foreign powers. The imperial government initially responded slowly but eventually assembled
Tariff Autonomy: Foreign countries were granted the right to set their own a large army, led by Zeng Guofan and supported by foreign mercenaries.
tariffs on goods imported into China, undermining China's control over its The failure of the Taiping rebels to capture Shanghai marked a turning point in
trade. the rebellion and internal dissensions weakened their movement.
Extraterritoriality: Foreigners in China were granted extraterritorial rights, It took three more years before the rebellion was finally crushed, resulting in
meaning they were subject to their own laws rather than Chinese laws. Hong Xiuquan's suicide in Nanjing in 1864.
Indemnity: China had to pay a large indemnity to Britain as compensation for Factors contributing to the failure of the rebellion include the brutality of the
the costs of the war rebels, internal dissension, lack of support from influential gentry, and the
resilience of the imperial government.
Treaty of Tianjin (1858) The Taiping Rebellion inspired other uprisings against the Qing dynasty,
Opening of Additional Ports: China had to open more ports for trade, including including the Nian Rebellion, the Panthay Rebellion, and the Dungan
Tientsin (Tianjin), Newchwang (Yingkou), and Hankou. Rebellion.
Legalisation of Opium: China was forced to legalise the importation and sale These subsequent rebellions had various causes, such as dissatisfaction with
of opium, despite its harmful effects on Chinese society. the Qing government, regional grievances, and ethnic or religious tensions.
Religious Freedom: Christianity was granted legal recognition, and foreigners The Qing government managed to suppress these uprisings, sometimes with
were allowed to travel and spread their religion throughout China. foreign assistance, but they caused considerable disruption and loss of life.
Diplomatic Presence: Foreign envoys were permitted to reside in Beijing,
giving them more direct access to the Chinese government. Event Cause Description Aftermath Role of
Describe Who, what, Describe foreigner
what led when, where, what s
Explain the impact of the First and Second Opium Wars on China. to the how happened Were
Loss of Sovereignty: The treaties imposed unequal terms on China and event after the foreigners
eroded its sovereignty. China was forced to grant concessions and privileges event targeted
to foreign powers, undermining its authority and control over its own territory. as part of
Economic Imbalance: The opium trade and the opening of Chinese ports led the
to an influx of foreign goods, resulting in a trade imbalance and the depletion event?
Was there
of China's silver reserves.
foreign
Social and Cultural Disruption: The introduction of opium had devastating interventio
effects on Chinese society, leading to widespread addiction and social n as part
disintegration. of the
Humiliation with Nationalism: The unequal treaties and military defeats event?
caused humiliation among the Chinese population, fostering a sense of
nationalism and anti-imperialist sentiment. Taiping The Took place in There were Western
Weakening of the Qing Dynasty: The Qing Dynasty's inability to effectively Rebellion rebellion China several sympathie
resist foreign encroachment and defend Chinese interests during the wars was between 1850 factors that s for the
further weakened its authority and legitimacy in the eyes of the Chinese initially a and 1864 and contributed rebellion
people. movemen affected large to the faded due
t among areas of rebellion to the
the Hakka China, being being a rebels'
Anti Western/anti government sentiments: people in difficult to failure: the ferocious
Unequal Treaties: The unequal treaties imposed by Western powers Guangdo suppress. brutality of methods
undermined China's sovereignty and led to resentment towards Western ng Led by Hong the rebels, and the
countries. province, Xiuquan. internal threat the
Economic Exploitation: The opium trade and the unequal trade terms imposed protesting Despite the dissension, rebellion
by foreign powers resulted in economic exploitation, further fueling against rebels' initial lack of posed to
economic success and support Western
anti-Western sentiments.
conditions growth in from the interests
Social and Cultural Impacts: The introduction of foreign ideas, religions, and and heavy numbers, West and in China.
customs challenged traditional Chinese values and cultural identity, leading to governme their methods from The
a sense of cultural invasion and resistance. nt of control, influential imperial
Qing Dynasty's Weakness: The Qing Dynasty's inability to protect China from taxation. including gentry and governme
foreign aggression and its perceived collaboration with Western powers Combined torture and the nt was
nationalist beheadings, resilience supported
created anti-government sentiments among those who felt betrayed by their
resentme alienated of the by foreign
own rulers. nt against many imperial mercenari
Nationalism and Anti-Imperialism: The humiliation caused by the Opium Wars the ruling Chinese. governmen es.
and the subsequent unequal treaties sparked a sense of nationalism and Manchu The imperial t. “Drawing
anti-imperialist sentiment, motivating many to resist Western influence and dynasty government It inspired on the
advocate for Chinese sovereignty. with initially other expertise
demands responded uprisings of foreign
for slowly but against the mercenari
1911 Revolution
improved eventually Qing es, such
Post-Opium Wars peasant assembled a dynasty; as the
Tianjin granted exclusive resident rights to foreigners. conditions large army, the Nian, English
Christian missionaries had had a presence in China since the 13th century but . led by Zeng Panthay command
were largely ignored.tolerated. The Guofan and and er Charles
After the unequal treaties however, Protestant missionaries from the West Taiping supported by Dungan Gordon,
moved into China looking to spread their faith - at a time when sensitivity Rebellion foreign Rebellions. the
had a mercenaries. People Manchu
towards foreigners was at an all time high. Not only did China have to come to
religious The failure of remained forces
terms with the defeat at the hands of the west, but the population was also aspect, the Taiping dissatisfied were able
becoming increasingly subjugated to Western ways of thinking in the form of with its rebels to with the to
Christianity. leader capture Qing break
proclaimin Shanghai governmen attempts
European missionaries dressed in traditional Chinese attire - an intentional g the era marked a t, regional by the
of the turning point grievances Taping to
action to ensure that their teaching was not seen as antagonistic.
Taiping as in the and ethnic seize
the rebellion and or religious Shanghai
Taiping Rebellion Celestial internal tensions. in 1860
The Taiping Rebellion took place in China between 1850 and 1864 and was Kingdom dissensions Caused and 1862.
the most destructive rebellion in Chinese history. of weakened disruption The
 Heavenly their and loss of failure governme and strong anti-Asian
Peace. movement. It life. to take nt in westerners in leadership sentiment
Hong took three Shanghai, dealing general of the s in
preached more years which with the Driven by movement Europe,
bitter before the owed increasing superstitious 4. the brutal
hatred rebellion was much to foreign beliefs, (e.g. Unwillingne methods
against finally the British demands) that ss of the which the
the crushed, presence foreigners Chinese foreign
Manchu resulting in there…” Foreign had damaged gentry to legions
as the Hong demands the veins of support the implement
oppressiv Xiuquan's in the the dragon by Boxers ed were
e suicide in form of building 5. also
instrumen Nanjing in the railways), the Superiority important
ts of the 1864. “scramble Boxers began of the in
Devil. for targeting the foreign exacerbati
concessio “Hairy Men” legions in ng the
ns” a → enemies of their Chinese
First-Sino Dispute The In April Russia, carving-of the state firepower hatred of
Japanese over Sino-Japanes 1895, the Germany -Africa (foreign The Boxer foreigners
War Korea, a e war took Treaty of and style Christians, protocol Forced
peninsula place from Shimonose France division of Chinese 1901 the terms
which had August 1894 ki was intervene China by Christians, Chinese of the
been to April 1895, signed d at the European Chinese who garrisons Boxer
traditionall and was a between end of the powers worked with were protocol
y war between Japan and war to westerners → stymied which
regarded Japan and China, safeguard Cixi, who 1st, 2nd and and again,
by the China over ending the their took over 3rd Hairy Men punishment caused
Chinese influence in war. Its interests the respectively) s were further
as a Korea. In the main terms in China. Manchu The rebellion placed on resentme
tributary eight months were: They governme of the Boxers the Qing nt towards
state. of fighting, Japan took pressured nt, began in governmen both the
Tensions Chinese permanent Japan to attempted Shandong → t for their foreigners
were forces possession withdraw to levy the a specific role in the and the
created performed of many from a national target given uprising Qing
due to very poorly. territories, couple of dislike of the level of What little governme
Japan’s China’s including Chinese the 100 foreign credibility nt
increased armies were Taiwan. territories days to intervention the Qing
influence defeated on Japan was and create (large number governmen
there. land and its given the decrease anti-weste of foreigners, t had was
In 1894, navy was right to their rn large amount further
the shattered at establish influence campaign of foreign damaged
Japanese sea, due to factories over against owned by the
forced the Japan’s and China. the territories, Boxer
king to superior commerce They “foreign large number Rebellion
dismiss military. China in all the were devils” of Christian → it was a
his sought peace Chinese successfu missionaries, humiliating
governme after a series treaty l, with As part of spread of loss for the
nt and of humiliating ports. Japan this railways and imperial
replace it defeats. The Japan knowing campaign, mines in this court and
with a war ended received a that it she gave area) there was
pro-Japan with the claim over would be her After little
ese one. Treaty of Korea. overwhel support to Shandong - sympathy
So the Shimonoseki. China had med if it the and after a for the
Chinese to pay $230 came to a Boxers → massacre of imperial
governme million military secret thousands - governmen
nt silver conflict society the Boxers t. The Qing
declared dollars to with the 3 who were turned their governmen
war. Japan for nations. Anti-West attention t’s support
The war In ern by towards for the
Manchu damage. addition, nature Beijing. Fears Boxers was
court was Japanese Britain and that the Boxer effectively
eager for trade in and anti-Christ Rebellion miscalculat
conflict as China was Germany’ ian were ed
they expanded s anti-Manchu In effect,
wanted to to certain relationshi were quelled the Qing
reassert areas. ps with to which Cixi governmen
their Japan led gave the t was
dominanc to the government’s finished
e. military full support for and only
Popularity advancem the movement needed an
of war ent of → with this in event to
with the Japan in mind, she take power
Chinese the Meiji declared war from them.
population period, on the foreign
. one of the territories in
main Beijing
reasons believing that
for a national
Japan’s army could be
victory raised in the
over interests of
China. repelling the
foreigners
Boxer Failure of Made up of 1. The Foreigner Cixi was
Rebellion the' 100 Peasants 2. rebellion s were wrong:
days’ Chinese failed targeted provincial
reforms to Gentry 3. The because by the leaders in the
win Qing there was: boxers South ignored
support government, 1. Little but were her calls for
for the the Boxer support for also the troops to be
governme movement the ones who sent to
nt began movement ended the Beijing. The
(reforms targeting 2. No rebellion possibility of
were Chinese common While the winning
aimed at Christians in purpose brutal against the
addressin 1898 → this beyond a actions of foreigners
g the soon hatred of the without the
criticisms extended to foreigners Boxers support of the
of the missionaries 3. No caused south was low
 The
foreigners in
response
created the
Eight Nation
Alliance -
Austro-Hunga
ry, Britain,
France,
German, Italy,
Japan and
Russia -
which took
Beijing easily
causing the
Boxer
movement to
crumble and
for Cixi and
the emperor
to flee the
imperial city.
The Double Tenth (10/10/11)
On the discovery of a plot involving explosives in the city of Wuchang
(Wuhan), Qing authorities ordered for the suppression the rebels involved
Given the attitudes towards the Qing administration at the time, attempts at
rebellions like this weren’t uncommon - especially given the Manchu had little
support in the south - but the significance of the attempted uprising was that
the New Army - established in 1885 by the Qing in an attempt to modernise
the military - refused to quell the rebellion (given in part due to the existence
of revolutionary soldiers in the ranks).
There had always been tensions between northern and southern provinces in
China
- Historically, the Beijing had favoured political officials from the
north
- Further to this, the southern provinces had more regional
autonomy while the northern regions had a more centralised rule (to Beijing)
- The Southern provinces with their port cities were more
susceptible to western culture and commerce → economic prosperity also
went hand in hand with exposure to western ideas for the southern provinces
- The Wuchang Uprising (or Double Tenth)caused other provinces
in the south to rebel against the Qing government
- By November 1911, all but 3 southern provinces in China had
declared independence and the call for the establishment of a republic went
out from Nanjing
Yuan Shikai
Given the questionable loyalty of provincial military leaders to address the
brewing revolution, the Qing government looked to Yuan Shikai to lead the
Beijing army south to quell the insurrections → Yuan agreed
But when Yuan reached Wuhan - the site of the Double Tenth - he refused to
crush the rebels and instead struck a deal with them: accept himself as leader
of the republic instead of Sun Yatsen
What was more driving: this personal dislike for the government or his
imperial ambitions?
February 1912: the ultimatum was presented to the imperial court - abdicate
or be forced to
In the interests of preventing further bloodshed, dowager empress Longyu
declared on behalf of the emperor his abdication of power to the people to
establish a constitutional republic with Yuan Shikai at its head
Why did Yuan Shikai not come to Peking (Beijing), as he had promised to do
so, and how did he provide himself with an excuse to stay in Nanking?
Yuan Shikai initially promised to move the capital from Nanjing to Beijing after
he was appointed as the provisional President in 1912. However, he did not
fulfil this promise and instead stayed in Nanking. Yuan Shikai used the excuse
of national security concerns, claiming that the political situation in Beijing was
unstable and that it was necessary for him to remain in Nanjing to maintain
stability and consolidate his power.
How did Yuan Shikai establish his power base once he was president?
Yuan Shikai consolidated his power base through a combination of military
force, political manoeuvring, and negotiation. He had a well-trained and loyal
military force known as the Beiyang Army, which he used to suppress regional
warlords and rivals. Yuan also sought alliances and support from various
factions within China, including local elites, military officers, and political
leaders, to strengthen his position.
What was Sun Yixian’s role in the new government?
Sun Yixian, also known as Sun Yat-sen, was one of the key figures in the new
government established after the fall of the Qing Dynasty. He played a
significant role in the early years of the Republic of China and was the founder
of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party). Sun Yixian initially served as the
provisional President before Yuan Shikai took office. After Yuan became
president, Sun Yixian held various positions, including Minister of the Interior
and later as Director of the Military Affairs Commission.
Why did the foreign powers support Yuan Shikai and give him a loan?
Foreign powers, including Japan, Britain, and the United States, supported
Yuan Shikai for several reasons. First, Yuan was seen as a strong and
centralised leader who could bring stability to a fragmented China. Foreign
powers also believed that Yuan would be able to negotiate and implement
favourable treaties and agreements that would protect their economic and
political interests in China. In addition, Yuan's control over the Beiyang Army
gave him a military advantage, making him a valuable ally in maintaining
order and suppressing potential rebellions or uprisings.
Banking consortium
Why did the ‘Second Revolution’ against Yuan Shikai fail?
The 'Second Revolution' against Yuan Shikai, also known as the Xinhai
Revolution of 1913, failed primarily due to a lack of coordination and support.
The revolution was launched by various factions, including republicans,
regional warlords, and revolutionary groups, who were dissatisfied with Yuan's
autocratic rule and attempts to consolidate power. However, these factions
lacked unity and a coordinated strategy, leading to internal divisions and
conflicts. Yuan Shikai used his military forces to suppress the uprising and
maintain control, effectively crushing the Second Revolution.
What were the results of this for the Nationalist Party?
Yuan Shikai's actions had significant consequences for the Nationalist Party
(Kuomintang). He disbanded the Nationalist Party's political organisations,
suppressed its members, and weakened its influence. This led to a period of
decline for the party, as many of its members were disillusioned and frustrated
with Yuan's authoritarian rule. However, Yuan's actions also fueled opposition
and resistance against his regime, which eventually contributed to his
downfall.
What were the 21 Demands?
The 21 Demands were a set of demands presented by Japan to the
government of Yuan Shikai in 1915. These demands aimed to extend Japan's
influence and control over various aspects of China. The demands covered
political, economic, and territorial matters. Some of the key points included
giving Japan control over German concessions in China (acquired during
World War I), granting Japan mining and railway rights in China, and providing
Japan with territorial and economic advantages in Shandong Province. The
demands were seen as highly intrusive and unequal by many Chinese
nationalists.
How did this impact Yuan Shikai’s position?
Yuan Shikai faced a difficult situation when confronted with the 21 Demands.
He had to make a choice between accepting the demands and risking
widespread domestic unrest or rejecting them and potentially facing military
aggression from Japan. To preserve his own power and maintain stability,
Yuan Shikai chose to accept many of the demands. This decision further
weakened his position and eroded his credibility among Chinese nationalists
who saw him as capitulating to foreign powers. It led to widespread protests
and a loss of popular support for Yuan Shikai's government.
What three factors does the historian Fitzgerald identify as the reasons for
Yuan Shikai’s ultimate failure?
a. Yuan's authoritarianism: Yuan Shikai sought to establish a strong
centralised government and concentrated power in his own hands. He
dissolved the parliament, suppressed political opposition, and ruled through
authoritarian means. This autocratic style of governance alienated various
factions, including regional warlords, intellectuals, and democratic reformers.
b. Lack of popular support: Despite his initial popularity and military
successes, Yuan Shikai struggled to gain broad-based support from different
segments of Chinese society. His acceptance of the 21 Demands, attempts to
restore monarchy, and repressive measures against opposition further eroded
his support. Yuan's rule lacked a strong popular mandate, making it difficult for
him to consolidate power and maintain stability.
c. Failure to establish a durable political order: Yuan Shikai's attempts to
establish a new political order after the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 were
fraught with challenges. His ambitions for personal power and centralization
clashed with the desires of regional warlords and other power players. Yuan's
inability to navigate these complex dynamics and create a stable political
structure ultimately led to his downfall.
The Early Republic
The early days of the republic were shaky.
While Sun Yatsen and the Kuomintang (or Guomindang) were happy to give
the presidency to Yuan, the reality was that this was because Sun had little
power in the north.
Similarly, Yuan power and loyalty lay in the North where administrative power
lay:
At this point, there was little Sun and the Kuomintang could do to control Yuan
With these factors in mind, it may be easy to see how/why the early republic
was difficult to establish in full.
Yuan Shikai - Reorganisation Loan
The reality also was the newly established Beiyang Government was devoid
of any mass financial support - by 1913, less than 2 million yuan was coming
in from provincial land taxes and the government was operating at a deficit of
13 million Yuan monthly.
April 1913: While the government had previously sought loans from foreign
countries for economic supplementation, the biggest of these loans came in
the form of the Chinese Government Reorganisation Loan Agreement → the
terms of which gave even more control of China’s sovereignty to foreign
powers.
The fact that Yuan had secured this loan without consulting the newly
established parliament incensed republicans (Kuomintang) who attempted a
second revolution (Jul -Sep 1913) to remove Yuan from power
The second revolution failed which resulted in:
1. Sun Yatsen fleeing to Japan used this time to strengthen the
Kuomintang
2. Yuan (re)establishing an authoritarian regime which included
- the suspension of parliament
- banning of political parties (including the KMT)
- centralising tax revenue
- centralising political control to Beijing
First World War - 21 Demands
Both China and Japan saw the outbreak of WWI as an opportunity to gain
Chinese territories (Qingdao) previously held by Germany
Given Japan’s willingness to support Britain in their call for naval assistance,
the UK were perhaps more inclined to support Japan in their demands of
China - which they made given the focus of European powers on the
European theatre of war.
21 demands (1915) made by Japan on China looked to increase Japan’s
control in China.
The West were incongruous to China’s appeals for assistance and in May
1915, Yuan accepted Japan’s demands to the dismay of many in China.
Emperor Yuan
In light of the reaction to the 21 demands around the country (anti-Japanese
rallies, boycott of Japanese imports, rising anti-government sentiments),
Yuan believed that China was in fact yearning for a symbol of central authority
transcending from the presidency and that many would accept and welcome
the restoration of the emperor ( Yuan had already attempted to re-establish
elements of state Confucianism and was the chief participant in Qing-related
Temple of Heaven rituals)
Jan 1916: Yuan was coronated on New Years Day
Yuan was in fact incorrect…Many of Yuan’s close political allies abandoned
him and there were mass protests around China.
Military leaders around the country also began declaring independence for
their provinces → Yunnan in Dec 1915, Guizhou in Jan 1916, Guangxi in Mar
1916.
In response, Yuan cancelled the monarchy in March 1916 but with his
prestige shattered, provinces continued to declare independence.
Yuan died on June 6 1916 from stomach cancer at age 56
Sources have suggested that his early death was perhaps compounded by
his anger and humiliation
Matilda Ryan: Rule of Yuan Shikai
Warlord China
1916-1928: Warlord Era
Refers to time in which individual militarists control much of China given the
absence of centralised control.
Warlords came from a number of different backgrounds but what was more
important than this was the fact that China’s fragmentation made further
attempts at unification impossible. NONE WERE WILLING TO CEDE
POWER. As long as they ruled, China would remain divided.
Zhang Zongchang, also known as the "Dogmeat General" and "72-Cannon
Chang," was a Chinese warlord in Shandong during the early 20th century.
He rose to power by offering his band's services to the army of Jiangsu's
military governor after joining a bandit gang in 1911.
Zhang Zongchang gained favour with warlord Zhang Zuolin and was
rewarded with a command position in his army.
He had a fondness for gambling, especially the game Pai Gow, which earned
him the nickname "Dogmeat General."
Zhang Zongchang kept numerous concubines of different nationalities and
was known for his lavish spending on gifts for superiors and friends.
He was one of the more capable warlord generals, utilising armoured trains
and recruiting White Russian mercenaries and women into the military.
Zhang Zongchang was ruthless and brutal but also known for his colourful
and flamboyant personality.
He rewarded defectors from the enemy's army by allowing them to keep their
ranks and promoted his officers with gold and silver stars made from cigarette
packages.
Zhang Zongchang conquered Shanghai and Nanjing and served as the
military governor of Shandong until 1928.
He had a close relationship with Zhang Zuolin's son, General Zhang Xueliang,
and both indulged in opium.
Zhang Zongchang's forces were defeated by Muslim General Bai Chongxi
during the Northern Expedition, leading to his escape to Manchuria under
Japanese protection.
He accidentally shot and killed Prince Hsien Kai in Japan, likely due to
jealousy over a concubine.
Zhang Zongchang was charged but given a lenient punishment by a
Japanese court.
He was assassinated in 1932 by the nephew of one of his victims, possibly as
part of a political rivalry plan.
Based on the information provided, it is difficult to categorise Zhang
Zongchang as purely malevolent or benevolent. He displayed both positive
and negative qualities throughout his life. While he was ruthless and brutal as
a warlord, he also showed charisma and capability as a military leader.
Additionally, his flamboyant personality and unique actions, such as promoting
officers with makeshift insignia and his public promise to win a battle or return
in a coffin, suggest a complex character.
Wu Peifu, born in Shandong Province, China, had a remarkable early career
as a professional soldier. He joined the New Army under Yuan Shikai and
quickly rose through the ranks. After the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Wu
became a member of the Zhili clique, one of the major factions vying for
power in the era of warlordism. During this time, Wu played a key role in
forming the anti-Anhui clique alliance, which included powerful factions such
as Zhang Zuolin's Fengtian clique. In the Zhili-Anhui War of 1920, Wu
commanded the anti-Anhui army and achieved a swift victory, leading to the
collapse of the Anhui clique. Following the war, a power-sharing coalition
government was established between the Zhili and Fengtian cliques, but
internal conflicts emerged, particularly between Wu Peifu and Zhang Zuolin.
This eventually led to the breakdown of the coalition and the outbreak of the
Second Zhili-Fengtian War in 1922. Wu Peifu's strategic manoeuvres and
leadership turned the tide in favour of the Zhili forces during the Second
Zhili-Fengtian War, forcing Zhang Zuolin to retreat. However, control over the
Beiyang Government remained fragmented, with various regional authorities
asserting power. Wu Peifu's influence continued to decline during the
Northern Expedition in 1927 when he faced the Kuomintang army. He was
known for violently suppressing a strike in 1923, which tarnished his
reputation among the Chinese people but gained favour with British and
American commercial interests. After refusing to cooperate with the Japanese
during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Wu Peifu retired from politics. He
passed away under circumstances that raised suspicions. Wu Peifu's legacy
lies in his strategic brilliance, his significant role in the era of warlordism, and
his influence on the political and military landscape of China during the early
20th century.
The warlord era in China, which followed the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916,
had a significant impact on the country and shaped its national identity. During
this period, the central authority in China weakened, leading to power
struggles and infighting among various military commanders. General Duan
Qirui emerged as the premier, but his authority was limited, and the republican
government exercised little real power.
The weakness of the republican government resulted in the fragmentation of
the country. It struggled to maintain a strong and loyal army capable of
imposing central authority on the provinces. As a consequence, different
regions fell under the control of private armies commanded by warlords.
These warlords became autocrats, establishing their own legal, financial, and
taxation systems. Their rule was often characterised by oppression and terror,
causing immense suffering for the local population.
The warlords, despite their diverse attitudes and aspirations, shared a
common characteristic: a refusal to give up their private armies or submit to
outside authority. This lack of willingness to unite or cooperate kept China
divided and prevented the establishment of a strong central government. The
dominance of warlords for an extended period reflected the republic's inability
to create political stability, resulting in a political vacuum that the warlords
exploited.
Warlordism had a profound impact on China's national identity. The disunity
and distress caused by warlord rule intensified nationalist sentiments among
the Chinese people. The humiliation experienced at the hands of warlords and
foreigners fueled a sense of grievance and solidarity among Chinese radicals.
This solidarity provided direction and purpose to the revolutionary movement,
which might have otherwise been fragmented by factionalism and local
rivalries.
The warlord era eventually led to a reaction against the fragmented state of
China, prompting the Chinese to unite against the common enemy. The 4 May
Movement, for example, exemplified the nationalistic fervour that emerged
during this time. This shared resentment against warlord rule served as a
unifying cause, which later brought together the two major revolutionary
parties, the Nationalist Party (GMD) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP),
despite their subsequent opposition to each other.
In summary, the warlord era in China had a significant impact on the country's
national identity. It highlighted the weaknesses of the republican government,
resulting in the fragmentation of the nation and the rise of oppressive warlord
rule. However, this period also intensified nationalist sentiments and provided
a common cause for unity, ultimately contributing to the emergence of
revolutionary movements that sought to address the grievances of the
Chinese people and establish a stronger and more unified China.
Yuan Shikai’s Fault
To what extent was Yuan Shikai responsible for the rise of warlordism in
China in the early 20th century?
The early 20th century witnessed the rise of warlordism in China, a period
characterised by fragmented power and regional divisions. This essay aims to
explore the extent of Yuan Shikai's responsibility for this phenomenon. While
Yuan Shikai played a significant role in the subsequent chaos, it is crucial to
recognize that China's pre-existing problems and the lack of action by the
Manchu government laid the foundation for the rise of warlordism. This essay
will analyse the historical context, foreign interventions, Yuan Shikai's
personal ambitions, and his lack of consistent ideological loyalty to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the factors contributing to the rise of
warlordism in China.
While Yuan Shikai was partially responsible for the rise of warlordism, there
were pre existing issues that plagued China's state and society that led to
unrest and a call for change from the people, with division and aggression.
The Chinese government, under the ruling Manchu dynasty, was grappling
with significant challenges long before Yuan Shikai's ascent to power. The
inability of the Manchu government to effectively address these problems laid
the groundwork for the subsequent rise of warlordism. Firstly, China had
experienced a series of devastating conflicts and external pressures. The
Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), a massive uprising against the Qing dynasty,
resulted in immense casualties and destruction, leaving a power vacuum in its
wake. Moreover, the country's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War
(1894-1895) and the humiliating Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) highlighted
China's weakened position on the international stage. These events not only
exposed the fragility of the Chinese state but also fueled regionalism, as
different regions pursued their own interests rather than a unified national
agenda.
Furthermore, the failed attempt at reform through the Double Tenth Revolution
in 1911, aimed at establishing a modern republican government, exposed the
deep-rooted dissatisfaction with the ruling Manchu government and further
contributed to the weakening of central authority in China. Secondly,
corruption and internal disunity plagued the Manchu government. The opium
trade, enforced through the infamous Opium Wars (1839-1842, 1856-1860),
not only resulted in economic devastation but also revealed deep-seated
corruption within the ruling elite. The opium trade exposed the government's
inability to effectively control its own borders and regulate trade, leading to
widespread social and economic upheaval. Additionally, the Manchu
government's inability to address internal divisions and promote a cohesive
national identity further eroded public trust and unity. These historical events
and structural weaknesses set the stage for the rise of warlordism in China.
The inability of the Manchu government to tackle these issues effectively left a
power vacuum and a fragmented society vulnerable to the ambitions of
individuals like Yuan Shikai, who would later exploit these weaknesses for
personal gain. Thus, while Yuan Shikai played a significant role in the
subsequent chaos, it is important to recognize that China's pre-existing
problems and the lack of action by the Manchu government laid the
foundation for the rise of warlordism.
Foreign interventions and imperialist influence had a significant impact on
China during the early 20th century, contributing to the rise of warlordism. The
changing dynamics of the world necessitated the adoption of new ideas and
reforms, but external factors played a destabilising role in the existing power
structure. In this context, warlordism emerged as a response to the foreign
interventions and the demand for new ideas. The weakened central authority
and the discontentment among the Chinese people created an environment
ripe for the rise of ambitious military leaders who sought to fill the power
vacuum. These warlords capitalised on the prevailing chaos and utilised their
private armies to assert control over regions, exacerbating the fragmentation
of China and contributing to the era of warlordism. One crucial event was the
First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), which resulted in China's defeat and
the ceding of territories to Japan. This humiliating loss exposed the
vulnerability of the Chinese state and its inability to withstand external
aggression. Additionally, the Opium Wars (1839-1842, 1856-1860) imposed
unfair treaties upon China, further weakening its sovereignty and opening the
doors to foreign influence and exploitation. Furthermore, the aggressive and
imperialistic ambitions of foreign powers became evident through the
Twenty-One Demands presented by Japan to China in 1915. These demands
sought to establish Japanese control over various aspects of China's
sovereignty and resources, demonstrating the blatant disregard for Chinese
autonomy. These external pressures eroded the authority of the central
government and created a sense of resentment and disillusionment among
the Chinese people. The impact of foreign interventions was not limited to
territorial losses and unequal treaties. It also had a profound ideological
impact. China was confronted with the need to modernise and adopt new
ideas to navigate the rapidly changing world. The rise of industrialization and
nationalism in other parts of the world highlighted the need for reforms and a
departure from traditional systems. However, the external interference and
pressure from foreign powers complicated this process, causing internal
divisions and further destabilising the power structure. In summary, foreign
interventions, including the First Sino-Japanese War, the Opium Wars, the
imposition of unfair treaties, and the aggressive demands made by Japan,
played a significant role in destabilising the existing power structure in China.
These external factors highlighted the need for new ideas and reforms, but
their impact also contributed to the rise of warlordism as ambitious military
leaders took advantage of the weakened central authority.
Yuan Shikai's personal ambitions and his quest for power played a significant
role in paving the way for the rise of warlordism in China. His desire for
personal power and his ambitions to become the emperor were evident
throughout his political career, and his actions undermined the stability of the
republic. Yuan Shikai harboured a deep dislike for the Manchu government
and the imperial forces. He saw them as obstacles to his personal ambitions
and as symbols of a system that needed to be dismantled. This disdain for the
established authorities further motivated his pursuit of power and his
willingness to undermine democratic principles. One key event that
exemplified Yuan Shikai's personal ambitions was his expulsion from the
imperial court due to his leg injury. This humiliation fueled his desire for
revenge and served as a driving force behind his subsequent actions. Yuan
Shikai strategically positioned himself as a military leader, capitalising on his
military prowess and political connections to establish a power base. Yuan
Shikai's manipulative tactics and disregard for democratic principles were
evident throughout his rise to power. He exploited the fragile state of the
republic and capitalised on the chaos and disunity within the government.
Yuan Shikai skillfully manipulated factions and political rivalries to consolidate
his own power, undermining the stability of the republic in the process. By
leveraging his military might and political influence, Yuan Shikai gradually
accumulated power and established himself as a dominant figure. His
personal ambitions and disregard for democratic principles weakened the
central authority of the republic and created a power vacuum that warlords
were quick to exploit. Yuan Shikai's actions and his pursuit of personal goals
ultimately set the stage for the era of warlordism in China. In conclusion, Yuan
Shikai's personal ambitions, demonstrated by his desire for power and his
ambitions to become the emperor, significantly contributed to the rise of
warlordism in China. His strategic manoeuvres, manipulative tactics, and
disregard for democratic principles undermined the stability of the republic,
creating a power vacuum that warlords were quick to fill. Yuan Shikai's actions
and his disdain for the existing authorities played a pivotal role in the
fragmentation of power and the subsequent era of warlordism in early 20th
century China.
Yuan Shikai's lack of consistent ideological loyalty played a significant role in
the rise of warlordism in China. His wavering allegiances, shifting from the
republic to the Manchu government and back, eroded public trust and
weakened the central authority, ultimately facilitating the fragmentation of
power. Yuan Shikai's lack of consistent allies and loyalty further contributed to
the fragmentation of power in China. He frequently shifted alliances and
turned against former allies when it suited his personal ambitions. This
constant fluctuation eroded trust among political factions and resulted in the
loss of unified support for the central government. Yuan Shikai's inconsistent
ideological stance became apparent during the early stages of the republic.
Despite engaging with revolutionaries and aligning himself with their cause
during the first revolution, his subsequent actions revealed a lack of true
commitment to the principles of the republic. This inconsistency sowed seeds
of doubt and mistrust among the populace, undermining the legitimacy of the
central government. Yuan Shikai's dislike for the Manchu government and
imperial forces did not guarantee his steadfast loyalty to the republic. He
capitalised on his position as an authoritarian ruler, using his power and
resources to secure the support of military generals by paying them off. This
transactional approach to maintaining loyalty further highlighted his lack of
consistent principles and allegiance. The most glaring example of Yuan
Shikai's lack of consistency was his pivotal decision to turn against the
republic and install an imperial rule, despite having previously denounced the
monarchy. This abrupt reversal undermined the democratic principles the
republic was founded upon and further shattered the public's confidence in the
central authority. Yuan Shikai's actions demonstrated a disregard for the
ideals of the republic and contributed to the disillusionment that paved the
way for warlords to seize power. In conclusion, Yuan Shikai's lack of
consistent ideological loyalty played a significant role in the rise of warlordism.
His wavering allegiances, from aligning with revolutionaries to turning against
the republic and reinstating imperial rule, eroded public trust and weakened
the central authority. This inconsistency and lack of commitment to democratic
principles created a power vacuum that warlords eagerly filled. Yuan Shikai's
actions and shifting loyalties ultimately contributed to the fragmentation of May 4th: Around 3000 students from 13 universities gathered to oppose
power and the subsequent era of warlordism in early 20th century China. article 156/7 of the Versailles treaty.

In conclusion, the rise of warlordism in China during the early 20th century
was a complex process influenced by multiple factors. While Yuan Shikai's
personal ambitions, manipulative tactics, and disregard for democratic
principles significantly contributed to the fragmentation of power, it is
important to acknowledge the preexisting problems and external influences
that set the stage for this phenomenon. The inability of the Manchu
government to address internal divisions, the impact of foreign interventions,
and the shifting allegiances of Yuan Shikai all played crucial roles. Therefore,
the extent of Yuan Shikai's responsibility for the rise of warlordism should be
understood within the broader context of China's historical challenges.
WW1
Matilda Ryan Impact of WWI on China
Thousands gathered at Tiananmen Square to protest against the treaty and
blame the government.
Angry in particular at the concession of German territories to Japan rather
than being returned to China.
They criticised Confucianism and traditional Chinese values. They believed
China had to adopt Western ideals and more progressive values.
They wanted more emphasis on Science and Democracy: Chen Duxiu and Li
Dazhao.
The demonstrations gained significant attention and support from the public. It
quickly spread to other cities where it brought together various strands of
discontent - workers, students and intellectuals.

May 4th, 1919

Chen Duxiu thought that only science and democracy could help China and
China ‘needed help’.

Date Description Significance

1911 Overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and establishment of the Republic of China Ended thousands of years of imperial
rule, leading to political and intellectual
changes

January 1915 Japan presents the "Twenty-one Demands" to Chinese President Yuan Shih-k'ai Japan seeks to assert and expand
control over various regions in China,
including Shantung Province, generating
opposition within China

May 4, 1919 Student demonstration begins at Tiananmen Gate in Beijing Catalyst for the May Fourth campaign,
Student representatives from various organisations meet at the Peking College of opposing Japan's control of Shantung
Law and Political Science to plan the demonstration and advocating for national unity
Over 3,000 students gather at Tiananmen Gate Five resolutions are formed, including
Students are advised by police and government officials not to proceed with the sending telegrams to protest the
protest Shantung resolution and establishing a
The initial demonstration begins peacefully united organisation of student groups
Students storm the house of a pro-Japanese ministry official, ransack and set fire to Represents unity and determination
the house among students from thirteen colleges
Police arrest many students and impose martial law and universities in Beijing
Demonstrators refuse and continue with
the demonstration
Students publish statements and
pamphlets outlining campaign goals
Escalation of the situation due to
opposition faced by students
Clashes between police and students
result in injuries on both sides

May-June 1919 Student organisations form, demonstrations spread across China. Students form unions and societies,
publish statements, hold strikes, and
mobilise public support for their
demands

June 3, 1919 Students in Shanghai hold a strike and assemble in the city centre, making Demonstrations spread to other cities,
anti-Japan and anti-government speeches workers join the strike, and it impacts the
Chinese economy

June 28, 1919 Chinese students surround the Chinese delegation in Paris to prevent signing of China refuses to sign the peace treaty,
the Versailles peace treaty symbolising resistance to Japan's
control over Shantung

July 22, 1919 Student Union calls an end to all strikes Chancellors return to their university
posts, marking the conclusion of the
campaign

Overall China's refusal to sign the peace treaty was largely symbolic Although Japan retained control over
Shantung Province, the campaign
highlighted national unity and set the
stage for future movements
The May Fourth campaign became part
of the larger May Fourth Movement,
which led to significant structural social
and political change in China
The Communist Party drew on the
campaign's lessons of collaboration,
contributing to the revolutionary
movement in subsequent years
The campaign influenced the emergence
of the New Intellectuals, who sought
reform and restructure of the old status
quo
The campaign emphasised nationalistic
rhetoric and the adoption of nationalist
symbols to assert a coherent Chinese
national identity
 The student organisations and
publications provided the infrastructure
for the demonstrations and strike
activities
The alliance of workers and merchants
with the student strikers strengthened
the movement and had a significant
impact on the Chinese economy
The May Fourth campaign marked a
turning point in Chinese history, inspiring
future movements and shaping the
country's political landscape

According to Dr. J.A.G Roberts in "A History of China," the Treaty of Versailles
had several major impacts on China. These impacts can be classified into Chinese Communist Party
short-term and longer-term effects. Additionally, some impacts are considered The appeal of Marxism:
more historically significant than others. Let's explore each aspect in detail: - Chen Duxiu

Short-term impacts:
Boycott of trade with Japan: The news of the Versailles settlement led to the
organisation of a Citizens' Association in Shanghai, which called for a boycott
of trade with Japan. This boycott was a short-term response by business
people and students to express their dissatisfaction with Japan's perceived
favourable treatment in the treaty.
Removal of pro-Japanese officials: The Citizens' Association also demanded
the removal of three pro-Japanese officials. This short-term impact aimed to - Li Dazhao
eliminate individuals seen as supportive of Japan's interests and policies,
which were considered detrimental to China's position.

Long-term impacts:
Loss of faith in Western democracy: Chen Duxiu and many others initially
believed in the power of science and democracy to bring positive change to
China's political, moral, and intellectual landscape. However, the betrayal of
China at Versailles shattered this faith in Western democracy. This long-term
impact indicates a shift in ideological outlook and a reevaluation of China's
relationship with the West.
Questioning Western influence: The Treaty of Versailles raised questions
The May 4th movement was a response to the failure of the republican
about the sincerity and fairness of Western powers in their dealings with
government and a reaction against the warlord period.
China. This long-term impact contributed to a growing scepticism towards
Given the way the West(Versailles) had treated China, many intellectuals like
Western influence and intervention in Chinese affairs.
Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao also lost faith in the west and saw Marxism as a
way to restore China.
Historically significant impacts:
The impacts that are more historically significant can vary depending on the
The success of the Bolshevik revolution in 1917, the Leninist theory of
interpretation and context. However, the loss of faith in Western democracy
imperialism and the Soviet offer of friendship to China also boosted the appeal
and the questioning of Western influence stand out as significant. These
of Marxism.
impacts reflect a turning point in China's perception of the West and its search
for alternative paths to political and intellectual development.
Moscow announced in 1918 that it would renounce all the old Tsarist special
The loss of faith in Western democracy had far-reaching consequences as it
rights and privileges that Russia held in China. The unilateral expression of
led to a reexamination of China's own political and intellectual traditions. It
friendship was well received in China.
paved the way for the rise of alternative ideologies, such as
Marxism-Leninism, which gained significant influence in China in the following
Lenin’s theory on imperialism was persuasive to Chinese radicals - blaming
years.
the West for China;s ills and predicted the demise of the west and the rise of
Similarly, the questioning of Western influence contributed to the emergence
China.
of a strong sense of national identity and a desire for self-determination.
By 1919, Marxism-Leninism study groups sprang up across China. The
These sentiments played a crucial role in shaping China's subsequent
national university of Peking became a hotbed of radicalism.
struggles for independence, modernization, and sovereignty.
Li Dazhao
Overall, the loss of faith in Western democracy and the questioning of
Western influence are seen as more historically significant due to their
profound and enduring impact on China's political, ideological, and national
development in the decades that followed.

Origin CCP Death

Li Dazhao was a Chinese revolutionary born in 1889. He co-founded the CCP in 1921 with Li visited the Soviet Union in 1924 and collaborated with Christian
Li emphasised the importance of China's rural society in Chen Duxiu. warlord Feng Yuxiang to fight against Manchurian warlord; Zhang
launching political movements and used the Bolshevik Zuolin.
government in the Soviet Union as a possible model for Li published articles promoting
China. He was among the first of the Chinese intellectuals democracy, constitutional rule, and He was executed by Zhang Zuolin in 1927 along with 19 others while
who supported the Bolshevik government in the USSR. national resurgence. advocating for China to give up territories like Mongolia. He was taken
Mao Zedong was an assistant librarian during Li’s tenure from the Soviet embassy in Canton during an effort to detain
at the library and Li was one of Mao’s earliest and most He played a role in mobilising Chinese communists.
prominent influences. railway and mining workers for their
rights and advocated for revolution.
During the May Fourth Movement in 1919, he encouraged He was influential with the United
his students to challenge the Confucian-dominated ideas Front: alliance between CCP and
of traditional Chinese scholarship. GMD and worked to maintain a
relationship with the Russian
Comintern.
- Li and Chen were
inducted into Sun
Yat-sen's GMD in 1922
under the direction of the
Comintern.

In July 1921, the first congress of the CCP was held in Shanghai, at a girls
boarding school in the French concession.
Site of the First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party -
Wikipedia
12 delegates attended including Mao. They decided to establish the Central
party headquarters in Shanghai. Li and Chen were named as cofounders of
the CCP and Chen was elected as the first general secretary.
Splits soon emerged over the direction of the party.
Chen subscribed to European Marxism;s emphasis on the workers and
showed disdain towards the peasants. He believed urban elements should
spearhead the movement. Li stressed the importance of the peasantry in the
revolution as they made up more than ninety percent of the population.
Agriculture was still the basis of the national economy.
The early CCP supported Chen’s views and his base in Shanghai was made
as the headquarters.
Li’s views, however, provided a powerful alternative to other communists like
Mao Zedong. Was inspired by populist and nationalistic views on the roles of
peasants. Li was executed by Warlord Zuolin in 1927 but Mao continued on
with his mentor’s ideas.
Compare China and Russia in the early 20th century(You are trying to gauge
why/how Marxism might have gained popularity amongst Chinese
intellectuals):
Defeat by Japan: Both China and Russia had suffered military defeats at the
hands of Japan in the early 20th century. These defeats exposed the
weaknesses of their respective governments and sparked a desire for
modernization and national rejuvenation.
Economic and political modernization: China and Russia recognized the need
for economic and political reforms to catch up with the advanced nations of
the West. The backwardness and poverty in both countries created a sense of
urgency for change.
Western imperialism: Both China and Russia were subjected to Western
imperialism and domination. The presence of foreign powers in their territories
fueled anti-imperialist sentiments among intellectuals who sought liberation
and independence.
Bolshevik Revolution: The success of the Russian Revolution in 1917, led by
Lenin and the Bolsheviks, captured the attention and admiration of Chinese
intellectuals. The overthrow of the Tsarist regime and the establishment of a
workers' state resonated with Chinese revolutionaries who were disillusioned
with the failure of the 1911 Revolution and the subsequent republican
government.
Explain why Russia and Marxism appealed to Chinese Nationalists and
Intellectuals
Russia and Marxism appealed to Chinese Nationalists and Intellectuals for
several reasons:
Anti-imperialism: The Bolsheviks' defeat of foreign interventionists in Russia
during 1918-1920 was seen as a triumph against Western imperialism.
Chinese nationalists and intellectuals, who sought liberation from foreign
domination, saw in Marxism a potential tool to resist and overthrow imperialist
powers in China.
Explanation of capitalism and imperialism: Marxism provided a
comprehensive analysis of the capitalist system and imperialism. Chinese
intellectuals were attracted to the Marxist-Leninist theory of imperialism, which
explained China's humiliation and exploitation at the hands of Western
powers. It offered a framework for understanding their country's predicament
and a means to restore China's former greatness.
Rejection of Western values: The Bolshevik Revolution represented a
rejection of Western values and a challenge to the capitalist order. This
appealed to Chinese revolutionaries who were disillusioned with the perceived
failure of Western-style democracy in China. Marxism offered an alternative
path to modernity and social transformation.
Explain the importance of the Imperialist phase of Capitalism to China’s
context
The Imperialist phase of Capitalism was important to China's context
because:
Exploitation and humiliation: China experienced direct exploitation and
humiliation at the hands of imperialist powers during the Imperialist phase of
Capitalism. Western powers sought to exploit China's resources, establish
concessions, and control its markets, which resulted in economic subjugation
and loss of sovereignty.
Unequal treaties and concessions: China was forced to sign unequal treaties,
such as the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, which granted extraterritorial rights to
Western powers and imposed territorial and economic concessions. These
treaties and concessions further weakened China's position and fueled
anti-imperialist sentiments.
Rise of nationalism: The Imperialist phase of Capitalism coincided with the
rise of nationalism in China. The Chinese people became increasingly aware
of their country's subjugation and sought to assert their national identity and
reclaim their sovereignty. This context provided fertile ground for the spread of
anti-imperialist ideologies like Marxism.
Explain the role of COMINTERN in the establishment of the CCP
The COMINTERN (Communist International) played a significant role in the
establishment of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP):
Agent support: The COMINTERN, under the leadership of Lenin and later
Stalin, sent agents to China to support and guide the revolutionary movement.
These agents played a crucial role in organising and mobilising Chinese
revolutionaries, disseminating Marxist ideas, and coordinating activities.
Marxist-Leninist theory of imperialism: The COMINTERN's Marxist-Leninist
theory of imperialism provided a framework for understanding China's
situation and the struggle against foreign domination. It emphasised the
necessity of overthrowing international capitalism and inspired Chinese
revolutionaries to unite under the banner of communism.
Formal establishment of the CCP: Two COMINTERN agents were closely
involved in the formal establishment of the CCP in July 1920. Representatives
from various provinces gathered in Shanghai to adopt a revolutionary program
and elect an executive committee. Chen Duxiu became the secretary-general,
and later, Mao Zedong joined the party. The COMINTERN's guidance and
support helped solidify the CCP's foundation and ideology.
The First United Front
Following the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, Sun Yatsen returned to China in
1917 and, after the May 4th Movement in 1919, successfully re-established
the Guomindang (GMD/KMT) in Shanghai (remember: it had been dissolved
by Yuan Shikai following the failed Second Revolution)
BY 1923, given widespread support, he was able to establish a militarist
government in Guangzhou in the South.
With the establishment of his GMD government in the south, there was also
the establishment of:
- The Three People’s Principles 1923
- Whampoa Academy 1924
At the core of Sun’s desires was the reunification of China which meant
getting rid of warlords
THE FIRST UNITED FRONT
Given the small number of members in the CCP(200), they needed an
alliance with the GMD. They were better established as a political party and
Chinese workers remained difficult to mobilise. The three People;s principles
aligned in some ways to CCP philosophies.
Sun Yatsen himself had congratulated Lenin in 1918 on the Russian
Revolution and gave a moving eulogy in 1924 so there was always scope for
the two parties to cooperate especially given also that two were revolutionary.
With their summer CCP congress in 1922, the CCP adopted in their manifesto
a temporary alliance with the GMD in order to fight against warlords of the
feudal type.
Soviet COMINTERN supported this temporary alliance. Not only were the
Soviets in support of the CCP-GMD alliance, they were in fact supportive of
Sun and the GMD. Despite Lenin’s earlier relinquishing of Russian
concessions in China, the growing threat of Japan was too serious to not have
a strong China to act as a buffer - they would have supported anyone who
they viewed as strong enough to keep Japan in check.
Men like Mikhail Borodin and Adolf Joffe led this.
Comintern agents sent to China in 1923 were integral in
Military(specifically cadets in the Whampoa Academy) and financial support of
the GMD.
Convincing CCP leadership that an alliance with the GMD was in everyone’s
interest.
The role of the USSR in brokering an alliance between the two is important
given that despite hesitations from both the GMD and the CCP, the simple fact
was that the Russian people were free from foreign domination. China wanted
the same, so they would listen to what the USSR suggested.
Sun Yat Sen's death on March 12th, 1925 and Lenin’s in 24’ did not stop the
momentum of the strategies that they developed.
Was the northern expedition from 1926-28 a success?
Yes! No!
They had captured the key cities of Brutal warfare with heavy
Wuhan and Shanghai, effectively casualties.
ending Wu Peifu’s hold over china.
Sun Chuanfang’s forces launched
Chiang Kaishek built an army of counter attacks which badly
250000 that outnumbered damaged nationalist forces.
Chuanfang.
Not all warlords had been
Zhang Zuolin was driven out in crushed.
 1938. reflecting a partial conditions, workers faced harsh
Many had agreed to the GMD’s adherence to the conditions and limited rights. Labour
GMD was in a position where they authority as long as they could GMD's economic unions were controlled by the
could announce themselves as the keep their private armies <- still a principles. government and business interests,
legitimate rulers of China from military threat. leading to inadequate representation of
Nanjing. workers' interests.
Some warlords were one over by
Many people sided with the GMD promises of political power within Ethnic and Cultural Divides: The GMD's
as they hated the warlords and the the GMD. ideology aimed for national unity and
communists participated by cultural integration. However, ethnic and
organising sabotage and disruptive Arguably, they did not destroy the cultural divisions persisted, particularly in
strikes and boycotts. warlords so much as come to regions with non-Han Chinese
COOPERATION! FOR NOW. terms with them. populations. The government's attempts
to assimilate ethnic minorities often led
2 aims: destroying warlords and Called Chiang Kaishek a warlord. to resistance and conflict.
destroying communists. Warlords He never fully controlled China
were destroyed. Chiang Kai Shek and he wanted to destroy
declared in July of 1928 that the communism. Social The GMD's Inefficient Economic Policies: Chiang's
warlords had been defeated and ideology called for government struggled to implement
that they had reunited China. social progress, effective economic policies that could
but Chiang's spur industrialization and address
What were the key effects of the Northern Expedition(1926-28)? authoritarian economic inequality. Bureaucratic
tendencies inefficiency, corruption, and lack of
contradicted the coherent planning hindered economic
Chiang Kaishek officially declared that, since it had achieved its main purpose
democratic progress.
of defeating the warlords and reuniting China, the Northern Expedition was a aspirations of the
success. It has given him the means and opportunity to attempt to destroy his GMD's principles. Inadequate Infrastructure Development:
enemy; the communists. Additionally, the While there were some infrastructure
failure to address projects initiated during the Nanjing
Not all of the warlords were crushed, many were not destroyed but instead land inequality and Decade, the government's efforts were
provide social insufficient to modernise the country's
persuaded to accept the authority of the new government while maintaining
justice highlighted transportation, communication, and
their political and military power. The government and Kaishek still had many the gap between energy systems. This hindered overall
enemies that could undermine their grab for power and the expedition. He the ideology and economic growth.
never experienced true power but was successful in scattering the warlords. its implementation.
In conclusion, Impact of External Factors: The global
Outline the successes and failures of the Nationalist government’s Chiang Kai-shek's economic downturn of the 1930s,
domestic policy during their decade in power → support your points leadership during coupled with Japan's invasion of
the Nanjing Manchuria in 1931, significantly
with evidence.
Decade disrupted China's economy. Chiang's
showcased a government struggled to effectively
Describe Chiang Kai Shek’s leadership during the Nanjing Decade mixed reflection of respond to these challenges, leading to
How reflective was the Nanjing Decade of the GMD’s ideology? the GMD's economic instability and hardship for
(i.e. the 3 Principles of the People?) ideology. While many.
there were
successes in
political
Success Failure consolidation,
anti-communist
efforts, and certain
Political The GMD’s focus No real power or central authority - did modernization
is on national unity not remove warlords(compromise with initiatives, failures
and strong central them), alienated the people, Japanese in governance,
governance. They influence. economic policies,
tried to remove CCP still EXISTS. and social justice
enemies and Take Kai Shek’s getting kidnapped to revealed a
officially became a turn against the Japanese. disconnect
central between the
government. That Authoritarian Rule: Chiang Kai-shek's GMD's principles
they did have a leadership became increasingly and their actual
United Front - authoritarian over time. He suppressed implementation.
successfully political opposition, silenced dissenting Chiang's
established a new voices, and curtailed civil liberties. This leadership
capital. autocratic approach contradicted the demonstrated a
GMD's ideology of promoting democracy complex interplay
and individual rights, eroding public trust between
in the party's commitment to its adherence to GMD
principles. ideology and
pragmatic political
Lack of Political Reforms: Despite considerations.
advocating for democratic principles, the
GMD's political reforms remained
limited. There was a lack of genuine With the death of Sun Yatsen, political control of the GMD passed down to
multiparty democracy, and the GMD's Wang Jingwei while military power was handed to Chiang Kaishek
control over the government hindered
the establishment of a pluralistic political 1 July 1925: the Nationalist Government was proclaimed in Canton
system.
(Guangzhou) to parallel the Beijing government in the North
Corruption and Nepotism: Corruption With all opposition in the Southern provinces crushed by February 1926, the
was rampant within Chiang's United Front looked to launch the Northern Expedition
government, with officials often favouring an attempt to rid China of warlord rule and in turn unify the country
personal connections and patronage
networks over meritocracy. This 1925: MAY THIRTIETH MOVEMENT:
undermined the GMD's principle of
Allowed the United Front to start their Expedition.
creating a just and accountable
government.
Collapse of the United Front
Despite the success of the early parts of the Northern Expedition, fractures
Economic There were some Land Reforms: The GMD's ideology
within the GMD itself appeared in January 1926: a number (21 of 36) of
economic called for land reform to address rural
improvements inequality. However, Chiang's Communists and Leftists won executive positions in the GMD at the Second
during the Nanjing government failed to implement effective Party Congress
Decade, land redistribution policies. Land
comprehensive remained concentrated in the hands of With the influence of the Left on the GMD becoming apparent, a rival, right
land reforms and wealthy landowners and landlords, wing faction of the GMD the “Western Hills” was established in Shanghai
equitable perpetuating social disparities and rural
economic policies unrest.
Tensions between the two were made worse by the Zhongshan Warship
but they were not
effectively Labour Unrest: Despite the GMD's incident on the 20th of May 1926: where the captain of the Zhongshan, under
implemented, emphasis on improving labour Communist influence, attempted to kidnap Chiang Kai-Shek
The kidnapping failed but it did result in:
- Soviet advisors being dismissed from the First Army
- GMD passing resolutions that limited Communist influence in the
GMD
Remember: Comintern agent Borodin was an influential figure for both the
CCP and GMD. Despite the Soviet’s desires for a CCP/GMD union, this was
only one of convenience.
27 June 1926: Chiang Kai-Shek set north with 6000 Whampoa officers and
85,000 troops → his aim was to destroy specific warlords:
- Wu Peifu who controlled Henan, Hubei, Zhili and Hunan
- Zhang Zuolin in Peking (Beijing) who controlled Manchuria, Zhili
and Shandong
- Sun Chuanfang who controlled Nanjing, Jiangsu, Zhejiang,
Fujien, Jiangxi and Anhui
The role of the Communists was to work ahead of the main forces to mobilise
peasant and worker forces → agitate and sabotage areas precipitating major
attacks by the GMD. Mao in particular was effective in mobilising peasants in
Hunan
Within 9 months, the southern half of China had been completely captured by
the United Front. Two reasons for the success:
- Civilians sick of warlord rule assisted members of the GMD and
CCP
- Some warlords in fact joined the United Front and bolstered
troop numbers with their own
1 January 1927: the GMD decided to move the government from Canton to
Wuhan. Government still dominated by Borodin and the GMD Left-Wing led
by Wang Jingwei.
The Communists, on the order of Stalin, began agitating more aggressively in
Central China and in Shanghai - a city with a considerable workforce and one
which threatened Chiang Kai-Shek’s newly established power bases in both
Shanghai and Nanjing
Kai-Shek veins to establish his power bases further out in response to
communist agitation.
With the early success of the Northern Expedition and support from right-wing
and financial circles in Shanghai, Chiang Kai-Shek became more determined
to persecute the Communists
1. Describe the White Terror April 1927
This was a series of violent anti-communist purges that took place in China
during April of 1927. Before the official civil war between the GMD and CCP,
the GMD was led by Kai-Shek who had formed an alliance with the CCP to
fight Warlords in the Northern Expedition to unite China. Tensions rose
between the two parties after there was less of an enemy to fight. Kai-Shek
initiated a campaign to eradicate communists and their influence over his
party. In Shanghai brutal attacks occurred on workers and activists who were
sympathetic to the communists. They also purged communists from their
ranks with arrests, executions and assassinations.
“At 4:00 AM on April 12th, the men of the Society for Common Progress
heavily armed but dressed in civilian clothes of blue cloth with white arm
bands, launched a series of attacks against the HQ of all the city’s large
unions. The paramilitary anti-union groups operated with the knowledge and
at times the assistance of the foreign-concession authorities, and as the
fighting wore on through the day they were often assisted by troops from the
National Revolutionary Army. Many union members were killed, hundreds
arrested and the pickets disarmed. When Shanghai towns- people, workers
and students staged a protest the next day, they were fired upon by GMD
troops with machine guns and almost 100 were killed. Arrests and executions
continued over the next several weeks, the General Labour Union
organisations were declared illegal, and all strike activity in the city ceased.
The Shanghai spring is over.”
2. Explain the impact of the White Terror. Mention the role of
Chiang Kai-Shek
The violent purges severely weakened the Chinese Communist Party. Many
of its leaders were killed, and the organisation struggled to recover and
reestablish its operations. It marked the definitive end of the united front
between the KMT and the CCP. Chiang Kai-Shek's actions led to a complete
rupture between the two parties, and they became bitter enemies. The tension
and physical violence resulted in a desire for revenge and further radicalised
many communists. This laid the groundwork for further armed uprisings and
guerrilla warfare. The CCP leadership under Mao Zedong began to
emphasise the importance of rural-based revolutionary activities and the
mobilisation of peasants as the primary revolutionary force.
Anguished self examination in Wuhan. Created a narrative where Chiang
Kai-Shek was the representative - not of the people - but of the bourgeoisie.
The Wuhan government disintegrates.
3. Describe the Autumn Harvest September 1927
The Autumn Harvest Uprising, also known as the Nanchang Uprising, was a
significant event in the Chinese Civil War that occurred in September 1927.
The uprising was led by the Chinese Communist Party and was a response to
the White Terror and the escalating conflict with the KMT. The Autumn
Harvest Uprising took place in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. It was one of the
first major armed uprisings launched by the communists after their severe
setback during the White Terror.
4. Explain the impact of the Autumn Harvest. Mention the role of
Mao
Symbolic Significance: The Autumn Harvest Uprising was a symbol of the
CCP's resilience and determination to continue its revolutionary struggle
against the KMT and the ruling elite. Although the uprising was eventually
suppressed, it became a symbol of resistance and encouraged other
communist-led uprisings across China.
During the Autumn Harvest Uprising, Mao Zedong emerged as one of the
most prominent leaders within the CCP. He led the Hunanese Red Army
during the uprising and displayed his strategic acumen and organisational
skills. It also gave him a compelling propaganda history that would be wielded
effectively later. This solidified Mao's position within the party, setting the
stage for his later ascent to the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party.
He wrote reports and gathered a force of 2000 in the countryside.
Guerrilla Warfare Strategy: Following the defeat of the Nanchang Uprising,
Mao Zedong and other communist leaders recognized the limitations of
conventional warfare against the KMT forces. They shifted their focus to
guerrilla warfare tactics, which proved to be highly effective in the rural areas
and eventually contributed to the CCP's success in the Chinese Civil War.
Nanjing Decade
The Nanjing Decade, also known as the Nanjing Nationalist Government or
the Nanjing Period, refers to a significant period in modern Chinese history
that lasted from 1927 to 1937. During this time, China was under the control
of the Kuomintang (KMT) government, led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek.
The name "Nanjing Decade" comes from the fact that the KMT government's
capital was located in Nanjing during most of this period.
Key events and features of the Nanjing Decade include:
Northern Expedition: The decade began with the success of the Northern
Expedition (1926-1928), a military campaign led by the KMT to unify China
under its rule. The expedition involved defeating various warlords and factions
that controlled different regions of the country.
Corruption: Nanjing gov was corrupt and had inefficiency with its military and
infrastructure.
Capital Relocation: In 1927, Chiang Kai-shek led a purge of the Chinese
Communist Party (CCP) members within the KMT, leading to a split between
the KMT and CCP. The KMT government moved its capital from Beijing to
Nanjing in 1928, marking the beginning of the Nanjing Decade.
Economic Reforms: The KMT government implemented various economic
reforms to modernise the country and promote industrialization. Efforts were
made to improve infrastructure, develop industries, and introduce a
standardised currency and banking system.
Political Reorganisation: The government sought to establish a centralised,
authoritarian rule under Chiang Kai-shek's leadership. The KMT attempted to
consolidate its power and suppress opposition, leading to authoritarian rule.
Sino-Japanese Relations: Tensions between China and Japan escalated
during this period. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, which eventually led to
the establishment of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. The Chinese
government's response to Japanese aggression was often ineffective.
Chinese Civil War: Despite some initial cooperation during the Northern
Expedition, tensions between the KMT and CCP remained. The ideological
and political differences between the two parties intensified, leading to armed
conflict and eventually the Chinese Civil War, which would continue after the
Nanjing Decade.
Remember: The purpose of the Northern Expedition was to eliminate the
warlords to unify China.
Zhang Zuolin (Northern/Peking warlord) fled at the approach of Chiang Kai
Shek’s forces in June 1928 → he was assassinated by the Japanese who
were interested in taking control of this area. Zhang’s son pledged allegiance
to the National government which had been established in Nanjing
“Sun Yat-sen’s dream seemed to have been realised after all, and the
Guomindang phlegm with its white sun on a blue and red ground, flew from
Canton to Mukden” → Nanjing was made the capital in 1928

Remember: the leftist faction of the GMD had established their base in
Wuhan, Hubei and the CCP after the failed Autumn Harvest uprising fled to
the on Jinggang Mountains on the border of Hunan and Jiangxi
Chiang Kai Shek in his rule attempted to implement Sun Yatsen’s vision of a
unified China.
In order to successfully implement the Three People’s Principles (National
sovereignty, Democracy, People’s livelihood), Sun also believed that there
were three stages by which the revolution needed to go through:
Military intervention ← achieved by the Northern Expedition
Tutelage ← the Nanjing Decade (nationalists in power)
Constitutional government (democracy)
A united China
The Peasants
Even with the economic reform implemented by the Nanjing government, the
reality was that this economic growth did not reach hundreds of millions of
people, especially in rural areas.
The peasant experience was varied!
Despite the diversity of rural China, the reality was that millions of Chinese
people lived in terrible, humiliating poverty and were preoccupied with the
daily struggle for survival.
Mao Zedong: LOVES THE PEASANTS which was a point of conflict with the
CCP leadership who adhered to the more traditional views of Marxism where
the urban proletariat/worker class was used for revolutionary power.
He studied them in the 30’s.
Mao Zedong: 1927
After the failed autumn Harvest Uprising in September of 1927, Mao and the
surviving troops fled to the Jinggang mountains on the border of Hunan and
Jiangxi.
The CCP Central Committee in Shanghai had censured Mao given the failure
of the Autumn Harvest uprising but decided by the end of 1927 to endorse his
position of establishing peasant SOVIETS throughout China.
Ideology
See this document for further insight into Mao’s ideology
And this for Yan’an
Persuasion: Jiangxi (1931-34) and Yan’an 1936-1948
1. Compare and contrast the land reform policies implemented
between the Jiangxi and Yan’an Soviets
Jiangxi Soviets (1931-34): In the Jiangxi Soviet, Mao's early land policies
focused on a more gradual and moderate approach. The CCP aimed to
win over support from both the middle and rich peasants, emphasising
cooperation and a united front against the Nationalists. The landlords
were not immediately targeted for severe punishment. Instead, they were
encouraged to collaborate with the CCP and support the land
redistribution process. Land was redistributed primarily through
negotiations and voluntary surrender by landlords. There was less
emphasis on class struggle and violence.
Yan'an Soviets (1936-1948): In Yan'an, after the Long March, the CCP
faced more intense pressure and needed to consolidate its base quickly.
Mao's approach shifted towards a more radical land reform policy, rooted
in class struggle and mobilisation. The Yan'an land reform campaign
adopted more forceful measures against landlords. Landlords were
subjected to public trials, criticism, and in some cases, execution. Their
property was confiscated and redistributed among peasants. The Yan'an
land reform process was marked by a stronger emphasis on class
struggle and mass mobilisation, fostering a sense of unity among the
peasants against the former ruling class. Needed more support because
of the civil war.
2. Find evidence to support that land reform as evidence of
Mao’s persuasion was effective in developing CCP support
Land reform played a significant role in garnering support for the CCP,
especially in rural areas. The policies effectively targeted grievances
against landlords and gave peasants a stake in the revolutionary
movement. Evidence supporting this effectiveness includes: Increased
Peasant Mobilization: Land reform campaigns provided peasants with a
sense of agency and empowerment. They actively participated in the
process, contributing to the growth of the CCP's grassroots support.
Peasant guerrilla groups that joined the CCP forces. Redistribution of
Wealth: The redistribution of land from landlords to peasants addressed
widespread inequalities and created a more egalitarian society. This
resonated with the CCP's message of social justice. Elimination of Feudal
Structures: Land reform dismantled feudal systems that had oppressed
peasants for centuries, aligning with the CCP's goal of breaking down
traditional power structures. Ideological Appeal: The CCP's promotion of
land reform as part of its Marxist-Leninist ideology attracted those who
sought a radical transformation of society.
Coercion: Futian Incident 1930
3. Describe what happened as part of the Futian Incident
The Futian Incident refers to an important event in the early history of the
CCP, specifically in 1930, during the Chinese Civil War and the agrarian
revolution. It took place in the town of Futian in the Jiangxi province. The
incident involved a power struggle within the CCP between Mao Zedong's
forces and other communist leaders, including the leadership of Li Lisan,
who advocated for more urban-focused strategies.
4. Explain the impact of this historical incident on Mao’s
emergence to power
Strengthened Mao's Leadership: The incident highlighted Mao's
organisational skills and his ability to mobilise support among rural
peasants. His focus on rural-based revolution gained traction. Shift in
Strategy: Mao's victory in the incident helped shift the CCP's strategy
towards a more rural-centred approach, emphasising the importance of
peasants and guerilla warfare. Mao's Ideas Validated: The outcome
validated Mao's ideas and tactics, positioning him as a visionary leader
who understood the Chinese context and the importance of agrarian
revolution. Foundation for Future Leadership: Mao's success in the Futian
Incident laid the groundwork for his rise to prominence, ultimately leading
to his leadership during significant events like the Long March and the
establishment of CCP bases in Yan'an.
LONG MARCH 1934
Despite constant attacks by the GMD and other enemies, CCO leaders and
agitators were able to establish at least a dozen soviets throughout China by
1934.
The most well known of these was the Jianxi Soviet organised by Mao in
Rujin after abandoning the mountains.
With the Jiangxi Soviet surrounded by the GMD troops the Communist
decision to breakout of the encirclement was made in 1934 with the first steps
of the LONG MARCH beginning under cover of darkness on October 16th,
1934.
Matilda Ryan 2 The Long March 1934
1935:
Zunyi Conference:
1935 - 28 Bolsheviks
- Return by Stalin, Comintern
-
Propaganda - Mao’s Emergence - The Long March (1934-35)
The Long March is a manifesto. It has proclaimed to the world that the Red
Army is an army of heroes, while the imperialists and their running dogs,
Chiang Kai-shek and his like, are impotent. It has proclaimed their utter failure
to encircle, pursue, obstruct and intercept us.
The Long March is also a propaganda force. It has announced to some 200
million people in eleven provinces that the road of the Red Army is their only
road to liberation. - Mao Zedong, 1935
The Long March was incredibly important as a propaganda tool for Mao
Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It served as a symbol of
endurance, resilience, and the indomitable spirit of the Communist forces.
Heroic Narrative
Mao and the CCP used the Long March to create a heroic narrative around
themselves. The idea of a small, beleaguered group of Communists
embarking on an epic journey to escape Nationalist forces resonated with
many Chinese. Specifically, the narrative of the Red Army covering thousands
of miles on foot through treacherous terrain, including mountains, rivers, and
deserts (The Communist marchers crossed 24 rivers and 18 mountain
ranges, mostly snow-capped. Only 4,000 troops completed the journey) was
highlighted as a testament to the determination and endurance of the
Communist forces.
Furthermore, the Red Army was often depicted as a small, outnumbered force
that faced overwhelming odds. This portrayal emphasised the courage and
tenacity of the Communist soldiers in the face of constant threats from
Nationalist (GMD) forces and harsh environmental conditions:
Evidence: Luding Bridge, May 1935
The crossing of the Dadu River (Sichuan Province) during the Long March
was a truly heroic feat. The number of available boats was inadequate and
the Luding Bridge (泸定桥, Ludingqiao), an iron chain structure built during the
Qing dynasty, was the only alternative for the communists to move further to
Yan’an. The suspension bridge consists of thirteen chains, nine forming the
floor, covered with planking, with two chains on either side serving as rails.
When the troops of the vanguard unit led by Lin Biao reached the bridge on
29 May 1935, they discovered that the Guomindang Army units at the
opposite end had removed two-thirds of the planking; the remaining flooring
had been set on fire. An advance unit of 22 men was ordered to take the
bridge. Abandoning their equipment except for rifles and bullets, they inched
their way over the chains under enemy machine gun fire and were able to
reach the other side, routing the Guomindang troops. Fifteen of the 22
survived the crossing. After another two hours, Luding Bridge was securely in
the hands of the Party and the Red Army.
The Long March also allowed Mao to emerge as the undisputed leader of the
Communist forces (Zunyi Conference). His leadership during this arduous
journey, where strategic decisions often meant the difference between life and
death, reinforced his image as a capable and charismatic leader.
Popularising Communist ideology and mobilising the masses
As the Red Army marched through rural areas, they spread Communist
ideology, often winning the support of local peasants along the way. This
helped expand the Communist base of support and demonstrated their
commitment to improving the lives of rural Chinese. In turn, it also served as a
rallying point for recruiting new members into the Party and motivating
existing members to persevere in the struggle.
Evidence: Mass Line
The mass line is the political, organisational and leadership method
developed by Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during
the Chinese Communist Revolution.
It refers to formulating policy based on theory, implementing it based on
people's real world conditions, revising theory and policy based on actual
practice, and using that revised theory as the guide to future practice.
In Maoist terms, it is summarised by the phrase, "To the masses - from the
masses - to the masses".
The mass line is characterised by the CCP listening to the scattered ideas of
the people, turning them into systemic ideas, and returning them to the people
as a guide for action. The process of "pooling the wisdom of the masses"
through soliciting and aggregating views and adjusting and testing decisions
repeats in an "endless spiral".
Mao wrote: “In all the practical work of our Party, all correct leadership is
necessarily ’from the masses, to the masses,’ This means: take the ideas of
the masses (scattered and unsystematic ideas) and concentrate them
(through study concentrated and systematic ideas), then go to the masses
and propagate and explain these ideas until the masses embrace them as
their own, hold fast to them and translate them into action, and test the
correctness of these ideas in such action.”
Evidence: 3 disciplines and 8 rules (link)
Military doctrine issued by Mao Zedong in 1928:
The Long March was a masterstroke of propaganda for Mao and the CCP. It
helped build their image, expand their support base, and inspire loyalty and
dedication among their followers. The narrative of the Long March continued
to be a central element of Chinese Communist propaganda even after the
establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, solidifying its
significance in shaping the CCP's rise to power and its subsequent rule
The Red Army fears not the Long March, hard and toil
Over ten thousand rivers, thousand hills, to our cause we're true and loyal.
Five peaks ever majestic, mere crests of a stream,
The Wumeng mountains, dark yet stately, we walk clay balls none too
extreme.
The Jinsha torrents smite warm mists at cliffs, as sands glisten of gold
We cross the Dadu river upon iron chains, bone-chilling cold.
The exalted Minshan Mountain, thousand leagues of snow,
Yet our three armies cross it, faces of joy beam and glow!
- The Long March, Mao Zedong, October 1935
1936 Xi'an Incident
Following the Long March, Yan'nan in Shaanxi province became the CCP’s
base and headquarters between 1936-48(end of civil war).
The Yan'an period is important in the context of understanding the
development of the CCP and the formation of Mao Zedong;s ideology and
consolidation of leadership.
Sino-Japanese relations
Running parallel to the civil war between the GMD and the CCP was the fact
that Japan had considerably increased its influence and imperial ambitions in
CHina.
By 1935, Japan had:
- Control over Manchuria through a puppet government following
the Mukden incident in 1931.
- Destabilised, demilitarised and controlled Shanghai following the
Shanghai incident in January of 1932.
- Consolidated control of Beijing and the North following the Truce
of Tanggu, May 1933.
The CCP had in fact declared war on the Japanese in 1932 and called for a
united front to fight the imperialists but Chiang Kai Shek was not interested in
fighting the Japanese - only the Communists(treaty of Tanggu in fact showed
that Chiang was happy to appease the Japaneseif it allows the nationalists to
continue their fight against the Communists).
December 1935
One powerful individual who agreed with the CCP’s anti-Japanese stance was
Zhang Xueliang: a nationalist military leader whose father (ZUOLIN) had been
killed by the Japanese in 1928 and whose armies had been driven out from
Manchuria by the Japanese in 1931.
Zhang was sent by Chiang Kai Shek to prepare an attack on the Communists
in Yan'an.
THEY CONVERTED HIM!
Despite increases in Japanese aggression throughout 1936, Chiang doubled
down on his anti-Communist position and flew to Xian in December 1936 to
urge GMD troops to accomplish “eight years of bandit suppression” in “two
weeks”.
December 12: Zhang marched his army to Chiang’s Headquarters outside the
city, killed his bodyguards and captured the generalissimo as a means of
forcing him to take an anti-Japanese stance.
The CCP were both confused and excited by the kidnapping.
STALIN supported a united national front BUT did not believe Zhang Xueliang
had the power/talent to lead this.
STALIN argued that Chiang was still the only man who could lead a united
front against the Japanese and called for his release.
1. Describe how/why Zhang was convinced to the Communist cause
Zhang Xueliang, the Young Marshal, was drawn to the Communist cause due
to several factors during a critical period in Chinese history. Initially, he was
moved by the Communist Party's call for united action against the Japanese
invaders, leading him to question his loyalty to Chiang Kai-shek. The defeat of
his troops by the Communists further deepened his doubts, pushing him
towards exploring peaceful means to address the Communist issue. In
January 1936, Communist forces directly appealed to Zhang's troops to join
the fight against the Japanese, exposing them to anti-Japanese propaganda.
Zhang engaged in discussions with Communist negotiators, gaining a deeper
understanding of their intentions. The Communists' release of Manchurian
army prisoners, who were imbued with anti-Japanese sentiments,
demonstrated their sincerity as potential allies. Zhang's interactions with Zhou
Enlai, a skilled diplomat, further convinced him of the wisdom of cooperating
with the Communists. Additionally, a pro-Communist sentiment was fostered
among Zhang's inner circle through the formation of the Society of Comrades
for Resistance against Japan, organised by Communist agents with his tacit
acceptance. These factors combined to sway Zhang's allegiance towards the
Communist cause, leading to the Xian Incident where he kidnapped Chiang
Kai-shek to push for cooperation between the GMD and CCP against the
Japanese.
Despite the growth of Japanese intervention in China up until 37’, no event
marked this better than the establishment of the Manchukuo.
Manchurian Crisis 1931: False Flag Attack: an explosion on a Japanese
protected railway in Manchuria caused the Kwantung Army to attack a nearby
Chinese garrison at Mukden. Japan saw the attack as an act of Chinese
aggression and responded accordingly. Within 4 weeks, large parts of
Manchiria were under Japanese control - the Chinese posed very little
resistance to a technically superior aggressive Japanese army.
The Manchukup was established in 1932 and was effectively a Japanese
puppet state.
Marco Polo Bridge Incident - July 1937:
July 7: Japanese troops on a night manoeuvre fired blanks to simulate combat
conditions near the Marco Polo Bridge - 10 km west of Peking
Chinese troops in response fired shells into the area without causing any
casualties.
Following the incident, one Japanese soldier was missing from roll call and on
the assumption that the Chinese had captured the man, the Japanese
ordered the attack on Wanping.

2. Describe the aftermath of the Xian incident The Chinese repelled the attack but this incident marks the beginning of the
After the Xian Incident in December 1936, Zhang Xueliang, also known as the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Young Marshal, was court-martialed for insubordination due to his
involvement in the kidnapping of Chiang Kai-shek. He was tried in Nanjing WW2: 2nd Sino-Japanese War
and sentenced to ten years in prison, though the sentence was later July 1937: Tianjin-Peking
commuted to house arrest. The other generals who had allied with Zhang November 1937: Shanghai
were also dealt with, and their armies hostile to Chiang were transferred to November 1937: Nanjing
other regions. In their place, troops loyal to Chiang were substituted. The May 1938: Xuzhou
Communist Party (CCP) made significant efforts to negotiate a united-front October 1938: Canton
government under Chiang's leadership, aiming for joint actions against the October 1938: Wuhan
Japanese. However, the Guomindang (GMD) leadership, represented by
Chiang Kai-shek, was hesitant to fully commit to the united front. Despite the Chiang Kai Shek and the Nationalist government were forced to flee to
CCP's offer to submit its military forces to GMD leadership, the GMD plenum, Chongqing, Sichuan in December 1938, a city that was yet to be modernised
after extensive meetings in February 1937, reiterated the need for and where the GMD had established tax reforms (not necessarily for the
anti-Communist vigilance and declined to make a full commitment to the better) while chasing Long March fugitives.
united front. The incident had a profound impact on the direction of Chinese The Nationalists had some semblance of control.
politics and the relationship between the CCP and GMD.
December 9, 1941:
3. Explain the significance of the Xian incident for the CCP (Lynch, Few of the Chinese attacks on the Japanese were successful.
p.105)
The Xi'an Incident was of great significance for the Communist Party (CCP) PEARL HARBOUR changed all of this - the Chinese war against the japanese
as it marked a pivotal moment in their strategy for achieving their goals. Prior ws now seen as part of the US' own struggle.
to the incident, the CCP had been striving to form a united front with the GMD
against the Japanese invasion. The CCP understood the importance of Aid to China came in the form of:
presenting a united Chinese front to resist the Japanese aggression and saw Lend lease supplied worth 1 Billion USD by the end of the war.
an opportunity in Zhang Xueliang, the Young Marshal, who seemed open to Cash credits worth 500 million USD
the idea of collaborating with them. By successfully persuading Zhang China was also accepted as one of the Big Four powers in the Allied war
Xueliang to support the united front and kidnapping Chiang Kai-shek, the CCP effort.
demonstrated its influence and ability to act assertively on the political stage.
The incident showed the CCP's commitment to a joint effort against the Significance of Second Sino-Japanese War
Japanese and its willingness to use unconventional tactics to achieve its By April 1945: CCP membership had grown to 1.2 million and over 900,000
objectives. Although the CCP's efforts did not result in an immediate full troops were under arms of the Red Army.
commitment from the GMD leadership, the Xian Incident brought attention to Mao convened the seventh national congress of the CCP at Yan’an in April
the CCP's role as a significant player in Chinese politics. It also allowed the 1945. The first since 1928.
CCP to further consolidate its forces in the Shaanxi base area, particularly No one challenged Mao’s leadership. Several of his former rivals in fact gave
around Yan'an, where they could regroup and continue their revolutionary public self criticisms.
activities.

4. Explain the effect of the Xian Incident on the CCP-GMD relationship

(Lynch, p.105) Growth in CCP popularity
The Xian Incident had a complex effect on the CCP-GMD relationship. On one
hand, it demonstrated the potential for cooperation between the two parties The Communists organised
against a common enemy, the Japanese invaders. The CCP's willingness to peasants behind the Japanese
work with Zhang Xueliang and the Young Marshal's own sympathy towards lines, staging persistent guerrilla
the CCP's anti-Japanese sentiments opened the possibility of a united front attacks, thus gaining an increase
in popularity from the peasants.
government under Chiang Kai-shek's leadership. However, the GMD
Local elites who were previously
leadership, represented by Chiang Kai-shek, was initially reluctant to fully tied to the GMD were forced to
embrace the united front proposal put forth by the CCP. Although Chiang cooperate with the CCP.
verbally agreed to review the situation, it took further negotiations and Exercised leadership in the
discussions to reach a partial resolution. The GMD's refusal to commit fully to resistance
the united front and its emphasis on anti-Communist vigilance showed the Gaining experience in both rural
mobilisation and local government
underlying tension and suspicion between the two parties. In the long run, the
Declaring war on the Japanese in
Xian Incident did not lead to a lasting and fully united front against the 1932.
Japanese. The GMD's reluctance to fully cooperate with the CCP hindered The CCP’s military forces did not
the effectiveness of joint actions against the Japanese invaders. Despite the exploit the local farming
incident's impact on Chinese politics and the heightened recognition of the communities. They also paid for
CCP's role, it did not immediately resolve the deep-seated ideological and the food and supplies they
power struggles between the two parties. The CCP continued to strengthen its needed, and did not molest the
local women.
base in the north, particularly in Yan'an, and the GMD's leadership remained
The CCP worked carefully to win
wary of the CCP's growing influence in Chinese politics. over local militarised secret
societies that were strong in north
Japanese Invasion China over the anti-Japanese
May 1937: American ambassador in Nanjing claimed that anti-Japanese position. This contributed to an
sentiments had now, at last, become a “part of the Chinese radical increase in CCP support and
consciousness”. sources.
Fall in GMD popularity
GMD became increasingly arbitrary,
dictatorial, factionalised and corrupt
due to its isolation from sources of
support and revenue.
After 1942, it was also dependent
on US aid.
Kai-Shek’s inability to come to grips
with the expanding Japanese
domination of the northeast left him
open to criticism - making the task
of creating a strong and legitimate
state nearly impossible.
Unable to defeat any Japanese
forces under wartime
circumstances.
Acute corruption in the cities
undermined the GMD attempts to
institute effective government.
Exploited villages and constituted a
kind of White Terror.
Printed money to pay his soldiers =
hyperinflation.
Japan’s victories in the Ichigo
campaigns greatly damaged Chiang
Kai-Shek’s surviving military forces,
severing large areas of China from
his control. These victories also

Japanese brutal actions
encouraged a deep and bitter
resentment of the Japanese that
the CCP built upon to increase
their support = fuel for later
propaganda.
The CCP continued to call for a
coalition government that would
unite all China as a propaganda
ploy, increasing public opinion of
them.
The CCP’s policies became more
radical- landlords were attacked,
which likely greatly appealed to
the poor peasants.
The CCP encouraged the
breakdown of age-old patterns of
deference through mass
mobilisation and public criticism.
3. Stand up - [do not] let things drift if they do not affect one
decreased Chinese morale and faith personally
in Kai-Shek’s leadership. 4. Party before person - [do not] give pride of place to one’s own
Chinese poverty was blamed on
Kai-Shek. opinion
Journalists, when they tried to report 5. Focus on progress - [do not] indulge in personal
the miseries of the populations, attacks...quarrels...personal spite or seek revenge
were prevented by GMD censors, 6. Rebut and report - challenge counter revolutionary remarks
causing them to blame the 7. Behave as a communist - conduct propaganda and agitation or
Chongqing regime for both the speak at meetings
human and military dimensions of
8. Stand against self-centred behaviour
the catastrophe.
American officers were horrified at 9. Plan and pour heart into work
the GMD’s methods of recruitment- 10. Avoid narcissism - hold yourself in high regard whilst being
it was estimated that 44% of slipshod in work and slack in study
Chinese men drafted for active 11. Self-aware - identify mistakes and correct them
service deserted or died on the way
to join their units. It was thus not
surprising that American officers
began to look toward the
Communist border base for help.

1. Describe the impact of the Manchukuo on the Chinese (real impact and
impact on national consciousness)
The establishment of Manchukuo had significant impacts on both China and
its national consciousness. Manchukuo was a puppet state created by the
Empire of Japan in 1932 in the northeastern region of China, primarily
encompassing the historical region of Manchuria. Its establishment had both
tangible and psychological effects on China.

Real Impact:
Territorial Loss: The creation of Manchukuo resulted in a substantial territorial
loss for China. Manchuria was a resource-rich region with fertile land and
valuable minerals. Losing control of this area had a negative impact on
China's economic and industrial capabilities.

Economic Exploitation: The Japanese authorities in Manchukuo exploited its

Ji Xiaoqiu’s impression of Mao’s speech in Yanan on Rectification
resources for their own benefit, leading to economic hardships for the Chinese
movement
people. This exploitation included forced labour, resource extraction, and
The rectification campaign in Yan'an refers to a period of intense political and
unfair trade practices that further weakened China's economic strength.
ideological struggle within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) that took
place in Yan'an that aimed to purge the CCP of perceived ideological
National Sovereignty: The establishment of Manchukuo highlighted China's
impurities, deviations, and enemies within the party ranks. It was part of Mao's
vulnerability and loss of national sovereignty. It underscored the weakness of
broader effort to consolidate his power and ensure party discipline. The
the Chinese government at the time in the face of foreign aggression,
campaign involved self-criticism sessions, ideological debates, and the
contributing to a sense of national humiliation and frustration.
identification and removal of party members who were deemed "rightists" or
"counter-revolutionaries."
Impact on National Consciousness:
National Humiliation: The creation of Manchukuo deepened the feelings of
Aim
national humiliation among the Chinese population. It was a stark reminder of
Engage party members in self-criticism or struggle, admit errors in front of
China's powerlessness in the face of foreign powers and its inability to protect
assembled party members, align with Maoist thinking through study.
its territorial integrity.

Self criticism involved party members confessing their political mistakes,

Anti-Japanese Sentiment: Manchukuo became a symbol of Japanese
ideological shortcomings, and deviations from the party line. This process was
aggression and imperialism. It fueled anti-Japanese sentiment and a strong
aimed at fostering ideological purity and loyalty to Mao's leadership. Mao
desire for national unity and resistance against foreign domination. This
himself made only a small gesture of ‘self-criticism’ in 1944, admitting only to
sentiment would later play a role in China's involvement in World War II and
“some excesses” in allowing party purges.
its fight against Japanese forces.

Awakening of Nationalism: The establishment of Manchukuo contributed to

the rise of Chinese nationalism. It led to increased discussions about China's
role in the world, its historical legacy, and the need to strengthen the nation
both politically and economically.

Propaganda and Resistance: The Chinese government and intellectuals used

the creation of Manchukuo as a rallying point for resistance and patriotic
propaganda. Artists, writers, and activists used various mediums to depict the
suffering of the Chinese people under Japanese rule and to inspire resistance
efforts.

Long-Term Legacy: The impact of Manchukuo and the broader context of

Japanese aggression contributed to the shaping of China's post-World War II
political landscape. It influenced the trajectory of the Chinese Communist
Party's rise to power and the emergence of the People's Republic of China in
1949.

In essence, the establishment of Manchukuo had a profound impact on

China's national consciousness. It fueled a strong sense of national
humiliation, anti-Japanese sentiment, and a growing desire for national unity
and sovereignty. These sentiments played a crucial role in shaping China's
actions during and after World War II, as well as its pursuit of modernization
and national rejuvenation in the decades that followed.
Struggle sessions were used to publicly criticise and humiliate party
members who were accused of being counter-revolutionaries or rightists.
Opposition - Mao’s Emergence - Rectification of Conduct Campaign
These sessions often involved verbal and physical abuse of those accused.
(1942-1944)
Pamphlet written by Mao in 1937 titled “Combat Liberalism” in which he
Purges
outlined 11 principles that CCP members must abide by:
1. Argue - [do not] refrain from argument because he is an old
Many party members, including prominent figures, were labelled as "rightists"
acquaintance
during the campaign and faced various forms of punishment, including
2. Open debate - [do not] indulge in irresponsible criticism in
removal from positions of authority, imprisonment, and execution. To consider:
private
anyone with “liberal” views would be considered a rightist if you think about
the nature of Maoism on the political spectrum.
This was led by Kang Sheng (security and intelligence chief) who believed
that 70% of the party was infected by revisionist ideas. This resulted in 1000
CCP members, imprisoned and tortured leading to 60 members committing
suicide.
… Cruel method of psychological coercion that Mao calls moral
purification has created a stifling atmosphere… Under the protocol of
criticism and self-criticism, the thoughts and aspirations and actions of
everyone are in full view
- Soviet comintern agent in China
Ding Ling
Ding Ling (1904-1986) was a prominent Chinese writer and feminist who was
arrested by the GMD government for Communist sympathies in 1933 and
placed under house arrest in Nanjing. On her escape for house arrest, she
fled to Xian in 1936 eventually making her way to Yanan in late 1936. Such
was Ding’s influence in Yanan (given her already established platform), she
enjoyed close ties with CCP leadership while at Yanan:
However, as part of the rectification campaign, even Ding was subject to
attacks and criticism. Specifically, Ding’s works were criticised for not aligning
entirely with the CCP's evolving revolutionary ideals and for being too critical
of certain aspects of Communist policies and practices. Given Ding was
removed from her position of power in literature and exiled to rural Yanan, she
was spared the fate that many others faced as part of the purges (she would
eventually face more explicit exile after the establishment of the PRC).
- Can also consider the execution of Wang Shiwei as evidence of
purges as part of the the rectification
- Ultimately, the Yan'an Rectification resulted in 20% of the
Politburo Secretariat being removed and laid a platform for future
purges/consolidation of Mao’s power (e.g. 100 Flowers Campaign, Cultural
Revolution)
Matilda Ryan Civil War Mapping Turning Points
Chinese Civil War
1945
GMD, with more troops and better equipment, forced the Communists to be
on the defensive
The GMD was able to force the CCP out of the cities and force Mao to revert
to his policy of creating bases outside the cities
US attempted to broker ceasefires between the Communists and Nationalists
With the two atomic bombs dropped on Japan, the war in China ended rather
suddenly: with no knowledge of the Hiroshima/Nagasaki plans, Wedemeyer
and the Chinese thought that the war against the Japanese would take years.
August 1st 1945: “If peace comes suddenly, it is reasonable to expect
widespread confusion and disorder. The Chinese have no plans for
rehabilitation, prevention of epidemics, restoration of utilities, establishment
of balance economy and re-disposition of millions of refugees” - US General
Wedemeyer
With the Japanese defeated, Wedemeyer was given instructions to aid the
Nationalists without “intervening on their behalf in the civil war”
September-October 1945: 110,000 of Chiang’s best troops were airlifted by
US Dakotas to key cities to accept Japanese surrenders in person
(to deny the Communists from doing the same thing)
The Communists moved into Manchuria where the USSR (who had moved
troops in after the fall of Berlin) allowed huge stockpiles of arms and
ammunition to fall into the hands of the Chinese → had beaten Nationalist
troops to this part of China
Despite the numeric advantage the Nationalists had (2.7m vs 1m Communist
troops), Nationalist control over their controlled cities was plagued by
inefficiency and corruption:
1. Japanese collaborators went unpunished and some were even
allowed to stay in their positions or reinstated with promotions
within the military.
2. Delays and administrative inefficiencies meant factories and
warehouses occupied by the Japanese were not handed back
to the original Chinese owners (or were severely delayed in
doing so)
2a. Robberies of closed industry became widespread.
Corrupt officials could enter closed factories steal property
3. The GMD also mismanaged stabilising China’s currency
causing massive inconsistencies in currency value across
China and “uncomfortable” rises in food prices
Factors like these whittled steadily away at the GMD’s basis of popular
support
Despite the instability across China, US Ambassador Hurley was able to
broker a ceasefire between the Nationalists and Communists in August 1945.
By October, Mao and Chiang agreed on:
- The need for political democracy, a unified military, equal legal
status for all political parties
- The establishment of a national assembly
- Freedom of religion, speech, publication and assembly
- Principles related to local government elections
November 1945: Chiang launched an attack on the Communists in
Manchuria…
In his “zeal for the appearance of unity,” Chiang had yet to consolidate his
power in the South before heading North
1946
Two more ceasefires - Jan 10 1946 + June 1946 - were negotiated by the
Americans but both broke down given:
1. The GMD made revisions to agreements made about a constitutional
government in Jan 1946 that left the Communists with limited veto powers
and reaffirmed presidential powers for Chiang Kai Shek instead of a
constitutional assembly
2. The Communists refused to give up their bases of power in the North in
preparation for a Nationalist assault in July 1946
20 July 1946: Chiang launched a large-scale assault (1.6m troops) on
Communist controlled North China.
Given the US weren’t interested in fighting another Asian war, neither side
showed they weren’t willing to compromise and growing anti-Western
sentiments (as evidenced by the reaction to the Shen Cong case), US
intervention in attempting to mitigate the civil war ended in Jan 1947.
The GMD were successful in the early parts of the Civil War:
All 29 Communist held counties in Jiangsu province were retaken and 49/64
in Hebei/Shandong/Henan were also retaken in mid-1946
1947
Yan'nan was also re-conquered by the Nationalists in March 1947
In Manchuria proper, Fushun and Liaoyang were also under Nationalist
control by mid 1947
However, the rapid push north to chase the Communists meant that
Nationalist forces were spread too thin and could not be replaced from a
weak southern base (the Nationalists never crossed the Sungari River in
Manchuria)
The Communists, despite the inability to hold southern Manchurian cities,
were able to hold onto Harbin where they learned the full techniques and
skills needed to govern China’s major cities if they were to break out of
Manchuria (e.g graduated sales tax system implemented → low rates for
grain, fuel, cooking oil → higher for tobacco, cosmetics and luxury goods
(40% & 70% respectively))
1948
PLA reverted to guerilla strategies
PLA attacked GMD supply lines and allowed cities to fall under GMD
control
March 1948: CCP controlled Manchuria
Given the numerical advantage the Nationalists had, the PLA were reduced
to guerrilla tactics - not to gain territory, but to destroy enemy units,
destroy/seize equipment and damage infrastructure
Two factors to consider in the success of the PLA in 1947:
The CCP sent teams into rural areas to draw the peasants to the
Communist cause with the promise of radical land reform
The Communists moved away from the “cautious” united front policies of
rent reduction and instead worked to abolish tenancy and return the land to
the peasants who tilled it.
This message was particularly effective in the North given:
1. The devastation caused by Japan’s “3 alls” campaign
2. Flooding of the Yellow River and other natural disasters
3. Harsh winters which exacerbated poverty and the consequent
social misery
4. GMD and Japanese reorganisation of local, village
administrations
Above all, violence was an integral part of this process
Around 20,000 instances of “struggle” within CCP dominated areas in 1945
alone as an example
Given the numerical advantage the Nationalists had, the PLA were reduced
to guerrilla tactics - not to gain territory, but to destroy enemy units,
destroy/seize equipment and damage infrastructure
Two factors to consider in the success of the PLA in 1947:
2. The absence of Manchurians in GMD plans for Manchuria
Key posts in Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning (which themselves were broken
apart to fracture local allegiances) were given to non-Manchurians who
were corrupt, abused their powers and/or let Communists roam at will
through rural counties
There were also few Manchurians in the national army: Manchurian troops
who might have fought harder for the Nationalists were still loyal to the
young general Zhang Xueliang → who, instead of being released (to
Manchuria), was sent to Taiwan for safekeeping.
The Communists leveraged the growing resentment against the Nationalists
to recruit local people to their cause
“As for the common people, they feel on the one hand that all under heaven
belongs to the southerners and on the other that life today is not as good as
it was in Manchukuo times” - Mukden newspaper 1946
Lin Biao crossed the frozen Shanguri River in November 1946 (to the
surprise of Nationalist generals) and in May 1947, launched a massive
attack on the railway junction in Siping with 400,000 troops.
Despite being beaten back, the PLA were still able to re-group and isolate
key Nationalist cities by destroying railway lines that connected them.
Morale amongst the Nationalist troops began to diminish where it was even
observed by the American consul general in Mukden May 1947:
“There is good evidence that apathy, resentment, and defeatism are
spreading fast in nationalist ranks causing surrenders and desertions. Main
factors contributing to this are Communists ever mounting numerical
superiority (resulting from greater use native recruits, aid from underground
and Korean units), National soldiers discouragement over prospects getting
reinforcements, better solidarity and fighting spirit of Communists, losses
and exhaustion of Nationalists, their growing indignation over disparity
between officers enrichment and soldiers' low pay, life, and their lack of
interest in fighting far from home among ‘alien' unfriendly populace
(whereas Communists being largely natives are in position of fighting for
native soil).”
Aside from the loss of territory to the Communists and the waning morale
amongst Nationalist soldiers, the other major issue confronting China was
growing inflation which made it difficult for the Nationalist government to
reinstate viable, central control.
The GMD response was simply to print money (lol) which contributed to the
inflationary spiral
In response to economic issues, (given anyone on a fixed income was
susceptible to sharp price increases) there were 1716 strikes and labour
disputes in Shanghai in 1946 which led to power outages across the city
Unemployment continued to rise in 1946 → Shanghai 8%, Canton 20%,
Nanjing 30%
Despite measures introduced - price/wage ceilings, change of currency, Chiang Kai-Shek fled to the island of Taiwan and established a GMD
emergency laws - to control inflation, the crisis worsened and by 1948, government.
China had effectively been reduced to a barter economy.

By 1948, controlled most of Northern China’s countryside belonged to the
Communists - peasant guerillas constantly disrupted Chiang’s supply lines
making relief slow and dangerous
Yan’an was recaptured in March 1948, Luoyang by April and by May 1948,
the situation was beginning to look hopeless for the Nationalist armies
Given the confidence of these (and other) victories and the quantities of
ammunition and vehicles that had been captured by the PLA, Mao
announced that the Communist armies would shift from their guerilla tactics
to that of a conventional military to fight in open country employing massed
armies of troops
In June 1948, the PLA captured the Yellow River valley, Shandong Province
To what extent did the mistakes of the Nationalists lead to their defeat in
the Chinese Civil War (1946-49)?
GMD failures:
Alienation of the people: student killings
Japanese collaborators went unpunished and some were even allowed to
stay in their positions or reinstated with promotions within the military.
Delays and administrative inefficiencies meant factories and warehouses
occupied by the Japanese were not handed back to the original Chinese
owners (or were severely delayed in doing so)
Corrupt officials could enter closed factories steal property
The GMD also mismanaged stabilising China’s currency causing massive
inconsistencies in currency value across China and “uncomfortable” rises in
food prices
Factors like these whittled steadily away at the GMD’s basis of popular
support
Failure to adapt to military strategies and situations
Decreasing moral

CCP:
Even successful Nationalist counter-attacks were hollow given the large
The CPC successfully mobilised the peasantry, leveraged guerrilla warfare,
number of Nationalist casualties (90,000 at Zhengzhou) and the ability of
and won over the rural population through land reforms and promises of social
the Communists to use the retreat as propaganda victories (strict discipline
change.
maintained and a meticulous refusal to harm civilians)
Mobilised peasants: land reforms,
Their organisational structure, led by figures like Mao Zedong, enabled
GMD reputation was further harmed with the killing of 14 unarmed effective coordination and adaptability to changing circumstances.
protesting students by Nationalist troops in Peking (July 1948) The CPC's alliance with the Soviet Union provided crucial military and
ideological support.
Mukden and Changchun fell to the Communists in September and October
in which 400,000 of Chiang’s finest troops surrendered, deserted or were
Weaknesses of the GMD Successes of the CCP
killed.

Moving quickly to capitalise on successes, the PLA launched an offensive

against the vital railway junction of Xuzhou (December 1948) - Corruption: high - Mobilising the peasants
ranking officials → increasing support
- Alienation of the for the CCP against the
The battle lasted 65 days with 600,000 on each side. Xuzhou was captured
people: student GMD. Helped with with
in Jan 1949 along with Beijing and Tianjin by Lin Biao in the same month. killings in 1946, logistical support during
appeasement of the conflict e.g. Deng
During the campaign Deng Xiaoping, coordinated upwards of 2 million Japanese Xiaoping 2 million
peasants in four provinces to provide logistical support officials, troops
- Mismanagemen - Different organisational
By Feb 1949, the whole of northern China was controlled by the t of economic structure which allows
issues: spiralling more fluidity
Communists. inflation → - Guerilla warfare →
strikes in Necessity. Then
response changes to
- Lack of Conventional warfare
consolidation of (1948 → Mao’s
1949 power in the announcement)
south: re-supply - Better military
to the north was campaigns/decisions →
limited. encircling cities that are
January 1949: CCP strong enough to launch conventional attacks Lack of resource rich and in
adaptation in important industrial
April 1949: PLAN launched successful offensives and took Nanjing response to areas → e.g. Central
military crises china strategy (noughts
May 1949: Shanghai captured by the CCP - Chiang Kai and crosses)
Shek’s actions - Better use of
October 1949: Guangzhou captured by CCP in chasing propaganda: that
Communists stoked
1st October 1949: Mao proclaimed the establishment of the People’s north anti-foreign/western
Republic of China in Beijing - Waning morale sentiments →
of the troops in associations with the
After a rest, in April 1949, the PLA attacked key cities on the Yangtze River, response to Nationalists
capturing Nanjing on 23rd April and Shanghai in late May. Communist - Harbin experience →
victories learned to govern which
would eventually be
Wuhan was captured in May and the way to the south was now open. The used to rule the united
army then divided: China.

Xi’an & Lanzhou captured in August.

Consolidation of Power, Post 1949
Guangzhou captured in October. Political changes
Priority for Mao: creating the PRC and establishing an effective national
Chongqing was captured in November. government. Creates legitimacy for the CCP as rulers of China in a way that
Yuan, Sun Yatsen, Chiang and the Japanese couldn’t.

By late Sep 1949, most of China was under Communist control.
Mao called a conference in Beijing. 14 political parties were represented
and the conference elected members of the new central government of the
People’s Republic of China (PRC).
st
On 1 Oct 1949, Mao proclaimed the founding of the PRC and he was
elected Chairman.
The government was designed around a framework that divided power
between the CCP, the formal government structure and the army - influenced
by the experience in Yan’an.
Power mostly lay with the Politburo which consisted of 14 members(really run
by a five-man standing committee of Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, Zhoe Enlai,
Zhu De, Chen Yun; formidable leaders who had strong military and
administrative experience.

USE OF FORCE:

Members of the CCP were firmly placed in the government but the LA was
also firmly embedded in Chinese society with the reorganisation of the country
into 6 massive regions; each with its own unified military command.
Each of the 6 regions had 4 main posts: Government chairman, First Party
Secretary, Military Commander, Army Political Commissar.
Theory was that by splitting China into regions, the central government could
hold power over the provinces but tailor the rule to the region.
As a way of imposing the control of the newly established government, far
flung border regions were brought under the control of the central government
in reunification campaigns. In separate PLA forces were dispatched to Tibet,
Xinjiang and Guangdong where the Chinese had historical claims over.
Three Antis
Was initially proposed as an economic stimulant in response to CHinese
involvement in the Korean War, the three antis and five antis were mass
movements proposed by CCP leadership(Mao) to consolidate control over the
CCP, government and the PRC
The three Antis; launched initially in Manchuria Towards the end of 1951
targetted 3 vices within the CCP:
Waste, corruption and inefficiency.
The Five Antis:
Launched in January of 1952
Targeted the bourgeoisie specifically - industrialists and businessmen who
had stayed in China after the Communist takeover
The Five Antis: targeted 5 vices:
Industrial sabotage, tax evasion, bribery, fraud, theft of government property.
The THREE antis: The public were encouraged to join in on the tiger hunting
Informing on offenders of government and party officers
The five antis: the CCP specifically used trained cadres to infiltrate workers
organisations and educate them on the pattern of discrimination by bosses -
in turn creating class warfare and aligning urban workers with the CCP
By encouraging the public to join in on public trials of those denounced, the
CCP also created this atmosphere of fear in which anyone denounced could
be considered an enemy of state.
100 Flowers Campaign
Intellectuals
Intellectuals in the early years of the PRC struggled to find a satisfactory place
in society: many had either been employed by the GMD or had been
educated by Westerners in China or overseas.
This was also in the context of traditional Confucian values having never been
fully replaced by Western ways of thinking(even with the significance of the
May 4th Movement) → the existence of a strange “layered” intellectual
climate
Most, however, were willing to work with the CCP given the inefficiencies of
the old GMD regime and there were even assurances given by the CCP that
these intellectuals might retain their positions
1950-51: Tens of thousands of Chinese intellectuals were re-educated at
“revolutionary colleges” over a 6-8 month period. Re-education included
ensuring intellectuals had an understanding of their class background, nature
of the revolution and an introduction to the thoughts of Mao and other
intellectuals including Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin.
And of course, intellectuals were encouraged to join others in small groups for
discussion and self criticism
(and criticism of their parents which caused considerable given the traditional
values of strong belief in filial piety)
Intellectuals - re-education
The eleven-page confession of a distinguished professor of philosophy who
had studied at Harvard University before returning to take up his post in China
offers a good example of the final result.
The professor began by criticising the life of ease he had spent with his
“bureaucratic landlord family,” went on to analyse the “crust of selfishness”
that enclosed him, to condemn his interest in decadent bourgeois philosophy
and his wish to remain above politics, and finally to hail his sense of new
purpose in life granted him the Communist party and by the “miracles” of the
People’s Liberation Army.
from Jonathan Spence, The Search for Modern China, 1999
The Hundred Flowers 1957
By May 1956, the Chinese leadership was divided on how to deal with the
demoralised intellectuals: Continue the alliance with intellectuals? Or preserve
the unity of the CCP free from outside criticism?
Mao believed in the need for intellectuals if China was to see a surge in
production
(First Five Year Plan began in 1953) ← this doesn't necessarily explain why
he encouraged the Hundred Flowers campaign
2 May 1956: in a closed session to party leaders, Mao elaborated on the idea
of “letting a hundred flowers bloom” in the field of culture and “a hundred
schools of thought contend” in the field of science”
February 1957: Addressing a large group of intellectuals and CCP leadership,
Mao called for the instillation of flexibility and openness in the minds of the
audience
This speech was eventually published as the “On the Correct Handling of
Contradictions Among the People”
By April, the propaganda organs of the CCP were in full favour of the
campaign in which intellectuals were encouraged to speak out against abuses
within the party → they did so with great enthusiasm and aired their
grievances against the CCP over a 5 week period from May 1st - June 7 1957
There were members within the CCP who opposed the Hundred Flowers
campaign from the beginning - at least 9 of China’s provinces had never
backed it.
In face of growing opposition from within and the external criticisms of the
CCP, Mao swung to the side of the hardliners → the text in “On
Contradictions” was even altered so that it read that intellectuals' freedoms
were promised only to those who supported and strengthened Socialism.
July 1957: intensive propaganda assault on critics of the party was mounted
in newspapers all across the country and the CCP announced the beginning
of an “anti-rightist campaign”
By the end of 1957, 300,000 intellectuals had been branded as rightists → a
label that essentially ruined their careers in China.
Many were sent to labour camps, exile or jails. Many were also driven to
suicide by the incessant pressure of public struggle sessions.
Land Reforms
1950-52
Agrarian Land Reform
Land reform, developed at Jiangxi and Yan’an continued with the
establishment of the PRC - this consisted of confiscating land from the
landlords and redistributing to poor peasants who made up Two Thirds of the
population.
- Raises support for the CCP among the rural class.
- Unsurprisingly reform was popular among poor
peasants who had never owned land before.
- By politically mobilising peasant anger and resentment through
‘speak bitterness’ meetings, the CCP were able to establish
themselves in almost all rural villages in China.
- Via peasants associations established and
recruited by urban cadres. The landlord class was
also essentially defeated(class warfare).
 First five year plan 1953-57
First five year plan 1953-57:
With the first phase of land reform complete, the Korean War over and the
bourgeoisie eliminated, the CCP were free to develop an integrated plan for
the nation’s economic development.
The model that was adopted was that of the Soviet Union, where state
controlled production in a sequence of five-year plans was believed to have
been responsible for the nation’s emergence as a world power in the 1930s.
This period saw the closest collaboration between China and the USSR.
The collectivisation turned into commune style control.
The first five year plan was a success HOWEVER, it came at the cost of
agricultural production. Industrial output grew 18.7 percent per year during
this period where agricultural production grew by only 3.8 percent.
How could heavy industrial growth - as mandated by the Soviet model - be
extracted from the peasantry if it meant the ruthless procurement of grain
which led to famine in the 1930s? Consider the importance that 70% of CCP
membership at this time was from the countryside.
The Great Leap Forward
The 2nd five year plan
Mao’s response to poor cultural output from the collectivised farms was to
mobilise the rural masses by drawing inspiration from all of China’s
revolutionary experiences to date.
He was disappointed by the behaviour of the peasants who looked for
individual gain(better standards of living) from collectivisation rather than
commitment to the revolution.
With the interests of developingChina into an industrialised society and
therefore self reliant, the second five year plan was launched in 1958:
THE PLAN:
1. GRAIN: elimination of private farming and the creation of farming
communed by combining farming cooperatives. This also demonstrated that
the second five year plan had a strong political and social element to it
compared to the first.
2. STEEL: increase industrial production. Characterised by lofty goals
including surpassing the UK in steel production within 15 years.
In theory, industrialisation could not proceed without the great leap forward in
agriculture which in turn could not happen if the traditional household farms
were not transformed into large scale collectives ready to implement
mechanised farming. ‘
Compared to the first five year plan, the great leap forward had a considerably
stronger political and social element in its goals. Mao was trying to
continue/deepen the resolution with his economic plan.
IMPACTS OF THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD:
“For several months, the euphoria was self-sustaining as the astounding
production figures prepared by local rural cadres continued to pour into
provincial offices to be relayed thence to PEKING. Local cadres responded by
outdoing each other in making wild, baseless claims about grain yield. One
the basis of these falsified claims, grain output in 1958 was forecasted to grow
to 525 million metric tons from just 195 in 1957… to be fair, they were
instructed by the central government to ‘overcome revolutionary conservatism’
in reporting outcomes.
More importantly, no cadre had dared to report shortfalls in procurement
quotas in fear of being labelled rights.
Also, many of the best statisticians and demographers had been removed as
part of the anti-rightist campaign - the ones who could have raised concerns
about numbers.
As it appeared to CCP leadership that grain/food figures were increasing, the
focus then shifted to industrial production and how the rural base could
contribute to this development(an industrial revolution in the countryside).
With the apparent food production issue solved, not only were peasants
moved from the countryside to urban areas or onto massive industrial
projects(land reclamation and irrigation), the focus also shifted to encourage
peasants to build and operate backyard furnaces to contribute to steel
production targets. 1 million had been built as part of the GREAT LEAP
FORWARD.
MANY THINGS GO WRONG:
- Peasants had no knowledge of metallurgy or experience of
smelting
- The steel was of such poor quality that it was effectively useless.
Unsurprising when the instructions were to procure metal of any
kind(pots, pans, doorknobs) and to smelt them in the backyard.
- Given the focus on steel production, agricultural work was slowly
neglected by the peasants which, in combination with inflated
cadre figures, had devastating effects.
- Scientists and other experts were marginalised as part of the
anti-rightist campaign who could have raised concerns about
this plan.
Ten percent of China’s forests were destroyed in the quest to fire the furnaces.
GIVEN THE COMBINATION OF:
- Increased state procurement numbers in the ace of inflated
cadre statistics
- Men being diverted from agricultural work to increase industrial
output
There was little for the peasants to eat and led to the GREAT CHINESE
FAMINE in which anywhere from 15-55 million people starved to death
between 1959-1961 making it the most catastrophic famine in human
history(by count not per capita= not a huge percentage of the population was
dying).
In China of 1957, before the Great Leap began, the median age of those
dying was 17.6 years, in 1963 it was down to 9.7.
Half of those dying in China that year, in other words, were under ten years
old. The great Leap Forward, launched in the name of strengthening the
nation by summoning all the people’s energies, had turned back on itself and
ended by devouring its young.
Lushan Conference 1959
The Lushan Conference in 1959 was a pivotal event in the history of the
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the People's Republic of China. It took
place against the backdrop of the Great Leap Forward, a socio-economic
campaign initiated by Mao Zedong in 1958 aimed at rapidly transforming
China from an agrarian society into a socialist society through rapid
industrialization and collectivization.
Peng Dehuai, a prominent military leader and Minister of Defense, had
serious reservations about the direction of the Great Leap Forward. He
criticised the unrealistic economic targets, the excessive focus on backyard
furnaces, and the inefficiencies resulting from collectivization. Peng's
concerns were not merely economic; he also worried about the potential
negative impact on China's military readiness.
During the Lushan Conference, which was ostensibly a meeting to summarise
the experiences of the Great Leap Forward, Peng Dehuai expressed his
criticisms openly. He confronted Mao with a letter in which he outlined the
failures of the campaign and its adverse effects. This move by Peng was
unprecedented and challenged Mao's leadership directly.
Mao, however, was not willing to tolerate dissent. He interpreted Peng's
criticism as a direct challenge to his authority and the CCP's leadership. The
conference became a platform for a fierce power struggle within the party.
In the aftermath of the Lushan Conference, Peng Dehuai was purged from his
positions, marking a significant victory for Mao in consolidating power. The
conference reinforced Mao's dominance within the CCP and solidified his cult
of personality. It also set the precedent that open dissent or criticism of Mao's
policies would not be tolerated, contributing to a climate of political conformity
and fear.
The Lushan Conference, therefore, played a crucial role in Mao's
consolidation and maintenance of power by eliminating a major internal
challenge and reinforcing the principle of unquestioning loyalty to Mao's
leadership within the party. The consequences of the conference had lasting
effects on Chinese politics and the trajectory of the Great Leap Forward.
Social Changes
Women under Mao
Lynch: 178-182
Mao Zedong was initially a strong advocate of female emancipation.
Mao officially accepted the principle of female equality.
Mao's government outlawed foot-binding in the 1940s.
In 1950, a new marriage law was introduced in the People's Republic of China
(PRC), discontinuing arranged marriages, abolishing concubinage, forbidding
bride-price payment, allowing divorce for those forced into marriage, and
prohibiting husbands from insisting on bound feet for wives.
The 1950s saw laws giving women the right to own and sell land, but
collectivization undermined these gains.
Life in communes relieved women of daily food preparation but increased
their workload in the workforce.
Despite official gender equality, ingrained prejudice against women persisted,
particularly evident in the preference for male children.
Peasants resisted marriage law changes, especially in western provinces with
a predominantly Muslim culture.
The Communist Party's commitment to gender equality was questioned by
some high-ranking women like Soong Qingling.
Mao's reforms, including collectivization, attacked traditional Chinese family
structures, causing disorientation and vulnerability for women.
The Great Leap Forward-induced famine led to disruptions in marriages,
increased divorce rates, and instances of wife-selling for survival.
The famine left many children motherless, leading to child abandonment,
exploitation, and prostitution.
Mao's earlier encouragement of large families was contradicted by the need
for birth control during the famine, leading to the formal introduction of a birth
control campaign in 1963.
The campaign faced resistance from peasants who viewed large families as a
source of pride and future income, delaying the imposition of a one-child
policy.
As a young man, Mao Zedong had been a committed advocate of female
emancipation and, notwithstanding the complaints from feminists about the
way women were unfairly treated in the Yanan soviet (see page 88), it was to
be expected that he would back measures to help women once he was in
power. Mao's attitude suggested that he was a firm believer in women's rights.
It was certainly the case that Mao officially accepted the principle of female
equality. The party under him formally outlawed the practice of foot-binding
which had survived in parts of China until the 1940s (see page 5).
Marriage reform under Mao in the 1950s
One of the first acts of the PRC was to introduce a new marriage law in1950.
This laid down that:
● Arranged marriages were to be discontinued.
● Concubinage was abolished.
● The payment of the bride-price was forbidden.
● Women (and men) who had previously been forced to marry
were entitled to divorce their partners.
● Husbands could not insist on their wives having bound feet.
● All marriages had to be officially recorded and registered.
● Many women used their new freedom to divorce and remarry.
There were cases of women taking as many as four different
husbands in as many years. This threatened to prove so
disruptive that a special clause was added to PLA regulations
giving the soldiers the legal right to overrule their wives' plea for
a divorce.
The impact of collectivisation on women
Further laws were passed i n the 19 50s giving women the right t o own and
sell land and property. In the land redistribution which followed the seizure of
the properties of the landlords (see page 172), women were actually granted
land in their own name. This seemed to be a major advance since it broke the
tradition whereby all property dealings had been controlled by the men in the
family. However, much of this apparent gain was undermined by the
collectivisation programme, which ended the holding of private property by
either men or women and required people to live in communes.
Gains and losses
Interestingly, life in the communes did bring women one immediate
advantage. Since the rule now was that everybody should eat in common in
mess halls, women no longer had the daily drudgery of finding food and
preparing it
for the family. Yet, for every gain that women made, there seemed to be an
accompanying disadvantage. Now that they were officially regarded in Mao's
China as the equals of men, they could be called on to do the work of men.
Between 1949 and 1966, the proportion of women in the workforce rose from
8 to 29 per cent. This brought women advantages if the work was suitable, but
if it was heavy or dangerous physical labour, they were worse off than before.
Ingrained prejudice against women
The hard truth was that social values and attitudes could not b e easily
changed. China was by deep-seated tradition a patriarchal society; no matter
how sincere the new Communist regime might be in declaring that the sexes
were equal, women were still having to compete with Chinese ingrained
notions of their inferiority. This was clearly evident in the common prejudice
against female babies. It was the wish of nearly all Chinese couples to have
male children. This derived from a mixture of pride and economic interest. The
birth of a boy was thought to bring honour to the family, and the promise of
another source of income; girls were seen as a drain on resources.
Unchanging peasant attitudes
Peasants complained that the new marriage laws interfered with the
established ways of life. The idea of female subordination was persistent in all
China's
rural areas but especially so in the western provinces where there was a
predominantly Muslim culture. In areas such as Xinjiang, families were tightly
controlled by the men; female members were subject to the orders of
husbands, fathers and brothers, and even brothers-in-law, and were likely to
be punished if they showed too much independence of thought. The
representative of the All China Women's Federation described the outlook of
Xinjiang's 4 million women as being like a frog in a well: 'All they can see is a
tiny bit of sky, so their outlook is very narrow. A woman is treated as a man's
possession. It is the duty of a woman to look after him.'
CCP restrictions on women
There is also the consideration that, as had been observed at Yanan in the
1930s, the Communist authorities may not have been as committed to gender
equality as they claimed. Soong Qingling, one of the few women to hold a
high position in the PRC government under Mao, later complained that her
party colleagues did not really treat her as an equal and did not accept that
women comrades could play key roles in government and party. During Mao's
time, women made up only thirteen per cent of the membership of the
Communist Party. The number of women who became members of the
National People's Congress did rise during Mao's period of power, but never
on such a scale as to suggest that the CCP had made a priority of promoting
females within its ranks.
Women and the family
In addition to denying women a fuller political role, there was a deeper sense
in which Mao's reforms prevented them from making a sustained advance in
their status. If anything, the radical character of the reforms increased
women's vulnerability. This was glaringly evident in regard to collectivisation,
which entailed a direct and deliberate assault on the traditional Chinese
family. Mao had already prepared the way for this as early as 1944 when he
had stated that 'It is necessary to destroy the peasant family; women going to
the factories and joining the army are part of the big destruction of the family.'
The prohibition of ancestor worship, which was part of the attack on religion
(see page 183), was intended as a blow against the family as a social unit
with its historical roots and deep emotional attachments.
No matter how much women wanted emancipation, few of them felt happy
that their role as mothers and raisers of families was now to be written off as
no longer being necessary. It went against nature. So determined was the
CCP to undermine the family that in many of the communes, men and women
had to live in separate quarters and were allowed to meet only for conjugal
visits. An official party statement of 19 58 left no doubts over the purpose of
such restrictions: 'It is not the family, but Chairman Mao and the Communist
Party, which has given us everything. Personal love is not important.'
While in some respects this was liberating, since women were freed from
restrictive family ties, there was a downside to it. The enforced social change
had happened too suddenly. The Chinese, a profoundly conservative people,
became disorientated; women found themselves detached from their
traditional moorings. The famine that struck so many parts of China in the
wake of the Great Leap Forward deepened this sense of disorientation. It was
women who suffered most in the famine that devastated China between 19 58
and 1962;
they found themselves caught in a tragedy that simply overwhelmed them.
Circumstances made it impossible for them to remain the providers for their
children.
Divorce and wife-selling
The impossibility of maintaining a normal married life in such circumstances
was reflected in the divorce figures during the famine period. In Gansu
province, for example, the divorce rate rose by 60 per cent. This did not
always denote a breakdown of personal relationships, but rather that as the
family ran out of food the couple judged it better for the wife to look for a
husband elsewhere. Her starving family would at least have the little bit of
food that she would have eaten had she stayed. As one report stated: 'The
poorer the region, the more wives selling there were. If the chief family earner
died, a teenage daughter might be sold to the highest bidder in a distant place
to obtain grain to keep the rest of the household alive.'
The lasting family disruption that wife-selling had often caused became clear
after the famine had eased by the mid-1960s. Wives who had been sold often
refused to go back to their original husbands, preferring the new life they had
made. In Hebei, Sichuan and Gansu provinces, there was a stream of court
cases in which husbands appealed for decisions that would return their former
wives to them. In most instances the courts found for the husbands but this
was by no means guaranteed. A number of women resisted being forced to
return and were supported by the courts.
Consequences for children
One of the tragic consequences of the wives' leaving home was that the
children of the family were left motherless. This often led to their being sold or
abandoned. Youngsters who were old enough to be useful were sold as
workers, slaves, in effect. But at least such children had a chance of survival.
It was the very young who suffered most from being deserted. A nurse in
Lanzhou, the main city in Gansu, described how on a hospital stairway she
came across a tattered cardboard box; inside this crude manger lay a baby
girl. Pinned to the dirty rags in which she was dressed was a roughly pencilled
note: 'To kind­hearted people, please look after her. From a mother who
regrets her faults.' At first, it was girl infants who were dumped in hospitals, at
railway stations, or simply by the roadside, but as the famine grew worse
boys, too, were abandoned.
Child abuse and prostitution
Abandoned children were obvious targets for exploitation and sexual abuse.
One example was a predatory party official in Hefei who bought a young girl
from a starving family and proceeded to make her his sexual plaything. His
behaviour was too much even for a party that was used to covering up its
members' scandals and he was dismissed. The party was also involved in the
spread of prostitution which, like wife-selling, became more widespread as the
famine
a bit deeper. In the worst-hit regions, women openly offered themselves for
sex in return for food. Using the opportunity for exploitation that this provided,
CCP workers in Anhui set up a series of brothels reserved for special use by
party members.
Birth control
Mao had earlier encouraged the people to have large families, his belief
being that industrialisation, based on mass effort, required an ever-growing
population. However, the grim experience of the famine suggested that China
had too many mouths to feed. In 1963, therefore, the PRC formally introduced
a campaign aimed at cutting the birth rate. A Birth Control Bureau was set up
to organise this. Teams of medical workers were sent into the countryside to
urge wives to use effective contraceptives and husbands to be sterilised.
The Bureau had only limited success. The idea of family limitation met strong
resistance from the peasants, for whom having large numbers of children was
traditionally a matter of pride and good fortune. There was also the long­
established peasant view that rather than being a drain on resources, children
were a source of future family income and a guarantee of care for parents in
old age. In the face of this natural conservatism, the health workers were
often reluctant or half-hearted in preaching the new ways. It would be some
time before the Chinese authorities felt able to go so far as to impose a
one-child policy.
Mao vs Hitler: use of force
Mao (49’ onwards) Hitler (33’ onwards)
Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) The Night of the Long Knives in
Three Antis 1934, for instance, involved the
Five Antis(Self Criticism and purge of potential rivals within the
Suicides) Nazi Party, carried out by the SS.
100 Flowers
66-76 Cultural Revolution
In response to criticism of his Great Leap Forward, Mao takes responsibility
for the initial failings. He was apologetic to senior leaders in the CCP - BUT
HE ABSOLVED HIMSELF of any blame for the economic crisis/famine that he
created.
- “I should take primary responsibility for 1958 and 1959. It is I
who am to blame”.
Following his admissions, economic planners within the CCP - those with
more pragmatic and less revolutionary views - looked to stabilise China’s
economy.
The three years following the Lushan Conference in 1959 saw a period of
economic retrenchment that involved
- Reintroducing permissions for peasants to farm small, private
land and allowing trade on the open market.
- Closing of unproductive industrial projects.
- Relocating 30 million peasants back to the countryside.
- Reinvigorating working morale within the communes.
Mao agreed to these more moderate economic policies given none of them
aimed to dismantle the communes. These economic policies ran alongside a
SOCIALIST EDUCATION CAMPAIGN (September 1962) aimed at
reconfirming the values of Socialism and cleaning up the corrupt or inept
cadres.
Liu Shaoqi
An important point to make here is that given the direction of Mao versus the
more pragmatic members of the CCP leadership, divisions/factions within the
CCP become clear in the wake of the post-GLF policies:
Liu(named as Mao’s successor in 61) was one of these pragmatists and was
heavily involved in the investigation and purge of corrupt cadres.
- Mao disagreed with this focus as he believed that by using
investigative teams in a dictatorial manner to discredit a huge
number of communists, Liu was working against Socialism.
Instead he believed that the masses should have been involved
to rectify these issues through open debate and criticism.
More importantly, the liberal economic policies implemented alarmed Mao
given the prospect of a return to Capitalism.
PEOPLE'S LIBERATION ARMY:
Given the division in opinions following the great leap forward and the
Hundred Flowers Campaign as well as his relations with the USSR, Mao felt
threatened. Reputation is not as strong as before.
In the face of this, he wanted to reestablish his authority and to combat old
customs, habits and culture. He was 71 at the time.
His closest ally at the time in 66’ is Lin Biao - named at Peng Dehai’s
replacement following Lushan.
While economic planners were attempting to re-stabilise the country, he was
working on strengthening Mao’s image as a great leader within the army.
By 63’ quotations from Chairman Mao had been distributed widely within the
PLA and studied extensively. It gave him a new level of reverence.
Wu Han Affair
- A Beijing Opera
In what would further the divide between the factions within the CCP, a Beijing
opera play directed by writer/historian Wu Han ran from 1961-65. It was
interpreted as an allegory for Mao’s dismissal of Peng Duhuai at Lushan.
Division within the CCP came from an article criticising Wu and the play and
the debate about whether the Group of Five would publish it in CCP controlled
newspapers despite Mao’s requests for publication. The debate ended with
the Group of Five publishing the “February Outline” ordering the limitation of
debate on the matter (essentially an attempt to silence enemies of the CCP
Culture ministry i.e. Gang of Four)
- Group of Five:
A set of moderate CCP officials, bureaucrats in charge of the culture ministry
led by Peng Zhen tried to defuse the situation by treating it as an academic
rather than political matter. Issued a cautious report that criticised Wu but
nothing more. Had close links to Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping
- Gang of Four:
Radical Maoists intent on restoring socialist order and rigour back in
intellectual life. Was also interested in the socialist purification of art which is
why they were openly critical of Wu’s work. Also wanted to remove the
moderates from CCP leadership (especially Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping).
Mao actually left Peking in November 1965 and assembled this group of
extremist-loyalists.
Jian Qing (Mao’s 3rd wife)
Zhang Chuqiao
Yao Wenyuan
Wang Hongwen
SIGNIFICANCE
1. Mao wanted Peng Zhen, Mayor of Peking and high ranking CCP
member, removed from the CCP
2. Wu Han was deputy mayor of Peking and so the incident was a
way for Mao to indirectly target Peng’s political power: on
learning that the February Outline had no legitimacy as Peng did
not have the political support from the Group of Five or the CCP
to support it, he ordered it suspended.
In late April 1965, the Central Committee decided to revoke the February
Outline, disband the Group of Five, disband the Beijing Party Committee
which Peng Zhen led, and disavow his handling of the Hai Rui Dismissed from
Office controversy.
- May 16 1966: formal notification presented by Mao to the CCP
to remove key figures from the Culture Ministry including Peng
Zhen.
This marked the official beginning of the Cultural Revolution
Mao’s return July 1966
In a carefully staged propaganda exercise, Mao took a swim in the Yangtze
River near Wuhan near the site of the 1911 Revolution to emphasise his
health and vigour.
The Yangtze is also considered a significant life force in China.
The images, given euphoric coverage by the party press, showed the Chinese
people that he was very much alive, healthy and still in charge.
The Red Guard
While the May 16 Circular may have signalled the beginning of the Cultural
Revolution politically, mass demonstrations by Peking University students -
criticising the diversion away from revolutionary thinking - marked the
beginning of the revolution on the ground level. Despite Liu and Deng’s
attempts to quell the disturbances, more radical faculty members and
students joined to turn on party members.
This turmoil spread to Peking high schools and with the distribution of red
armbands by Cultural Revolution radicals, Red Guards were established and
endorsed by Mao as the vanguard of the revolution
Why students and young people?
1. Many students were frustrated over policies that kept them off
the paths of political advancement because the students had the
ill fortune to be born to parents who had connections with the
GMD, the landlords or the capitalist “exploiters” of the old regime
and were therefore labelled as “bad” elements by the CCP
2. Millions of urban youths were disgruntled by CCP policy to
relocate them to the countryside as part of economic reform
3. For years, the young had been called to lead lives of
revolutionary sacrifice and absolute obedience to the state all
under conditions of perpetual supervision. They were repressed,
angry and aware of their powerlessness. They eagerly seized on
the order to throw off all restraints and the natural targets were
those who seemed responsible for their cramped lives.
The “Four Olds” (August-November 1966)
China descended into chaos and violence in the autumn and winter of 1966
as Cultural Revolution leaders called for a comprehensive attack on the “four
old” elements within Chinese society:
 - Old customs
- Old habits
- Old culture
- Old thinking
Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping were eventually removed from their posts and
subject to mass criticism and humiliation along with their families
All schools and universities were closed as the young were encouraged to
demolish old buildings, temples and art objects in towns and villages and to
attack teachers, school administrators, party leaders and even parents.
People burning old and traditional objects during the Cultural Revolution, 1966
The interpretation of the Four Olds was left to the Red Guard. What began as
mere denunciation to prove revolutionary integrity, grew to more and more
complex and painful techniques of public humiliation:
“Identified victims were forced to parade through the streets in dunce caps of
with self-incriminatory placards around their necks, to declaim their public
self-criticisms before great jeering crowds and to stand for hours on end with
backs agonisingly bent and arms outstretched in what was called “the
aeroplane position”
(Above)Tibetans are subject to struggle sessions. Elderly man in the middle
was bedridden for several years due to the severe beatings he received as
part of the Cultural Revolution. Dunce hat placed on them as part of the
humiliation. Man and woman either side of him are his son and daughter
- With the euphoria, fear, excitement and tension that gripped the
country, violence grew apace.
- Thousands of intellectuals were beaten to death or died of their
injuries. Countless others committed suicide.
- Thousands more were imprisoned, often in solitary confinement,
for years
- Millions were relocated to purify themselves through labour in
the countryside
- Accounts of students beating their teachers
People’s Liberation Army 1967
- Violence and chaos across China spiralled out of control as
other radical groups other than students joined the fray and
attempted to seize power from party leaders and local
governments across the country. These groups (composed of
workers) clashed with the Red Guards in what Spence describes
as a “bewildering situation” given there was no central
leadership coordination.
- Eventually, the “sheer zeal and passion” of the Red Guard
resulted in in-fighting the fracturing of this body.
- Factions - comprised of either students or workers - within the
Red Guard attacked each other (in one instance paralysing
Shanghai with the millions of Red Guards jammed into the city)
- February 1967: In response to the chaotic situation developing,
central party leaders ordered the establishment of Revolutionary
Committees comprised of a three-way alliance between:
- Representatives from the masses
- Cadres who were “correct in behaviour and
attitude”
- Members of the PLA
What this resulted in was:
- The muting of more radical disruption (forcing radical students
and the like to compromise)
- The integration of the PLA into government structures who
began to play an expanded role.
- January 1967: In response to the turbulence, Mao gave the PLA
the task of disbanding all counter-revolutionary organisations.
How the PLA interpreted this was any organisation that opposed
them (or their allies) politically was a target:
- “The numbers of those killed by the PLA various
confrontations is unknown, but there were
eyewitness reports of rivers blocked with bodies
and many corpses washed up on the shores of
Hong Kong”
Despite the increased role of the PLA and the establishment of the
revolutionary committees, violence continued between radical groups and
even with the PLA - a clash between PLA and radical Red Guard in Wuhan
(Summer 1967) where over a thousand protesters were killed by the army
marked the most serious of these clashes
- Most CCP leaders (Mao, Zhou Enlai, Jiang Qing) realised that
the situation across China had reached an “intolerable” level by
1967 and in response, called for a more moderate approach to
the revolution:
- Those demonstrating “ultra-left tendencies” were denounced by
Jiang Qing and propaganda campaigns encouraging the study
of Mao’s work rather than violence against the Bourgeois were
introduced. Negotiations with the warring factions were carried
out until the Summer of 1968 where some semblance of order
was re-established across the country.
68-69 Cultural Revolution
- By 1968, China’s educational system was shattered, the military
was under considerable strain and the CCP’s efficiency and
morale had been crucially weakened.
- Despite calls to moderate the violence, a campaign to “purify
class ranks” was launched in 1968 loosely coordinated by Mao,
Jiang Qing, the PLA and loyal cadres.
- The aim was to re-establish order to political life by specifically
attempting to wrangle control of the revolutionary committees by
targeting the cadres particularly those suspected of prior
connections to the bourgeoisie.
- Those accused of being counterrevolutionaries were sent to the
countryside to engage in hard agricultural labour combined with
indoctrination through constant self-evaluation and study of
Mao’s works - all as ways of instilling a deeper understanding of
the socialist revolution.
Death of Mao 1976
After years of ill health, Mao died in September 1976 at the age of 82.
- The Maoists proclaimed the Cultural Revolution a great victory
because it re-established the supremacy of Mao’s authority and
of his through and ideology which were deemed essential to
China’s progress

In retrospect, the Cultural Revolution ushered in a decade of turmoil and civil
strife that drove the country to utter chaos and the brink of bankruptcy. The
party had been decimated and many of its leaders purged or dismissed.
Industrial and agricultural productions suffered severe setbacks and the
disruption to education caused the loss of a generation of trained manpower.
In fact, not only was the younger deprived of education but a great many
middle-aged and senior scholars and scientists were sent to the countryside
to do menial chores, denying them for years the opportunity for research and
teaching. The damage in effect involved three generations
Poignantly, the Cultural Revolution turned out to be ant-cultural,
anti-intellectual and anti-scientific for knowledge was considered the source of
reactionary and bourgeois thought and action
Countless officials and individuals were wrongfully accused and
anti-revolutionary activities and driven to suicide or imprisonment.
Yet for the revolutionary purists, no price was too high and no sacrifice too
great for the perpetuation of the Maoist vision and approach to socialist
transformation
Foreign policy
Sino-Soviet relations
Mao at Stalin's side on a ceremony arranged for Stalin's 71th birthday in
Moscow in December 1949. Behind them is Marshal of the Soviet Union
Nikolai Bulganin. on the right hand of Stalin is Walter Ulbricht of East
Germany and at the edge Mongolia's Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal.
Sino-Soviet Relation pre 1949
Advisory role in creating revolution and establishment of 1st United Front
(1924-27)
August 1922 - Comintern telegram ordered the CCP to join with GMD,
explaining that Comintern
“considered the GMD as a revolutionary party, which upheld the Testament of
the 1911 revolution and was striving to build an independent Chinese
republic," and after joining the GMD the "communists must build groups of
followers in the GMD and in the trade unions" (Telegram from Comintern,
1922)
Sun-Joffe Manifesto - agreement to cooperate in order to unify China
Mao’s removal of ‘28 Bolsheviks’ at Zunyi Conference, consolidated in
Rectification Movement (1942-4)
Development of Maoism in Jiangxi was opposed to the Soviet model of role of
urban proletariat in revolution - no power, however strong, can restrain
them...The peasants are the sea; we are the fish. We live in the sea (Mao)
Sino-Soviet Relations during Civil War (1946-9)
- Mao’s distrust of Stalin grew during Yanan as they did not
provide direct support for CCP due to
- Ideologically - Mao’s version of Communism was
not that of Russia, Stalin believed China was
unable to achieve revolution
- Politically- Russia viewed the GMD as a stronger
ally
- Militarily - A stronger Chinese ally would help
Russia fight off any Japanese aggression along its
border (although there was a non-aggression pact
signed between Japan and Russia in 1941.)
- This was furthered in 1945, as Sino-Soviet treaty, agreement
with GMD and Russia to allow Russia forces into Manchuria as
long as the USSR did not support the CCP and recognise the
GMD as the legitimate authority.
Although USSR had signed a treaty with the GMD they secretly still supported
the CCP
Indirectly through occupation of industrially developed Manchuria during
Sino-Japanese War
After handing Manchuria back, Soviets destroyed factories and mining
machinery, transporting some back to USSR
Soviet maintained control of Port Arthur and Dalian - blocking GMD trade and
commerce
Arming CCP with Japanese weapons - notably Lin Biao’s 4th Army, allowing
them to attack fortified positions and major cities
Stalin was cautious of supporting the CCP and instead adopted a policy of
appeasement to avoid conflict with the US backed GMD
He believed that the US would not support a Communist victory in China and
therefore continued to appeal to CCP to come to terms, even if it meant a
divided nation
Mao maintained and hardened his view that salvation for China was possible
only from within China itself
Reasons for the Breakdown in Relations
- Historical Differences – Russia had seized Chinese territory in
the 19th century, Bolsheviks seized Outer Mongolia in the
1920s, Manchuria was stripped of $2 billion in equipment after
WW2, and the USSR had supported the KMT in the 1920s/30s.
- Ideological Differences – Mao and Stalin differed over
interpretation of Marxist revolution, Stalin opposed Mao’s rise in
CCP, argued over ‘continuing revolution’.
- Political Differences - Mao opposed Khrushchev’s ‘peaceful
coexistence’ policy, sought independence from Moscow, USSR
only gave conditional support during the Korean War, and both
sought leadership of the international Communist movement.
- Economic Differences – Argued over how to develop Chinese
economy, Great Leap Forward failure, China had to pay for aid
- Military Differences – USSR was reluctant to give China military
aid and nuclear technology, China was suspicious of this.
Mao Foreign Policy Aims in 1949
- Economic Development – China reluctantly relied on Soviet aid
and expertise to re-build, internationally isolated at the UN,
Western trade embargo since November 1949.
- Territorial Integrity – China needed to secure its control over
outlying provinces like Tibet and Taiwan. Feared hostile forces
on its borders in Vietnam/Korea, needed Soviet protection
initially
- National Identity – Maoism was not just about world revolution
but restoring the Chinese nation and re-dressing past
humiliations, including Soviet domination. Mao wanted
independence of action.
- International Revolution –Mao believed that war with Capitalism
was inevitable. Communist revolutions should be encouraged
world-wide. The USSR didn’t want this after 1956.
Korean War 1950-3
In November 1950, the Red Army of the PRC invaded North Korea in an
attempt to push back American-led UN forces which threatened to wipe out
the North Koreans.
During the war, over 1 million Chinese troops fought, with over 700,000
casualties. Even Mao’s son was killed and China had to pay back to the
USSR $1.35 billion in weapons it had supplied to China
There were even suggestions that Stalin deliberately prevented an early
armistice in order to exhaust the Chinese. The armistice came quickly after
Stalin’s death.
Even in 1949 when we were about to cross the Yangtze River, someone
[Stalin] still wanted to prevent us.
According to him we should under no circumstances cross the Yangtze. If we
did so America would send troops to China and become directly involved in
China’s Civil War and the South and North dynasties would reappear in
China.
I did not listen to what [Stalin] said. We crossed the Yangtze, America did not
send troops and there were no South and North dynasties.
Khrushchev and De-Stalinization (1956)
After Stalin’s death in 1953, the Soviet Union became ruled by Malenkov,
Khrushchev and Bulganin. Tensions eased as the USSR began to supply
China with loans and technology.
However by 1956, Nikita Khrushchev had become de facto leader of the
USSR. In February, he gave a speech criticising the personality cult of Stalin
and his crimes, suggesting Stalin had ‘put himself above the party’.
Mao interpreted this as an attack on himself too as he ruled China in a similar
way to Stalin. This increased tensions between the two.
In 1956, Khrushchev also began calling for ‘peaceful co-existence’ and better
relations with the USA to avoid nuclear war.
This indirectly led to protests across Eastern Europe as many people believed
Khrushchev was promising greater freedoms. An uprising in Hungary in
November 1956 was violently crushed.
Mao was angered by the failure of the USSR to control ‘reactionary forces’
and for allowing protests with the USSR
Mao viewed peaceful-coexistence with the West as ‘heresy’ and a betrayal of
the Marxist-Leninist notion of the inevitability of war with capitalism.
Mao sincerely believed that ‘continuing revolution’ with the West was the only
way to ensure the victory of Communism.
By negotiating with the West on arms reductions in the 1950s, Mao believed
the USSR was becoming a ‘revisionist’ and betrayer of true Communism.
1957 Moscow Conference
In November 1957, Khrushchev convened a special Meeting of World
Communist Parties in Moscow to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the
Bolshevik Revolution and to try and resolve differences.
Despite approving a declaration that promised future cooperation, Mao made
a series of speeches warning Moscow to abandon ‘revisionism’ and to return
to the true Marxist-Leninist path.
In a series of speeches, Deng Xiaoping demolished the Soviet speaker,
Mikhail Suslov, by arguing that world revolution was only possible through
armed struggle. This angered and humiliated Moscow.
Khrushchev’s Visit to Beijing 1958
It was clear from the 1957 Moscow Conference that Mao was attempting to
challenge the USSR for leadership of the international communist movement.
This was a threat to the USSR as it used the international movement as a way
of spreading Soviet influence in the world.
In an attempt to improve these relations, Khrushchev visited Beijing in July
1958.
- Mao took his chance to humiliate Khrushchev further by
arranging meetings in his swimming pool.
Khrushchev was also put in a hotel with no air conditioning. The talks failed
dramatically.
The USSR proposed to create with China a joint fleet of submarines and radio
stations on the Chinese coast. Mao interpreted this as an attempt to ‘bring
China under Soviet military control’.
Deng Xiaoping again attacked the USSR, stating they were arrogant for only
viewing themselves as the only true Marxist-Leninists. He even accused
Soviet technical advisors in China of being spies
Taiwan Crisis 1958
In this underlying atmosphere of mistrust and enmity, a crisis erupted over
Taiwan in August 1958.
China began bombarding the Nationalist controlled island of Quemoy off the
Chinese coast and mobilise its army for war. The USA responded by
mobilising the 7th Fleet and prepared for war.
Mao launched the attack shortly after Khrushchev had left Beijing. It seemed
as if Mao was trying to prove his independence from the USSR and to test the
USSR’s support for China. He was also testing the US commitment to Taiwan.
- The crisis triggered a breakdown in Sino-Soviet relations. Mao
realised he didn’t have the full support of the USSR as it took
the USSR nearly two months before they warned the US of
retaliation.
- Khrushchev argued that he was unwilling to put the USSR at
risk by ‘testing the stability of the capitalist system’. He
denounced Mao as a ‘Trotskyist’ who had lost sense of reality.
- In response the USSR withdrew all its technical and scientific
advisors from China in 1959 and ended all military cooperation,
including nuclear.
With relations declining, a war of words between the two nations soon
developed. The increasing failure of Mao’s ‘Great Leap Forward’ economic
plan was criticised by the USSR. It had led to famine and economic collapse
within China.
- The Soviet press called it ‘faulty in design and erroneous in
practice’ and denounced Mao.
- This enraged Mao who was further angered by rumours that
Marshal Peng Dehuai had passed on details of the famine to the
USSR (purged at Lushan Conference)
Soviet-Albanian Split 1961
With the relationship between the nations in tatters, Mao took any opportunity
to further embarrass the USSR and take leadership of the world communist
movement.
When the USSR began withdrawing financial aid to Albania in January 1961,
China immediately stepped in to supply Albania with technical and financial
assistance.
Mao was attempting to prove the leadership of China as the true leader of the
Communist world. Albania had also criticised Khrushchev for his ‘revisionism’.
- The move to support Albania was a clear challenge to Soviet
influence in Europe. Matters came to a head at the 22nd
Congress of the CPSU in Moscow in October 1961.
- Khrushchev attacked Albania’s leader, Enver Hoxha, for his
Stalinist ways which was also interpreted as an attack on China.
In response, Zhou Enlai dramatically staged a rehearsed
walk-out of the Congress.
- This ended diplomatic relations between the two nations.
Khrushchev called Mao an ‘Asian Hitler’ and Mao called
Khrushchev ‘a redundant old boot’.
Sino-Indian War 1962
With diplomatic, economic and military relations ended between the two
powers, it wasn’t long until the rivalry became hostile.
In October 1962, a dispute over the Tibetan border between India and China
broke out into fighting. The war ended in November with China taking
disputed areas.
Although officially ‘neutral’, the USSR had supported India by selling MIG
fighter jets. Mao refused to allow the Soviet negotiator, Kosygin, to mediate
the ceasefire.
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
- In the same month, the Cuban Missile Crisis erupted when
Soviet ballistic nuclear missiles were spotted by the US on
Cuba.
- After a tense stand-off, Khrushchev backed-down by removing
the missiles. Mao took the opportunity to attack the USSR.
- He attacked the USSR for its ‘adventurism’ in placing missiles
on Cuba and its ‘capitulationism’ in cowardly backing down. For
Mao, this was a further example of the USSR’s inability to lead
world communism.
- The Cuban Missile Crisis had shown Mao that the USSR was
wrong in its revisionist policy of ‘peaceful-coexistence’. By
backing down, the USSR was ‘helping’ the imperialist powers.
Nuclear Issue 1963-64
- Ever since the 1950s, Mao was frustrated by the attitude of the
USSR in sharing its nuclear weapons.
- The USSR only agreed to give China a nuclear deterrent if
China allowed the USSR to control its use. This Map could not
agree to.
- After Soviet nuclear cooperation was withdrawn in 1959,
Chinese nuclear physicists managed to piece together hundreds
of shredded documents on nuclear technology
This knowledge enabled China to press ahead with developing its own bomb.
However in 1963 the USSR and USA signed the Test Ban Treaty which
suspended the atmospheric testing of nuclear bombs.
Mao saw this as another betrayal of the USSR and an attempt to ensure that
China could not develop its own weapons.
Despite this, in 1964 China detonated its first atomic bomb. It was now a
superpower. The bomb was codenamed ’59/6’ after the year and month that
Soviet atomic advisors had been withdrawn.
Cultural Revolution 1966
After Khrushchev was forced to stand-down from office in 1964, he was
replaced by Leonid Brezhnev who would rule until 1982.
Brezhnev continued to try and isolate China within the worldwide communist
movement, accusing it of sending supplies to the USA in Vietnam.
During the anarchy of the Cultural Revolution, the USSR argued that it was
just another example of China’s ‘fanaticism’ that threatened to destroy the
world.
Sino-Soviet Border War 1969
- By the end of the 1960s, the Sino-Soviet relationship had
become increasingly belligerent. Both sides now had nuclear
weapons and both continued to criticise each other.
- In 1967 China developed its first hydrogen bomb and the USSR
became increasingly concerned. The USSR had stationed over
50 divisions along its China border.
- On 2nd March 1969 tension boiled over into fighting on the
island of Damansky in the Ussuri River. The fighting intensified
throughout the summer.
- Mao ordered that tunnels be dug and preparations made for
nuclear war. Both sides realigned their nuclear missiles to face
each other.
- The USSR even secretly asked the USA what the US would do
in the event of a Soviet nuclear attack on China.
- The conflict marked the lowest point in relations. It forced China
to consider better relations with the USA as a way to offset the
Soviet threat.
There are five ways major in which the Sino-Soviet split can be
perceived:
- As the inevitable result of Sino-Soviet rivalry in East Asia
- As an ideological clash over the correct interpretation of
Marxism-Leninism
- As part of a different tradition of Chinese opposition to
imperialism
- As the result of different policies towards the West in the Cold
War
- As a result of rivalries between Mao and Khrushchev
Thematic Identification and Explanation of Event(s) Supporting Evidence of Effect(s) Significance of Issue to
Issues Breakdown

Territory Korean War: Korean War: Korean War:

The Korean War was a conflict between the Northern The failed invasion of South Korea resulted in Mao It led to Mao asserting
and Southern parts of Korea, which were by the being forced to deploy 2,000,000 PLA soldiers to himself as the true
Western and Eastern ideologies. Through the conflict, Their Korean neighbour. Chinese aggressive policy supporter of both
China was forced by the Americans, which crossed towards their neighbour compromised their security communism, eastern-asia,
the northern river, provoking China into having to as a new state. Used as a propaganda tool to show and he used it in
intervene to keep their stability, with the USSR less he is the true supporter of communism. propaganda to further his
willing in active battle ideology and foothold on
Taiwan Strait Crisis: communism.
Taiwan Strait Crisis:
CCP’s failed attempt to “liberate” Taiwan from the Zhenbao island incident:
CCP’s failed attempt to “liberate” Taiwan from the KMT. The USSR refused to assist the PLA due to It has become a turning
KMT. The USSR refused to assist the PLA due to the the fear of nuclear war. As a result, the US didn’t point in the transformation
fear of nuclear war. As a result, the US didn’t intervene and nuclear weapons were avoided. of Sino-US relations.
intervene. However, an ongoing conflict between the USA and
USSR has persisted.
Sino-Indian War:
Sino-Indian War:
A border conflict between the USSR backed Nahru
government and Mao Zedong over the border region A border conflict between the USSR backed Nahru
of Askai Chan government and Mao Zedong over the border region
of Askai Chan. Despite USSR support for India,
Zhenbao island incident： China still managed to win the border conflict.

Border conflict between China and USSR,China wins Zhenbao island incident：
and actually controls the Zhenbao Island
29 casualties for China, 59 casualties for USSR

Strategic USSR withdraw from Manchuria USSR Withdrew from Manchuria

interest USSR withdrew on May 1946 after turning over The USSR gave over control to Communist China
control to the Chinese communists after deferring their departure and going against the
Cuban missile crisis KMT in support of the CCP
The leaders of the US and USSR were in a military Cuban missile crisis
and political standoff on October 22nd 1962 The aftermath led to the USSR seeking a closer
Soviet-Albanian split relationship with the US
Deterioration of the relationship between the USSR Soviet-Albanian split
and Albania Deterioration of the relationship between the USSR
Korean war and Albania
War fought between North and South Korea Korean war
Nuclear weapons proliferation 3-4 million dead
Spread of Nuclear weapons Nuclear weapons proliferation

Leaders Conference of communist parties (1957) Conference of communist parties (1957) Conference of communist
parties (1957)
Mao travelled to Moscow for the second time and was In the conference, Mao stated that “Either the east
still willing to recognise USSR leadership in wind prevails over the west wind or the west wind The worsening relations,
international communism, however he expressed prevails over the east wind”, highlighting an and clash among the
concerns that the Soviet Union was on a revisionist aggressive approach to dealing with the west and a leaders of the respective
course, and criticised their policy of detente in willingness to denounce Kruschev for his policy of nations is highlighted by
de-escalating tension with the imperial powers of the detente. Mao’s speech, in which he
west. intentionally criticises
Kruschev visit to Beijing(1958) Kruschev for his breaking of
Kruschev visit to Beijing (1958) Mao deliberately set out to faith with the true socialist
make Khrushchev uncomfortable. He arranged for revolution.
He visited China with the goal to ease the tension. the Soviet delegation to be
However Mao had attempted to make him feel put up at a hotel without air-conditioning; the
uncomfortable by arranging events to Kruschev Russians sweltered in Beijing's Kruschev visit to Beijing(
inconvenience and then Deng Xiaoping used fierce summer heat and were plagued by 1958)
Kruschev appearance as a way to attack the soviet mosquitoes. This was the last visit of
policy Kruschev to Beijing due to
how Mao made him feel
Moscow conference (1961) uncomfortable and how
Khrushchev referred Mao as "Asian Hitler" and "Living Deng Xiaoping used his
Corpse" Furthermore, the issue of Albania led to the appearance to attack the
attack on China and Albania in the Moscow soviet policy ,making this
conference of 1961, which prompted Zhou Enlai to Kruschev’s last visit to
walk out of the meeting, highlighting the increasingly Beijing
worsening of relations

Ideological - 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis Albania (1961) Albania (1961)

Mao criticised Khrushchev that he had turned from
adventurism to capitalism The USSR financial aid was removed in 1961, and The dispute over Albania
was replaced by Chinese aid. “China’s experience led to worsening relations
- Disagreement on China's foreign policies (1954 may serve other countries [Albania], but they must between the two leaders
Taiwan 1959 Tibet 1962 Indian) judge this for themselves.” - Mao on Albania 1961. as different countries were
These cases had shown conflict between Maoism and split on whether China or
Khrhshchev's idea of relieving tension between the Disagreement of foreign policies the USSR was the leader
Communist Alliance and the West. of international
The USSR halted China's proposal attacking Taiwan communism. This is
Albania (1961) because it might drag the US in. highlighted by Zhou
USSR also supported Tibet and New-Delhi in the Enlai’s walkout of the
Mao was eager to support any communist nation 1959 Tibetan Uprising and Sino-Indian war Moscow conference in
defying the USSR. When Albania’s refusal to 1961, following a verbal
recognise the USSR led to the withdrawal of financial assault on China and
aid, China stepped in as the new contractor. Albania by the Soviet
Union.

1950s
 Key Summary (include reference to key characters including Mao
events and dates)
Tibet In 1950, the PLA invaded Tibet. Mao considered this a
1950 domestic concern as he saw Tibet as part of the mainland and
therefore the Tibet campaign was a part of his consolidation of
China. The outside world however viewed the brutality with
which the Tibetans were suppressed as expansionism and
horrific, causing the United States to condemn the CCP. Mao’s
actions were called a ‘cultural genocide’ by te Dalai Lama.
The The North of Korea was under a Communist regime and
Korea supported by the Soviets while the south was under an
n War, anti-Communist regime and supported by the USA. The North
1950-1 invaded the South in 1950, an attack believed to be due to
953 Stalin and Mao, calling it a ‘joint venture’ in Asia. However, Mao
was persuaded by the North Korean leader to invade but was
not involved in the initial attack. Mao was not very concerned
with Korea due to the domestic issues he faced with Taiwan
and Tibet. Mao condemned American action in South Korea,
who justified their action by claiming that the North had been
the ‘aggressors’, which Mao countered by claiming that the
South had been the initial aggressors. Zhou Enlai asserted that
the US troops were imperialist invaders. The PRC warned the
Americans that it would intervene if the US attacked the North,
with thousands of the PRC troops fighting with the North as
‘volunteers’. In October 1950, the PRC launched an attack on
the UN troops. Over the next 3 years, millions of Chinese
fought in korea. By the time of the truce in 1953, China had lost
nearly a million men.
The Korean war led to open conflict between the USA and the
PRC, and solidified the USA’s position against China. In
addition, after the war Mao was less in awe of the potential
military might of the USA. The hostility between China and the
US now became a key factor in international relations.
Politically, the war strengthened China. The fact that the
Soviets had made the Chinese pay the entire bill for the cost of
supplies reinforced the loyalty of the Chinese to the CCP as
they were more determined to stand alone. Mao emphasised
that it was Chinese, and not Soviet blood that was spilled for
the ‘international Communist cause’.
Taiwan By 1953, Taiwan had become a key territory in the American
, 1954 containment of Communism in Asia. The PRC had not
and attempted to previously take Taiwan because it was well
1958 defended from the air and the sea due to the US. However, in
1954 Mao tested the commitment of the United States by
shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu. In response,
Eisenhower suggested that nuclear weapons would be used
against military targets in China if Taiwan was threatened. The
US had to show strength to its other allies in the region, and
was also confident that the Soviet Union would not go so far as
to support the PRC in a war. In 1958 Mao began shelling
Quemoy and Matsu again, while simultaneously building up the
PLA troops in the area. The US Navy responded, and the USA
prepared for war. In the end, no full-scale attack on Taiwan
came, with Mao stepping back from the brink. The view of the
PRC as an expansionist state linked into the American domino
effect theory, so China’s expansionist goals were seen as a
genuine threat to the security of the West. Therefore the PRC
continued with huge economic and military aid to Taiwan as
well as initiated bilateral defence treaties with other Asian
states seen as under threat from the PRC and obstructed
PRC’s entry to the United Nations.
Throughout the 1950s, the US saw China as an extension of the Soviets.
Therefore they viewed the PRC as a Communist threat which challenged the
very existence of the capitalist US. As a result China was incorporated into
the containment policies initiated by the US throughout the Cold War. The US
was determined to limit and control the power of China at any cost, which is
exhibited throughout the 1950s by the US’s constant use of military force to
subdue the Chinese, such as in the Korean War or in Taiwan.
1960s
Key events Summary (include reference to key characters including
Mao and dates)
Taiwan - "Throughout the 1960s, the PRC persisted
in its demands for the reunification of
Taiwan with the mainland."
PRC's insistence on the reunification of Taiwan with the
mainland was driven by a deep-seated nationalistic
sentiment. They considered Taiwan's separate
government as an affront to Chinese nationalism
- any compromise: the idea of 'two Chinas'
was deemed unacceptable.
- became a non-negotiable point for the PRC.
Vietnam PRC condemned American involvement in the Vietnam
War, viewing it as a form of imperialism.
1955-75 - Labelled it: ‘expansionism’ + referenced
(fall of Taiwan.
Saigon) - "The war in Vietnam seriously heightened
the tension between the USA and the
CCP troops Asia-Pacific region, including America’s own
in July, allies."
1965
Decolonisat - "The PRC’s interest in supporting
ion revolutionary/decolonization movements in
Movements the developing world was not simply a
pursuit of limited ideological goals in those
specific countries."
Part of a broader strategy to position itself as the leader
of international revolution and challenge Western
imperialism.
- PRC influence was limited but revolutionary
force was threatening.
- The US viewed the PRC's involvement in
supporting anti-colonial movements with
suspicion.
Cultural “The Cultural Revolution led to a collapse in the PRC’s
Revolution ability to conduct any real foreign policy. The American
view of the turmoil going on inside China was similar to
the Soviet perception – it was a clear demonstration of
the out-of-control fanaticism of the Maoist leadership”.
- Heightened “anti-American rhetoric from
China”, with increased attacks on the United
States and its allies. The USA, already
concerned about the PRC's ideological
fervour, now saw it as a regional threat.
- "During the Cultural Revolution, the
Chinese increased the ferocity of their
attacks on the United States and its allies
(calling them ‘Capitalist running dogs’)."
1960s: Sino-American relations deteriorated significantly.
PRC persistently demands Taiwan's reunification, conflicting with US
containment policy.
Vietnam War intensifies tensions; PRC condemns US involvement as
imperialism, linking it to Taiwan.
PRC's support for decolonization is seen with suspicion by the USA.
Cultural Revolution in China leads to increased anti-American rhetoric and
fears of a potential US attack.
1960s = “strained relations, distrust, and discord”.
1970s
Key Summary (include reference to key characters including
events Mao and dates)
Ping Pong The American table tennis team was invited to compete in
diplomacy China and secret talks were held between Kissinger and
(1972) Zhou. During President Nixon and Kissinger’s 1972 visit to
Shanghai, the Shanghai communique was issued which
resulted in an open relationship between the PRC and the
US. The communique noted that both nations would work
towards the normalisation of their relations.
UN In 1970, the General Assembly finally voted in favour of the
members Chinese UN seat transferring to Beijing after years of being
hip rejected. However, as the necessary ⅔ majority wasn’t
(1970-71) reached, the US initiated the ‘two Chinas’ policy which
suggested that Beijing took the Security Council seat, while
Taiwan still maintained representation in the General
Assembly. This solution was rejected by both Taiwan and
the PRC.
In the summer of 1971, Nixon announced his imminent visit
to the PRC and stated that the US no longer opposed the
PRC’s admission to the UN. The US failed to prevent the
expulsion of Taiwan. In the end, the US decided to officially
recognise the PRC and gave in to the expulsion of Taiwan
from the UN.
The PRC, in gaining UN membership, had the power to
veto in the security council. This could be used to block
resolutions. The PRC also gained better links with
countries in the developing world and increased its prestige
and influence on the world stage, and publicly supported its
allies and denounced its enemies.
Taiwan Nixon declared that the relationship between Taiwan and
the PRC was not for them to decide. The US however did
not want to hurry its transfer of official recognition to the
PRC, nor was it comfortable with the idea of giving up
Taiwan. The issue was dragged on until President Jimmy
Carter finally established full diplomatic relations with China

in 1979. Arms sales to Taiwan were halted.
However, following the defeat of Carter to Reagan (a fierce
anti-communist) in the 1980 elections, Reagan committed
the US into protecting Taiwan and resumed arms sales,
deteriorating Sino-American relations.
Japan Due to the improved relations with the US, China and
Japan signed a friendship treaty which developed over the
next few years, particularly through economic ties. Within 5
years of the treaty, China became Japan’s second biggest
trading partner.
By January 1976, Deng Xiaoping held the position of the first vice premier.
Given the differences in ideology between these two individuals, Hua began
attacking Deng to consolidate his new position (a campaign that actually
began with Mao in 1975 following his rejection of Deng’s self criticisms and
Deng’s existing tensions with the Gang of Four.
Death of Zhao Enlai
Premier Zhou Enlai died in January 1976 to the mourning of many Chinese.
Deng gave the eulogy which, despite mostly echoing the wording of the official
Central Committee statement on Zhou’s death, some interpreted as a criticism
of Mao and the leaders of the Cultural Revolution (gang of four)

Following his eulogy:

Sino-US relations improved in the 1970s as they were able to establish
Hua Guofeng was named acting premier to replace Zhou Enlai, instead of
diplomatic relations with one another through the Ping Pong diplomacy. This
Deng.
resulted in China gaining membership in the UN security council and better
The campaign against Deng by the gang of four.
relations between China and other nations such as Japan. However, there
were some tensions between the two nations especially in regards to Taiwan
Tiananmen incident 1976:
and the US’ reluctance to not give up on Taiwan.
Protests at the square erupted in response to wreaths and tributes to Zhou
Enlai being removed by the police. The protests were quelled by the PLA but
Event Primary Source Deng was accused of organising the counter revolutionary movement.

Khrushch FOURTH CONVERSATION BETWEEN N.S. KHRUSHCHEV AND

Gang of Four Arrests
ev Visit to MAO ZEDONG, HALL OF QINJENDIANG [BEIJING]
Beijing, October 1976:
1958 Mao died in September 1976 to which there was none of the rush of emotion
(Nelson) that had occurred in response to Zhou’s death.

Following Hua’s final eulogy to Mao, he ordered the sudden arrest of the
GANG OF FOUR - having persevered in their evil conduct despite warning
Taiwan, LETTER, CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY from Mao himself(arrest made possible by military general strength, not from
1958 OF THE SOVIET UNION TO THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY, political savvy).
(Noa) ON THE SOVIET UNION'S READINESS TO PROVIDE
ASSISTANCE TO CHINA IN THE EVENT OF AN ATTACK Deng’s purge and reinstatement
Deng had already left Peking for Canton following his second purge from the
Great WITHDRAWAL OF SPECIALISTS party before Mao’s death and Hua’s appointment as premier.
Leap However, given the political, economic and military power of Deng’s allies in
Forward, the south, there was considerable pressure to reinstate Deng which he was in
1959
July 1977.
(Tilly)
A clear power struggle ensued between the two individuals.
SO:
Sino-Indi SOVIET MEMORANDUM ON THE SINO-INDIAN BORDER ISSUE Hua Geofend believes in modernisation through upholding orthodox Maoist
an War,
beliefs.
1962
(Baeck) BUT
Deng Xiaoping wants modernisation that would incorporate foreign investment
and embrace science and technology. Pragmatic in his approach - but not an
Cuban CABLE FROM THE CHINESE EMBASSY IN THE SOVIET UNION,
explicit anti Maoist.
Missile 'VIEWS ON KHRUSHCHEV'S COMPROMISE WITH THE UNITED
Crisis, STATES ON CUBA'
1962 Four Modernisations
(Tilly) December 1978:
Development in agriculture, industry, science and technology + defence(first
Cultural THE POLISH-SOVIET TALKS IN MOSCOW: OCTOBER 10-15, 1966 proposed by Zhou in the 60s)
Revolutio
n Championed by Deng at the Third Plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee
(Noa) of the CCP, the 4 modernizations were adopted as economic policy in
December.
Invasion TELEGRAMS FROM ROMANIAN EMBASSY, BEIJING, TO
of ROMANIAN MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, 22-24 AUGUST One other important aspect of the Third Plenum was the reversal of Mao’s
Czechosl 1968 verdict that those involved in the Tiananmen Incident of 1976 were counter
ovakia revolutionary.
1968
(Tilly)
Both Hua and Deng affirmed that protests were in fact revolutionary in what
can be seen as a progressive political move and one that was revisionist of
Border MAO ZEDONG'S TALK AT A MEETING OF THE CENTRAL Mao’s beliefs.
War 1969 CULTURAL REVOLUTION GROUP (EXCERPT)
(Noa) Democracy Wall
NOTE OF CONVERSATION BETWEEN ION GHEORGE MAURER
AND ZHOU ENLAI ON 11 SEPTEMBER 1969 December:
Given the thawing of relations between USA and China and the decisions
made at the Third Plenum, many interpreted thus usher in a new era of
Indochina VIETNAM AND THE SINO-SOVIET SPLIT, 1960-1965 intellectual freedom in the PRC.
(Nelson)
VIETNAM: A SOVIET-SINO DILEMMA
What this resulted in was thousands of Chinese putting their thoughts into
words, words onto paper and paper onto walls to be read by those that
passed by.
1976
Following the death of Lin Biaro, Hua Guofeng emerged to be designated as The most famous of these displays was in Peking which, given the frankness
Mao’s successor. As a loyal Maoists his beliefs centred around what critics of some of the messages about the desire for the introduction of democratic
called the ‘two whatevers’. freedoms, became known at the democracy wall.

“We will resolutely uphold whatever policy decisions Chairman Mao made and
unswervingly follow whatever instructions Chairman Mao gave”.
Despite being removed from his post during the cultural revolution, Deng
Xiaoping eventually returned to Peking in 1973 and half influence within the
party given the attempts of economic reform he worked on following the GLF.
Remember that Deng’s economic ideology was marked by pragmatism.
Given much of the early writings on the wall were critical of Mao, the Gang of
Four or Hua Guofeng, Deng tolerated the messages and saw the activities of
democracy.
THE FIFTH MODERNIZATION:
Wei Jingshaeng’s essay titled the fifth modernisation was posted on the
democracy wall in december.
For Wei, the fifth one was DEMOCRACY representing a new voice in China,
one that demanded elected representatives.
The essay was controversial given it was an open criticism of Deng
“I advise not to believe such political swindlers anymore. Knowing that we are
being deceived, we should implicitly believe in ourselves”.
The democracy movement also became more explicit beyond words following
the essay.
- December 9th 1978: 28 young people demonstrated in
Tiananmen Square speaking on behalf of 50000 youths who had
been sent to do farm work.
- January 8th 1979: thousands
Four Cardinal Principles as a political and ideological framework:
Socialism: Deng emphasised the commitment to socialism, asserting that
China would remain a socialist state. However, he introduced market-oriented
economic reforms, leading to the coexistence of socialist principles and a
market-oriented economy.
Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Deng maintained the importance of the CCP's
leadership and the dictatorship of the proletariat. Nevertheless, he advocated
for a more pragmatic approach, allowing for a degree of flexibility and
experimentation in economic policies, even if it meant deviating from strict
Marxist principles.
Leadership by the Communist Party: Deng stressed the necessity of the
CCP's leadership in China. However, he also acknowledged the need for
expertise and competence in governance, allowing for the promotion of
technocrats within the party and placing a greater emphasis on practical
results over ideological purity.
Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought: Deng affirmed the continued
adherence to Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. At the same time,
he introduced the concept of seeking truth from facts, implying a more
pragmatic and adaptable approach to policy-making.
Deng's rule, marked by the implementation of economic reforms and opening
up to the world, demonstrated a pragmatic and flexible leadership style. While
he upheld the Four Cardinal Principles in principle, he also recognized the
need for practical adjustments to achieve economic development and
modernization. This pragmatic approach signalled a departure from the strict
ideological stance of Mao Zedong and allowed for a more adaptive and
dynamic governance, contributing to China's economic transformation and
global integration.
Despite Deng’s condemnations and crackdowns on democracy, the reactions
against this show how the movement had potential.
“For despite the apparent omnipotence of the CCP and its huge bureaucracy
and army”, “a few little sheets of paper and a few lines of writing, a few shouts
and they’re frightened out of their wits”. Mass mobilisation is scary.
1980s
Power struggle
By 1981, Deng had clearly won the power struggle between him and Hua
Guofeng for a number of reasons:
Hua had based his rise to power on his contention that he had been selected
as Mao’s successor: not a helpful legacy considering the arrest of the Gang of
Four and the more open criticism of Mao in public
Deng worked patiently throughout the late 1970s to discredit Hua. In direct
contrast to Hua’s “Two Whatevers” (which was mocked in private), Deng also
used a Maoist slogan (“seek truth from facts”) to push his image as a
pragmatist
Deng had groomed two proteges (Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang) who
carefully manoeuvred their way through the party to eventually be named
general secretary and premier respectively - Hua was replaced by Zhao)
By 1980, each part of the three key elements of the Chinese state was now in
Deng’s hands or in the hands of his proteges. With this victory over Hua,
Deng was clearly the pre-eminent leader of the PRC.
As a way of emphasising the break with the past, Deng led the party in
evaluating Mao’s legacy which concluded with the summation that Mao had
been correct 70% of the time and incorrect 30% of the time with many of
those errors coming towards the end of his life. Deng still concluded however
that “Socialism and Socialism alone can save China.”
By the late 1980s, the CCP faced the task of controlling 1 Billion people,
handling foreign contracts worth several billion yuan, completely restructuring
its economy, and restoring its shattered schools and universities - this is after
the government having been shaken by events like the Great Leap Forward
and the Cultural Revolution (amongst others…)
Despite the shift away from orthodox Maoism, the government was still
ultimately above the law: a one party state that allowed no public or impartial
forum on the airing of grievances and no effective mechanisms for the
peaceful transition of power.
China under Deng
As the repression of democracy continued, millions also benefited from
economic reform (which was the priority) and became “unabashedly
materialistic”
As a lighthearted popular slogan put it, mocking the earlier Maoist inclination
to list categories of political behaviour by number, what you needed in China if
you were man nowadays were the “Three Highs” and the “Eight Bigs”; the
“Four Musts” were no longer enough.
The “Four Musts” that had set the outer limit of materialistic yearnings under
Maoism had been a bicycle, a radio, a watch and a sewing machine. IN the
new world of Deng Xiaoping they were replaced by the “Eight Bigs”: a colour
television, a refrigerator, a stereo, a camera, a motorcycle, a suit of furniture,
a washing machine and an electric fan.
As for the “Three Highs” those were what a man needed to get a wife: a high
salary, an advanced education, and height of over five feet six inches
Under Deng Xiaoping
● Return of Hong Kong → Perhaps no example of China’s new
international status was more striking than the accord it reached
with the UK over Hong Kong.
○ The PRC government made it clear that
they would not renew the lease on the New Territories in 1997
● Establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
● Modernisation of the PLA
○ In order to encourage the army to take an
“innovative role” in weapons and delivery systems,
the Chinese government allowed the PLA to sell its
weapons worldwide and to keep for its own use a
large proportion of any foreign currency obtained
through such deals
● E.g. Between 1984-87, China had
signed arms deals with Iran with $2.5
Billion and with Iraq for $1.5 Billion
● Other modernisation of the PLA included:
○ demobilisation of almost a quarter of the 4.2 million
members of the armed forces
○ 47,000 elderly officers forced into retirement
○ Restoration of insignia and rank and file
● (i.e. removal of Lin Biao Cultural
Revolution-era establishment of
egalitarianism in the PLA)
Tiananmen Square 1989
Issues with China
Despite the intense focus on modernising China’s, there were issues both
economic and social that led to the “dream of reforming China’s economy and
modernising the whole nation to disintegrate before people’s eyes” by 1989:
● Despite more employment opportunities created by increasing
demand from the emerging middle class, this also led to
inflation: 26% by the end of 1988
● Foreign investments were also no where near where the
government had hoped:
○ 1988: $47B of exports compared to $54B of
imports
● Rural AND urban workers were still worse off
○ The government was so short of cash, grain
procurement was paid in IOUs which couldn't even
be used to trade for essential fuel and foodstuffs.
Labour unrest in the cities wasn’t uncommon given
the harsh working conditions created by the new
breed of entrepreneurial managers.
 ● Corruption was still rife throughout the CCP → many of the
enterprises in the Special Economic Zones were run by the
children of senior party politicians labelled the “clique of heir
apartments” and the “princes”
● The One Child Policy was becoming difficult to enforce, placing
pressure on already high grain imports and fears of a poorly
educated generation: 230 Million people in China were defined
as illiterate given resistance to universal primary education
among parents and employers seeking cheap labour for their
enterprises.
● Even those in higher education suffered given government cost
cutting measures led to the dilapidation of college and university
facilities (dormitories, dining halls) making it near impossible for
students and professors to work effectively.
Before Tiananmen
Student protests had erupted across Hefei, Shanghai and Nanjing in
December 1986 and lasted until Jan 1987 → the protests were in response to
the rising cost of living, the perceived corruption within the government that
made it difficult for those on the outer to progress and calls for democracy: “no
democratisation, no modernisation”
The protests were easily quelled (by targeting those the students found most
inspirational including Fang Lizhi) but were used to purge significant members
of the CCP including Hu Yaobang who was blamed for the students unrest
This was Deng Xiaoping’s protege used to help secure his position as
preeminent leader of the CCP.
15 April 1989: Hu Yaobang died of a heart attack to which students at Peking
University called for protests to mourn his death → his purge from the CCP
had “left a bad taste in Chinese mouths” given the way Deng encouraged his
humiliating self-criticism upon his dismissal.
In effect, by mourning Hu’s death, the student protests were demanding a
reversal of the verdict against Hu and would also ensure the issues of
1986-87 and the Democracy Wall (1978-79) would be brought to the forefront
of China’s attention.
JAPAN
1868-1912
The Meiji Restoration
Japan’s modernisation during the Meiji Restoration following its forced
opening by the west was rapid and successful
Adoption of western ideas, technology and culture underpinned the
modernisation of Japan’s politics, economics, military, education, culture and
society between 1868 and 1912.
Japan’s modernisation laid the foundation for its emergence as a major global
plate rin the 20th century
Political Reforms:
- The restoration marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate,
restoring political power to the Emperor.
- A constitutional monarchy was established, with the Meiji
Constitution adopted in 1889. The Emperor became a symbolic
figurehead, and a parliamentary system was implemented.
Modernization and Industrialization:
- Japan underwent rapid modernization, actively adopting
Western technologies and industrial practices.
- The government played a central role in promoting industrial
development, encouraging entrepreneurship, and investing in
infrastructure.
Military Development:
- Recognizing the importance of a strong military, Japan invested
heavily in building a modern, Western-style armed forces.
- The military played a significant role in Japan's later imperialistic
expansion, including conflicts like the First Sino-Japanese War
(1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).
Educational Reforms:
- The government prioritises education to support modernization.
A national education system was established, emphasising
science, technology, and nationalism.
- Educational reforms aimed to create a skilled and disciplined
workforce to contribute to the nation's progress.
Economic Growth:
- Japan transitioned from an agrarian economy to a leading
industrial power.
- Policies promoting foreign investment, technological innovation,
and infrastructure development contributed to economic growth.
Cultural Transformation:
- The Meiji era witnessed a blending of traditional Japanese
culture with Western influences, known as bunmei kaika
(civilization and enlightenment).
- Western-style clothing, architecture, and art became popular,
reflecting the cultural shift.
Global Engagement:
- Japan abandoned its policy of isolation and engaged in
diplomatic relations with Western countries.
- Unequal treaties were renegotiated, ending Japan's status as a
closed nation and facilitating international trade.
Social Changes:
- The rigid class structure of the feudal era began to dissolve, and
social mobility increased.
- The rise of a middle class and the emergence of a more
meritocratic society were notable social changes.
Nationalism and Imperialism:
- The Meiji period fostered a strong sense of nationalism and
pride in Japanese identity.
- Japan pursued territorial expansion, acquiring territories like
Taiwan and Korea, setting the stage for later imperialistic
ambitions.
Impact on the 20th Century:
- The Meiji Restoration laid the foundation for Japan's emergence
as a major global player in the 20th century.
- Japan's industrial and military strength became evident during
World War II, and the post-war period saw Japan's
transformation into an economic powerhouse.
Source 1: Japanese government declaration to German government, 15
August 1914.
We consider it highly important and necessary in the present situation to take
measures to remove the causes of all disturbance of peace in the Far East,
and to safeguard general interests as contemplated in the agreement of
alliance between Japan and Great Britain. In order to secure firm and
enduring peace in Eastern Asia, the establishment of which is the aim of the
agreement, the Japanese government sincerely believes it to be its duty to
give advice to the German government to carry out the following two
propositions: To withdraw immediately from Japanese and Chinese waters the
German warships and armed vessels of all kinds, and to disarm at once those
which cannot be withdrawn.
To deliver on a date not later than September 15 to the Japanese authorities,
without condition or compensation, the entire leased territory of Jiaozhou with
a view to the eventual restoration of the same to China. The Japanese
government announces at the same time that in the event of its not receiving
by noon on August 23 an answer from the German government signifying
unconditional acceptance… Japan will be compelled to take such action as it
may deem necessary to meet the situation.
Source 2: Emperor Taisho, Japanese declaration of war on Germany, 23
August, 1914.
We, by the Grace of Heaven, Emperor of Japan, on the throne occupied by
the same dynasty from time immemorial, do hereby make the following
proclamation to Our loyal and brave subjects. We hereby declare war against
Germany and We command Our army and navy to carry out hostilities against
that Empire with all their strength… We on our part, have entertained hopes of
preserving the peace in the Far East by maintenance of strict neutrality, but
the action of Germany has at length compelled Great Britain, Our ally, to open
hostilities against that country, and Germany is at Jiaozhou, its leased territory
in China, busy with warlike preparation, while her armed vessels, cruising the
seas of Eastern Asia, are threatening Our commerce and that of our ally. The
peace of the Far East is thus in jeopardy.
Accordingly, Our Government, and that of his Britannic Majesty, after a full
and frank communication with each other, agrees to take such measures as
may be necessary for the protection of the general interests contemplated in
our Agreement of Alliance, and We on Our part, being desirous to attain that
object by peaceful means, commanded Our government to offer, with
sincerity, an advice to the Imperial German government. By the last day
appointed for the purpose, however, Our government failed to receive an
answer accepting their advice.
It is with profound regret that We, in spite of our ardent devotion to the cause
of peace, are thus compelled to declare war, especially at this early period of
our reign and we are in mourning for Our lamented Mother.
It is Our earnest wish that, by the loyalty and valour of Our faithful subjects,
peace may soon be restored and the glory of the Empire be enhanced.
21 Demands
GROUP I
The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, being desirous to
maintain the general peace in the Far East and to strengthen the relations of
amity and good neighbourhood existing between the two countries, agree to
the following articles:
- Article 1: The Chinese Government engage to give full assent to
all matters that the Japanese Government may hereafter agree
with the German Government respecting the disposition of all
the rights, interests and concessions, which, in virtue of treaties
or otherwise, Germany possesses vis-à-vis China in relation to
the province of Shantung.
- Article 2: The Chinese Government engages that, within the
province of Shantung or along its coast, no territory or island will
be ceded or leased to any other Power, under any pretext
whatsoever.
- Article 3: The Chinese Government agrees to Japan's building a
railway connecting Chefoo or Lungkow with the Kiaochow Tsi
Nan Fu Railway.
 - Article 4: The Chinese Government engages to open, of their
own accord, as soon as possible, certain important cities and
towns in the Province of Shantung for the residence and
commerce of foreigners. The places to be so opened shall be
decided upon in a separate agreement.
Group 1 Summary: Territorial
Japan is dictating what China is to do to keep the peace in the Far East
and strengthen the relationship between countries. The articles outline
what will happen to the province of Shandong, as Japan is requesting
that they be given exclusive control over the area and be granted the
ability to build a new railway.
GROUP II
The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, in view of the fact
that the Chinese Government has always recognized the predominant
position of Japan in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, agree to
the following articles:
- Article 1: The two contracting Parties mutually agree that the
terms of the lease of Port Arthur and Darien and the terms
respecting the South Manchuria Railway and the
Antung-Mukden Railway shall be extended to a further period of
99 years respectively.
- Article 2 : The Japanese subjects shall be permitted in South
Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia to lease or own land
required either for erecting buildings for various commercial and
industrial uses or for farming.
- Article 3: The Japanese subjects shall have liberty to enter,
reside, and travel in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner
Mongolia, and to carry on business of various kinds commercial,
industrial, and otherwise.
- Article 4: The Chinese Government grants to the Japanese
subjects the right of mining in South Manchuria and Eastern
Inner Mongolia. As regards the mines to be worked, they shall
be decided upon in a separate agreement.
- Article 5: The Chinese Government agree that the consent of
the Japanese Government shall be obtained in advance: (1)
whenever it is proposed to grant to other nationals the right of
constructing a railway or to obtain from other nationals the
supply of funds for constructing a railway in South Manchuria
and Eastern Inner Mongolia, and (2) whenever a loan is to be
made with any other Power, under security of the taxes of South
Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia.
- Article 6: The Chinese Government engages that whenever the
Chinese Government needs the service of political, financial, or
military advisers or instructors in South Manchuria or in Eastern
Inner Mongolia, Japan shall first be consulted.
- Article 7: The Chinese Government agrees that the control and
management of the Kirin-Chungchun Railway shall be hand- ed
over to Japan for a term of 99 years dating from the signing of
this treaty.
Group 2 Summary: Territorial
Japan is requesting China to come to a mutual acknowledgement of
Japan’s claims in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia. The
demands demand that Japan is able to construct and have control over
ports, railways, lease and own land, agricultural development, freedom
of travel to other areas, and mining. Japan states that China must get
Japanese approval before any political, financial or military issues.
China could only employ Japanese advisors
GROUP III
The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, having regard to
the close relations existing between Japanese capitalists and the
Han-Yeh-Ping Company and desiring to promote the common interests of the
two nations, agree to the following articles:
- Article 1: The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that when
the opportune moment arrives the Han-Yeh-Ping Company shall
be made a joint concern of the two nations, and that, without the
consent of the Japanese Government, the Chinese Government
shall not dispose or permit the Company to dispose of any right
or property of the Company.
- Article 2: The Chinese Government engage that, as a necessary
measure for protection of the invested interests of Japanese
capitalists, no mines in the neighbourhood of those owned by
the Han-Yeh-Ping Company shall be permitted, without the
consent of the said Company, to be worked by anyone other
than the Said Company; and further that whenever it is
proposed to take any other measure which may likely affect the
interests of the said Company directly or indirectly, the consent
of the said Company shall first be obtained.
Group 3 Summary: Economic
The Japanese sought joint control over the Chinese mining company,
Han-Yeh-Ping. They also wanted to forbid any further bids to expand
mining without Japanese approval. The articles highlight the way in
which Japan attempted to expand economic control over China.
GROUP IV
The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, with the object of
effectively preserving the territorial integrity of China, agree to the following
article: The Chinese Government engages not to cede or lease to any other
Power any harbour or bay on or any island along the coast of China.
Group 4 Summary
Japan demands that they acknowledge their territorial claim over the
coasts of China, and that their land not be given to any other power.
GROUP V
- Article 1: The Chinese Central Government to engage influential
Japanese as political, financial, and military advisers;
- Article 2: The Chinese Government to grant the Japanese
hospitals, temples, and schools in the interior of China the right
to own land;
- Article 3: In the face of many police disputes which have hitherto
arisen between Japan and China, causing no little annoyance
the police in localities (in China), where such arrangement: are
necessary, to be placed under joint Japanese and Chinese
administration, or Japanese to be employed in police office in
such localities, so as to help at the same time the improvement
of the Chinese Police Service;
- Article 4: China to obtain from Japan supply of a certain quantity
of arms, or to establish an arsenal in China under joint Japanese
and Chinese management and to be supplied with experts and
materials from Japan;
- Article 5: In order to help the development of the
Nanchang-Kiukiang Railway, with which Japanese capitalists are
so closely identified, and with due regard to the negotiations
which have been pending between Japan and China in relation
to the railway question in South China, China to agree to give to
Japan the right of constructing a railway to connect Wuchang
with the Kiukiang-Nanchang and Hangzhou and between
Nanchang and Chouchou;
- Article 6: In view of the relations between the Province of Fukien
and Formosa and of the agreement respecting the
non-alienation of that province, Japan to be consulted first
when- ever foreign capital is needed in connection with the
railways, mines, and harbour works (including dockyards) in the
Province of Fukien;
- Article 7: China to grant to Japanese subjects the right of
preaching in China.
Group 5 Summary
The articles discuss the power and control that China will give to Japan,
including taking Japanese citizens as advisors, free practice of
Japanese religion (Shinto), allowing Japanese to build their own
facilities (hospitals, schools, temples), allowing Japanese to join the
police force in joint control areas, build Japanese controlled railways,
and any foreign relations in Taiwan and Fujian be first approved by
Japanese. Overall the articles attempt to incorporate Japanese
individuals inside of China and provide Japan legal power to control the
area. The articles attempt to place the whole of China under their sphere
of influence.
Russo-Japanese War 1904-05
Success of Japan’s modernisation: Russia’s defeat to Japan in this conflict
was the first time in modern history a European nation had lost to an Asian
nation.
Japan’s success in its war against Japan led to increased recognition and
respect from Western powers, challenging the prevailing notion of Asian
inferiority.
Japan's modernisation and military prowess were acknowledged globally.
WW1
Anglo-Japanese Treaty (1902)
An alliance between the UK and Japan that outlined there would be no
interference if Japan involved itself in conflict around Korea and Britain would
support Japan in any conflict if it were attacked by two or more countries →
thereby checking Russian expansion
The treaty meant that Japan entered World War I on the side of the Allies in
1914. Its involvement in conflict revolved around the occupation of German
territories in Asia and the Pacific which it was successful in given the limited
resistance (see next slide)
In the interests of expanding into China, the Twenty One demands (1915)
were also made to China as part of taking advantage of the European conflict
The outcome of this treaty was ultimately that it damaged relations between
the US and Japan who were openly critical of Japan’s aggression in China
(but only because of their economic interests…)
The UK were also wary of their ally: a mixed reaction given the contributions
of the Japanese in the war but also their attempts to upset the status quo in
the region.
German territory pre-WWI:
Qingdao, China
Mariana Islands
Caroline Islands
Marshall Islands
 Paris Peace Conference wer Maintained status e alliance; attack; Lost
Given Japan’s contributions to the allied war effort in WWI, they expected Tre quo in Far East; Maintain western ally;
recognition of their contribution in the post-war conference at Versailles. aty Respect each stability in the Removed future
Specifically, they hoped for: other's rights in the Far East British influence in
Control over the territories they conquered from Germany (Shandong and region the region
Tsingtao in China and islands in the Pacific)
Fiv US, Britain, Restricted capital Prevent an Benefitted from the
The inclusion of a racial equality clause in the development of the League of e Japan, ship tonnages expensive treaty; Accepted
Nations: recognition that all races are equal Po France, (5:5:3:1.67:1.67); naval arms lower ratio terms;
wer Italy No new capital race; Avoid a Gained guarantee
Control over the territories they conquered from Germany Tre ships within the costly naval that no new naval
(Shandong and Tsingtao in China and islands in the Pacific) aty next decade for US, arms race; bases would be
Britain, Japan; Maintain built in the Pacific;
Territories in China and the Pacific came under Japanese administration
Prevent an stability Enhanced Japanese
expensive naval security
The inclusion of a racial equality clause in the Treaty of Versailles: recognition
arms race
that all races are equal
Despite countries voting in favour of the clause, rejection by the UK*, USA
and Australia ultimately meant that this clause was never included Nin US, Britain, All nations had Ensure equal
Think about the impact of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty, British colonies in e Japan, equal trading rights trading rights
Po France, with China; Not to with China;
Asia-Pacific , the 21 Demands, the White Australia policy and world order in
wer Italy, China, take advantage of Prevent taking
1919 when explaining why the racial equality was rejected
Tre Belgium, China's weak advantage of
aty Netherland position; Respect China's
Post Paris Japan s, Portugal China's neutrality in weakness;
any future conflict; Respect
Understandably, Japan was disappointed/incensed by the rejection of racial Upheld existing China's
equality. privileges in China neutrality;
Domestically, public opinion shifted towards Japan pursuing its own path in Uphold
Asia based on its own strength and traditions. existing
The rejection also confirmed beliefs that cooperation with the US and the privileges
West in general was perhaps not in Japan’s best interests.

WASHINGTON NAVAL CONFERENCE 1921-22

The Paris Peace conference had not resolved key issues and tensions in the
Far East. The US continued to be concerned about Japan’s influence in
China and wanted to ensure that all nations could trade equally in the region.
The US was also aware that should it engage in a conflict with Japan, under
the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Britain may be called on to support its Asian
ally.
However, Britain was also concerned about Japan’s growing influence in
China as a potential threat to its own position and was not committed to
renewing the treaty. It was also particularly alarmed at the potential of being
drawn into a conflict between the US and Japan.
These treaties collectively aimed to address geopolitical and naval issues in
the aftermath of World War I, with a focus on maintaining stability, preventing
an arms race, and promoting equitable trading rights in China. The specific
terms of each treaty reflected the respective interests and concerns of the
participating nations. The impact on Japan varied, with benefits such as
protection from potential attacks but also drawbacks like losing a Western ally
and future British influence in the region
1912: Taisho Democracy

The Japanese delegation had two key aims: to sign a naval agreement with
Britain and the US and to gain official recognition of its ‘special interests’ in
Manchuria and Mongolia. In addition, the Japanese wanted
acknowledgement of its control of Siberia and Tsingtao. Japan was also
worried by the increasing presence of US fleets in the Pacific.
JAPAN’S LIBERAL DEMOCRACY
Although the modernisation Japan experienced as part of the Meiji restoration
saw the installation of a Western style democracy, historians have debated
how liberal this democracy was given its structure and the role of certain
groups/individuals.

The US invited representatives of eight powers to a conference in Japan’s democracy has often been described as a limited liberal democracy
Washington, the US, China, Japan, France, Britain, Netherlands, Belgium, given the role of the emperor. His power was realistically limited to an
Italy and Portugal. advisory role.
Elected ministers were meant to listen to the emperor if he wanted something
Three key agreements were subsequently signed during the Washington done but could also be ignored.
Conference:
The emperor’s role was to select a prime minister to lead the parliament(Diet)
but was also advised by a group of elder statesmen known as the Genro:
senior politicians who were pivotal in the restoration of the Meiji emperor and
Tre Countries Specific terms Purpose/inten Comment re:Japan the government that formed after.
atie involved tion
s - The challenge of the liberal democracy in Japa was the simple
fact that the system constructed during the Meiji era contained
other groups or interested parties. They did not have direct
Fou US, Japan, Ended Remove Japan gained political power, but could wield their influence to obtain what
r Britain, Anglo-Japanese obligations of protection from they wanted.
Po France Alliance; Anglo-Japanes possible western - Dunwoodie (2020)

All of his statesmen, his privy council, inner minister and imperial household
ministry.

Taisho Crisis: 1912

Following the death of Emperor Meiji, Prime Minister Saionji attempted to cut
defence spending.
Fair decision given the increase in overseas investment and defence with little
credit or federal reserves to cover his spending.
ARMY MINISTER YUSAKU resigned in protest of this decision to cut
spending - other military generals also refused to replace Yusaku.

With reference to the source, assess the power of the Emperor in Japan
He does have power over the military and direct control over who becomes
the prime minister. These then have control over the cabinet and some fiscal
power. To an extent he has some minimal moral power over the diet.
Identify which figures could influence the Emperor in his decision making
The Meiji Constitution outlined that a general must serve as Army Minister but
one could not be ‘found’ - the refusal by others.
The government could not form and Saijoni resigned given his inability to form
a cabinet (December 1912).
Katsura was appointed PM by the emperor but was not a popular choice
given perceptions about his interests in the military over other affairs.
Instead of the mil;itary placing pressure on the government, the navy -
wanting more funding for the creation of battleships - threatened Katsura to
withhold the appointment as navy minister.
Katsura in response went directly to the emperor for aid who issued an edict
forcing the navy to appoint a minister.
The decision was viewed as undemocratic and protests broke out around
Tokyo - thousands of protesters rioted in Tokyo, the Diet building was
threatened, police stations were burnt down and pro government newspaper
offices were vandalised.
The aftermath of the edict saw Katsura losing a vote of no confidence, his
resignation on the 20th of February 1913 and his replacement by a former
navy admiral.
Factor Evidence of liberal values
Politic The Taisho Era marked a
s transformation in the
Japanese character,
embracing modernity and
Western influences. This is
evident in the emergence of
"mobo" and "moga" (modern
boy and modern girl) who
adopted Western fashion,
hairstyles, and openly
expressed their sexuality.
The relaxation of social
discipline outside politics,
especially among the young,
was characterised by the
popularity of dance halls and
Western-style cafes. This
shift was criticised by
traditionalists but reflected a
liberalisation of social
norms.
Wome Changes during the Meiji
n period had some positive
effects on women's lives,
especially in terms of
education. Women gained
equal access to schooling,
and a growing number were
employed in industrial
relations, marking progress
for women's rights.
Despite the challenges, an
active women's movement
emerged in the 1920s,
advocating for equality and
rights. The lifting of the ban
on women attending political
meetings in 1922 and the
involvement of women's
associations in protests
indicate a liberalising trend.
Educat The Meiji era reforms
ion exposed the Japanese
people to foreign influences
through education, bringing
new understandings of
democracy and philosophy.
Western ideas, including
Marxism and socialism,
gained popularity among the
population.
The embrace of socialist
ideals by a significant
portion of the population and
their desire for better labour
laws demonstrate a push for
progressive change and
social justice.
Econo The industrialization of
mics Japan brought benefits
similar to those experienced
in Western countries, with a
surge in production, new
resources, and trade
opportunities. However, this
also led to widening gaps
between different segments
of society, similar to the
effects of industrialization in
the West.
Worke Labour unions, such as the Conditions for Japanese
rs Yuaikai and the workers, both in agriculture
pro-Communist Nihon Rodo and factories, could be
Kumiai Hyogikai, sought to extremely harsh, similar to the
improve the conditions and Industrial Revolution in the
welfare of workers, reflecting West. The exploitation of child
a liberal desire for workers' labour and unsafe working
rights and collective action. conditions reflect a disregard
Despite the implementation for workers' well-being.
Evidence of the contrary of the Public Order and The implementation of laws,
Police Law of 1900 to such as the Public Order and
suppress organised labour Police Law of 1900, aimed at
The political institutions in movements, the persistence restricting labour movements
Japan, including the House of of labour unions and suppressing political
Peers and the Privy Council, demonstrates a resistance uprisings indicates a
were not subject to public to conservative restrictions conservative approach to
control. The military, oligarchs, on freedom of speech and maintaining order and
and the emperor held the right to strike. preventing challenges to the
significant power, indicating a existing power structure.
lack of liberal democratic
principles.
The rise of ultranationalism in Taisho Japan 1912-26
the 1920s reflected a
conservative backlash against Examine the timeline on pp 86-87, focusing on the Japan sections.
perceived betrayals of Divide the events into Political, Economic, Social.
tradition, and it led to the
suppression of socialist
movements. The roots of Political Economic Social
ultranationalism suggest a
resistance to liberal values.
Yoshihito becomes the Taisho Financial Striking shipyard
Emperor crisis hits workers earn
Great Kantō earthquake Japan concessions
Taisho Political Crisis U.S. stock Communist
First true party government market revolution in
Traditional views on family comes to power crashes; Russia; Soviet
and gender roles persisted, Peace Preservation Law beginning of Union established
with women still working in promulgated worldwide Civil war in Spain
agriculture and being subject Universal male suffrage granted Great Communist Long
to unequal treatment. Women Rice riots sweep Japan Depression March in China
were often underpaid, worked Twenty-one Demands Battle of May 15 Incident;
long hours, and were presented to China Midway Prime Minister
burdened with household Washington Conference limits Atomic Inukai
maintenance responsibilities. Japanese naval construction bombs assassinated
Limited access to political Immigration Act passed in the dropped on Kokutai no Horigi
organisations and the inability United States Hiroshima issued by Ministry
to vote until 1945 suggest a March First Movement in Korea and Nagasaki of Education
lack of full political May Fourth Movement in China Mussolini February 26 coup
empowerment for women Emperor Taisho dies; Hirohito becomes attempt
during this period. becomes the Showa Emperor Italian prime D-Day: Allied
Prince Hironito becomes regent minister; forces land in
Financial crisis hits Japan becomes France
Japanese invasion of Manchuria dictator Nazi leader Hitler
(Kwantung Army seizes Egyptian appointed German
Manchuria) independenc chancellor,
Invasion of China (Second e from Britain organised
Sino-Japanese War) Indian leader persecution of
The government, fearing the Nanking Massacre Gandhi Jews
influence of socialist and Japan withdraws from the launches Italians invade
communist ideas, took action League of Nations independenc Ethiopia
in 1925 to suppress these Tripartite Pact made with e movement Roosevelt dies,
ideologies, suggesting a Germany and Italy Truman becomes
conservative resistance to Pacific War with the United president
certain foreign influences. States Beginning of
Some segments of Japanese Battle of Midway worldwide Great
society advocated for a strong Atomic bombs dropped on Depression
military and nationalism as a Hiroshima and Nagasaki Mussolini becomes
countermeasure to growing Franklin Roosevelt elected U.S. Italian prime
socialist and communist president minister; becomes
threats, indicating a dictator
conservative response to the Egyptians become
challenges posed by liberal independent from
ideas. Britain
Indian leader
Gandhi launches
State policies during the early independence
Meiji period favoured movement
armaments, investment
goods, and exports over
consumption goods, keeping Read the information on pp 88-89.
the standard of living lower Using the information you gathered in questions 1 and the reading above,
than it might have been. This describe what Japan was like in 1912.
approach, sacrificing
traditional economic activities,
suggests a conservative Domestic issues in Taisho Japan
economic policy.
Political Economic Social
Dissatisfaction with the
government grew as the
post-war downturn led to
economic challenges,
resulting in protests and
violence. The government's
suppression of demonstrations
indicates a conservative
response to economic unrest.
 rising dissatisfaction and militarism felt throughout Japan.
Changes in the role Growth in industrial Challenges posed by
of the government in production, modernization to Kenseikai
promoting and particularly in the traditional Japanese The Kenseikai (Constitutional Politics Association) was the second of the two
supporting Zaibatsu modern sector of the beliefs and ways of dominant political parties in 1920s Japan. It was founded on 10 October 1916,
for rapid industrial economy. living. in direct opposition to the Seiyukai by the merger of Rikken Doshikai,
growth. Dominance of Emergence of a dual Chuseikai and some members of the Koyu Club. While the Seiyukai were
The impact of foreign powerful industrial economy, with both supported by the Mitsui Zaibatsu, the Kenseikai were supported by the
ideologies on how and commercial modern and Mitsubishi Zaibatsu.
Japanese viewed conglomerates, traditional sectors,
their role in society. Zaibatsu, and their affecting the Some historians have criticised the two political parties of Japan as being too
Shifts in population impact on economic population distribution similar in their approach to policies and laws, and concluded that they did not
distribution and the growth. and where people offer alternatives to the Japanese people. The Kenseikai did tend to promote
emergence of a dual Disparities in lived. laws regarding labour rights, while the Seiyukai focused on restricting the
economy influencing economic growth Growing diversity in number of union protests, strikes, or riots. When working together, both
government policies rates between Japanese society parties were able to make changes for Japan, such as in 1924, when the
and planning. different sectors of during the Taisho Kenseikai formed a majority government with the Seiyukai -the first of its kind
People seeking a the economy, with the period. in Japanese history-and passed policies recognising suffrage to all males
greater role in modern sector People demanding a aged 25 and over under the General Election Law.
shaping government experiencing more greater say in how
and economic rapid industrial their government and However, the coalition followed this with the last of the restrictive Peace
policies. growth. economy operated. Preservation Laws, which allowed for the arrest of Japanese citizens for
Government support protesting. The Showa Financial Crisis brought down this coalition and led to
Government's focus for Zaibatsu to Life in farm families the rebadging of the Kenseikai as the Minseito. As the Minseito, the party
on strengthening the promote during the first half of adopted plans to legalise workers' strikes, promote responsible economics,
nation through modernization and the 1900s, marked by balance budgets and respond to the demands of the Great Depression. The
industrial production strengthen the nation. poverty and Minseito focused on developing stronger international relations with both
rather than improving backbreaking work. China and the west, which angered many militarists and nationalists.
workers' welfare. Workers migrating to Migration of people
Government cities in search of from rural areas to
repression of unions, better economic cities in search of Seiyukai Similarities Kenseikai
passing laws opportunities. employment.
restricting union Factory work Workers' frustration
activities and strikes. conditions and and dissatisfaction Founded by Ito Founded on October Founded on October
Political ties between exploitation of labour leading to the Hirobumi 10, 1916 10, 1916
prominent politicians in industrial areas. formation of unions. Most powerful Supported by Supported by
and business leaders, Rapid population Social unrest and political party Mitsubishi Zaibatsu Mitsubishi Zaibatsu
hindering workers' growth and protests against the (1900-1921) Promoted laws Promoted laws
rights. competition for price of rice, with Policies focused on regarding labour regarding labour
Government factory jobs. millions falling into government control rights rights
admonitions to Formation of unions poverty. Close ties with Mitsui Opposition to Opposition to
sacrifice for the due to dissatisfaction Social impact of riots Zaibatsu Seiyukai and joint Seiyukai and joint
nation, leading to with working and protests, with Generally liberal, initiatives initiatives
public discontent. conditions and 700,000 people supporting Transformation into Transformation into
Government's use of wages. taking to the streets. democratic processes Minseito after Showa Minseito after Showa
the army to quell riots Government laws Image of the narikin Advocated for Financial Crisis Financial Crisis
and protests. restricting union (newly rich universal suffrage Legalisation of Legalisation of
Corruption in activities and businessman) and Political stances workers' strikes, workers' strikes,
government-business prohibiting strikes. discontent with the based on popularity responsible responsible
relationships, with The economic rich businessmen. and votes economics economics
politicians becoming disparity between the Bitterness and Opposition to Focus on stronger Focus on stronger
rich through unethical urban frustration among Kenseikai international relations international relations
practices. business/professional ordinary citizens Political attacks Angered militarists Angered militarists
Limited voting rights class and the rest of towards big business through the 1920s and nationalists and nationalists
and the push for the population. and political leaders. Connected to Japan's Response to Response to
universal manhood Government business elites demands of the Great demands of the Great
suffrage by unions. economic policies Some responsibility Depression Depression
Government's favouring Zaibatsu for decisions leading
attempts to and business growth, to militarism
manipulate the concentrating wealth
economy for the in a small urban
benefit of businesses class.
and the wealthy. Riots and protests
Public frustration with against the soaring
political leaders and price of rice and
the perceived economic hardships.
manipulation of the Widespread
economy for personal corruption in
profit. government-business
Satirical songs relationships, with
expressing frustration businessmen making
and bitterness campaign
towards big business contributions for
and political leaders. favourable policies.
Inflation and the
impact on the General Election Law 1925
standard of living for - Significantly influenced by political developments and the
many Japanese changing landscape in the aftermath of World War I.
citizens. - The law marked a milestone in Japanese political history,
introducing key changes to the electoral process.
- One of the significant provisions of the General Election Law
Kenseikai and Seyukai was the extension of suffrage rights. It allowed all males aged 25
Seiyukai and over to participate in general elections, contributing to a
The Seiyukai (Constitutional Association of Political Friendship), also known more inclusive democratic system.
as the Rikken Seiyukai, was one of two key political parties prominent in - Prior to this law, suffrage was limited, and the General Election
Japan following World War I. It was founded by Ito Hirobumi and became the Law of 1925 represented a move toward broader political
most powerful political party from 1900 to 1921, with policies focused on representation.
government control and grand public spending. - The enactment of the law had implications for the political
dynamics of the time, leading to new opportunities and
The Seiyukai had close ties with the Mitsui Zaibatsu, which created the challenges for political parties like Seiyukai and Kenseikai.
impression it was connected, if not directly controlled, by the 'elites' of Japan's - The law aimed to enhance democratic processes by allowing a
business world. Members of the party were generally liberal, supporting larger segment of the population to participate in shaping the
democratic processes and advocating for universal suffrage, but the Seiyukai political landscape.
was also a political party and justified its stances on what was popular and - The General Election Law of 1925 played a role in the political
would, therefore, secure votes. events of that era, influencing the strategies and platforms of
political parties as they sought to secure votes in the expanded
The party was regularly in opposition to the Kenseikai, and politically attacked electorate.
various policies and prime ministers through the 1920s. Seiyukai leaders - This legislative development was part of broader societal and
could be controversial and divisive figures, as was evident by the political changes in Japan during the early 20th century,
assassinations of Prime Ministers Hara Takashi and inukai Tsuyoshi. Some of reflecting a transition toward a more inclusive and participatory
these figures also bear responsibility for poor decisions which contributed to political system.
 - The law contributed to shaping the electoral framework and the
nature of political competition in Japan during a critical period in
its history, influencing the course of events leading up to and
during the Showa era.
The Peace Preservation Law
- Was a Japanese law enacted on April 22, 1925, with the aim of
allowing the Special Higher Police to more effectively suppress
alleged socialists and communists.
- In addition to criminalising forming an association with the aim of
altering the kokutai ("national essence") of Japan.
- The law also explicitly criminalised criticism of the system of
private property.
- Became the centrepiece of a broad apparatus of thought control
in Imperial Japan.
The Zaibatsu
Translates directly to ‘wealthy clique’.
They have their roots in the Meiji restoration - the government during the
restoration gave money to companies that contributed to the development of
Japan’s economy. Usually involved in industries that the government deems
important. The more businesses in these industries, the more they grow.
The Zaibatsu became incredibly wealthy quickly, especially during the War.
The Zaibatsu had control over, mining, metals, mechanical engineering,
electrical appliances, textile, paper, cement, glass, chemicals, shipbuilding,
shipping, foreign and domestic trade, banking and insurance. This position is
just before the wall street crash and great depression.
The Seiyukai party were influenced by the Mitsui Zaibatsu, the Kensekai were
influenced by the Mitsubishi.
In 1920, the influence on politics was significant and it was easy to see why
Japan thought that the government was corrupt and only interested in
protecting the interests of the rich.
What did the Zaibatsu influence on politics look like?
What evidence is there to suggest that the Zaibatsu were interested in the
growth of militarism?
What have historians said about this claim?
1. What did the Zaibatsu influence on politics look like?
The influence of the Zaibatsu on politics in Japan was substantial and
multifaceted. The Zaibatsu, such as Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, and others,
wielded significant economic power, and this translated into political influence.
The key aspects of their political influence included:
Feudalistic Relationships: The Zaibatsu maintained feudalistic relationships
within extended families, emphasising hierarchical structures between
superiors and subordinates.
Controlled Business Links: There were closely controlled links between
member firms within the Zaibatsu, creating a cohesive and interconnected
economic network.
Financial Power: Zaibatsu gained enormous influence by providing finance
through their banks, allowing them to support and manipulate various
economic activities.
Political Party Connections: Zaibatsu established links with the bureaucracy
and influenced political parties. This involvement included personnel from
Zaibatsu joining political parties, financial support for parties (especially during
election campaigns), and, at times, involving corrupt practices such as bribing
voters.
Military Connections: Families like Mitsui and Mitsubishi amassed wealth from
heavy industry supporting the growing defence sector. They manufactured
naval vessels and fighter aircraft, contributing significantly to Japan's war
economy during World War II.
Changes in Economic Policy: The Zaibatsu influenced economic policies, as
seen in the example of Mitsui's close connection with the Seiyukai party
leading to the decision to take Japan off the Gold Standard, which benefited
Mitsui.
Shifts in Party Affiliation: Over time, Zaibatsu changed their affiliations with
political parties, aligning themselves closely with specific parties like Seiyukai
and Kenseikai during the 1920s.
Negative Public Perception: The Zaibatsu's actions, such as manipulating
currency values for profit during the Great Depression, contributed to a
negative public perception of capitalists and their political allies.
2. What evidence is there to suggest that the Zaibatsu were interested in
the growth of militarism? What have historians said about this claim?
Wealth from Defense Sector: Zaibatsu, including Mitsubishi and Mitsui,
derived much of their wealth from heavy industry supporting a growing
defence sector. Manufacturing naval vessels and fighter aircraft during the
late 1930s contributed significantly to their prosperity.
Profitability of Military Actions: Militarism was seen as potentially profitable for
Zaibatsu, especially during times of war. World War I, for example, created
great wealth for the Zaibatsu in the defence sector.
Close Connections with the Military: Zaibatsu had close ties with the military,
as families like Mitsui and Mitsubishi played crucial roles in supporting the
military-industrial complex.
Reischauer and Craig: Historians Reischauer and Craig propose that Zaibatsu
favoured conservative democratic government over militarism in the 1920s.
They note that even in the 1930s, militarists often criticised the Zaibatsu.
Goto-Jones: Goto-Jones suggests that politically, the Zaibatsu seemed to
support military action due to its potential profitability. However, he also notes
that this is not a clear-cut conclusion, as there were instances where Zaibatsu
turned away from militarism or were actively turned away by the army.
- Political parties only appeared in Japan in the 1880s. Their
development was slow.
- Took over from the genro(oligarchs) after the Meiji restoration.
- Oligarchs had wanted conservative policies:
- Keep their own power
- Preserve the emperor's power
- NO democracy
- No free speech
- Political meetings are tightly controlled.
- Parties in power in the 80s demanded a constitutional
government
- The protection of civil rights
- Once they did have their constitution in 89, more parties
appeared. They were very fluid.
THE SEIYUKAI: the constitutional association of political friendship. It was the
most significant in the Diet between 1900 and 1921. They called for major
public spending. They called themselves liberal but in modern terms this
would be conservative. They opposed social reform programs and backed
bureaucratic controls, they supported the military as a vote winner.
THE KENSEIKAI/MINSEITO
Formed later, in 1916 when they combined with other groups. When they
formed they had the majority of seats in the diet BUT their party leader was
not given the prime minister position, it went to a general instead. They called
a vote of no confidence in him and new elections were called. THEY WOULD
NOT BE IN A POSITION TO TAKE GOVERNMENT CONTROL AGAIN FOR
ALMOST A DECADE. They supported domestic political reform and did not
want influence from the Genro. They promoted laws to support workers and
poor farmers with a moderate foreign policy of international cooperation.
Under them, universal male suffrage was introduced but they also had the
PEACE PRESERVATION LAW. They merged with another group in 27’ to
become the Minseito.
What was the government like?
Liberalism in its modified form seemed to take hold. It was encouraged by
Japan’s last surviving Genro; Saionji.
They had a generally conservative leaning with authoritarianism in its
bureaucracy but their groups did often join political parties.
They were elitist - even those who supported democracy. They did not want to
create a mass organisation. They did little to earn the respect of the public
and often had brawls in parliament.
Bribery and corruption still existed.
THE COMMUNIST PARTY
A smaller party was founded in 1922.. It was declared illegal from the start
with its opposition to the rule of the emperor seen as treachery.
Following the Kanto earthquake, rumours and conspiracy involving the
communists and koreans involved them planning a revolutionary government
spread. There was a mass round up of communists, anarchists and other left-
wing individuals.
Many were murdered and news of it did not leak until several weeks later with
the individuals responsible receiving minor punishment.
The Peace preservation Law targeted any who were guilty of dangerous
thoughts - was often used against communists.
Zaibatsu and Kenseikai
The leadership of the industrial movement following the Meiji Restoration
tended to come from the country’s old warrior class rather than their class of
merchants. The post 1868 oligarchs had sought to make business
respectable for ex-samurai and wanted leadership from them. They sought
and trusted men of their own kind:
- This is why they recruited ex-samurai into commerce, industry,
banking and foreign trade.
- Their values differed little.
- Following the restoration however, it was the government that
promoted and managed various industrial enterprises. They
then turned them over into a smaller number of private
companies.
Favoured companies became the ZAIBATSU
They had many business interests which made the country and its
government heavily reliant on them later.
This also gave them power.
They were reluctant to become directly involved in politics but they rivalled
one another and so had to pick oligarchs to represent them. Mitsui aligned
itself with Hirobumi(who wrote the constitution). Mitsubishi aligned with
Matsukata Masayoshi.
Once the Diet was established they had a vested interest in their legislation
which opened opportunities for bribery, corruption and threats.
- By the 1920’s there was limited economic activity that they did
not control or have a stake in.
- They controlled even more banking after the Kanto earthquake
in 1923.
- Their political influence also expanded as the parties became
attached to Zaibatsu money; there were few individuals innocent
of taking bribes. Corruption was widely regarded as ‘part of the
system’
- Profit was also made from military adventures. Military powers
were critical of them but willing to use their resources and
business.
Their activities in the 20s:
- The premiership of Hara(18-21): The Seiyukai was strongly
backed by the Mitsui. The Hara cabinet/Zaibatsu alliance was
 one of convenience instead of on moral grounds. They passed
pro-business legislation, able to shield it from attacks by
anti-capitalist elements in the army or otherwise. In the great
depression in 1920, they tried to rescue as many of the bankrupt
businesses as possible, powered by Mitsui taking them over.
- The Kato government: When the Kenseikai were in power, Kato
Takaaki and his foreign minister both linked my marriage to the
Iwasaki/Mitsubishi family. He separated the agriculture and
commerce ministry into 2 different ministries: this helped the
zaibatsu.
The Genro
The Genro were old bureaucrats that originated from significant Samurai
clans during the Meiji era.
Remember: during the Taisho era, they had an advisory role for the emperor
and were also significant in the role they played in selecting the leadership in
the Diet (technically the emperor who selected the PM but given the influence
of the Genro…)
There is a historical argument to be made that because of the role of the
Genro, Japanese democracy was not truly democratic during the 1920s.
But how much power did the Genro actually have?
Did they truly challenge the democratic institution in a significant way?
Read the source and answer the following questions:
1. Describe the role of the Genro (i.e. what did Genro do?)
2. Assess how powerful the Genro were in Japanese society
This is another evaluate type question where you need to make a judgement
based on evidence
Great Kanto Earthquake 1923
Summary: The Great Kanto Earthquake struck Japan on September 1, 1923,
with its epicentre in the Kanto region. It was a catastrophic event, measuring
7.9 on the Richter scale.
Outcome: The earthquake resulted in widespread destruction, fires, and the
loss of over 140,000 lives. The economic impact was significant, causing
turmoil in the affected areas.
Evaluation: This disaster prompted Japan to reevaluate its earthquake
preparedness and urban planning. It led to the development of improved
building codes and disaster response mechanisms.
General election laws 1925
Summary: In 1925, Japan introduced new general election laws to enhance
the electoral process. The goal was to improve representation and political
stability.
Outcome: The implementation of these laws contributed to increased political
stability. However, there was criticism for limiting certain freedoms and
creating an environment that favoured established political entities.
Evaluation: The general election laws of 1925 were a step towards a more
organised and stable political system in Japan, setting the groundwork for
future democratic developments.
Peace Preservation Law 1925
Summary: The Peace Preservation Law of 1925 was enacted to suppress
political dissent and maintain public order in Japan.
Outcome: The law increased government control over dissenting voices,
leading to a more authoritarian regime. It limited civil liberties and was
controversial for its impact on political freedoms.
Evaluation: Considered a precursor to Japan's militarization in the lead-up to
World War II, the Peace Preservation Law marked a shift towards increased
state control.
Showa Financial Crisis 1927
Summary: The Showa Financial Crisis of 1927 was an economic downturn
characterised by financial difficulties, bank failures, and a decline in economic
activity.
Outcome: The crisis resulted in increased poverty, unemployment, and social
unrest. Various sectors of the economy were severely affected.
Evaluation: Government interventions were implemented to stabilise the
economy, but the crisis persisted, revealing vulnerabilities in Japan's financial
system.
Mass Arrest of Communists 1928
Summary: In 1928, the Japanese government initiated a mass arrest
campaign targeting communist activities and individuals associated with leftist
movements.
Outcome: The crackdown led to the suppression of communist movements,
with many activists arrested and political repression intensifying.
Evaluation: The mass arrests were criticised for human rights violations and
political persecution. It reflected the government's efforts to suppress
dissenting ideologies during a period of increasing authoritarianism.
Militarism
“Should maintain a strong capability and use it aggressively to expand
national interests” - strong military = strong country.
History with the Samurai tradition MAYBE contributed to militarism. Country
ultranationalism
Japan was also not spared from the great depression - imports and exports
were affected badly, in turn employment and wages were also affected. While
some areas were spared, others like farming were devastated.
Government policies(the Seiyukai were reelected in 1932) - in particular,
detaching the yen from the gold standard - saw Japan return to
pre-depression economic levels.
Relative to other countries impacted by the depression, Japan was able to
weather the Depression and recovered its economy by 1932. THERE WERE
STILL CONSEQUENCES.
This does not necessarily mean Japan went through the Depression
consequence free…
The economic impacts of the Great Depression on Japan
were significant and multifaceted, with varying perspectives
on the severity of the downturn. According to Fletcher (2005),
the domestic context in Japan experienced a downturn that, in
some aspects, was less severe than the recession following
World War I. Wholesale prices in Japan declined by 36
percent from 1929 to 1931, which was not as steep as the 41
percent drop from March 1920 to April 1921. Additionally, the
bottom of the Great Depression period in Japan occurred
earliest in 1930, distinguishing it from the experiences of the
United States and European nations.
Huffman (2010) notes that the New York stock market crash
in October 1929 triggered a significant decline in Japan's
economy, which had already stagnated in the late 1920s.
Over the next few years, foreign firms reduced their
purchases of Japanese goods, leading to a 40 percent drop in
exports to the United States and a 50 percent decrease in
exports to China by 1931. The country's Gross National
Product (GNP) fell by 18 percent during this period,
accompanied by severe personal costs, including over a
million unemployed workers, labour violence, and a surge in
bankruptcies. Rural areas were particularly affected, with
declining markets, crop failures in 1931 and 1934, and
widespread unemployment, making it difficult for people to
afford food and pay rents.
Dore (2014) emphasises the severity of the depression in
rural areas, where prices of agricultural crops, especially rice,
fell by 30-40 percent. Urban areas faced similarly challenging
conditions, with layoffs, bankruptcies among merchants, and
a recession affecting various industries. Although accurate
unemployment figures are unavailable, the recession was
characterised by major price collapses and deficit-running
operations across industries.
Allen (1981) highlights the deterioration in real wages,
particularly for men in light industries and women, especially
those in textiles. Real wages in cotton spinning and silk
reeling were scarcely 70 percent of those in 1929 by 1936.
Professor Uyeda's observations on real wages suggest that,
after 1931, earnings did not increase sufficiently to
compensate for the rising cost of living, resulting in an
average decline in real wages. Overall, the Great Depression
had profound and widespread economic consequences for
Japan, affecting both urban and rural areas, industries, and
individual livelihoods.
Farmers were extremely dissatisfied with government policies to address their
struggles. The hardship in rural communities led to starvation, poverty and
mass suicide. This anger was felt within the capital as the militarists, who
often recruited from rural areas, complained about the plight of the country.
The military regarded aggressive foreign policy, particularly in China, as a key
to fixing many of the issues felt in the countryside. Further territorial expansion
would open new markets for trade, bring greater resources (including food)
and wealth, and allow for an increase in the standard of living. Of course, this
came at the expense of other cultures, but they reasoned that this was no
different from what European powers had done. Finally, stronger military
action would place greater power in the hands of the military, and not the
political figures who were regarded as too western, and corrupt.
During the Depression, the government was not able to deal with the
agricultural challenges associated with falling prices, which led to anger in the
agrarian sector, particularly among the poor. It also led to greater nationalism
as those in the military, many of whom came from poor areas, sought power
to influence policy and bring relief. This dissatisfaction was exacerbated by a
sense that both political parties acted only in their own interests, or for the
zaibatsu - it was also exacerbated by the levels of corruption and scandal in
the governments through the 1920s.
Both parties failed to address societal pressures which were developing in the
wake of the Great Kanto Earthquake. There was a sense that this 'divine act'
was a judgement on Japan for abandoning its traditional values, culture and
ancestors, in favour of westernisation and materialism.
Foreigners became targets for attacks, like the Koreans in the wake of the
earthquake, and patriotic societies developed which aimed to attack the
democratic government in order to return to traditional ways.
While it is true that Japan did not suffer as badly compared to their European
counterparts, it did have a major impact on the political system.
Specifically, economic hardship led to increased nationalism which in turn
increased militarism
The most important outcome of the Great Depression was the chain of events
that led to the end of the parliamentary system
The Kwantung Army
While the 1920s were mostly peaceful, there were growing ultranationalist
sentiments that believed that Japan’s position as Asia’s power was a religious
birthright
There were some ultranationalists who believed that if the democratic
government could not achieve this for Japan, they were not fit to rule and
should be removed from power - violently if necessary
The Kwantung Army was formed in 1919 and was based in Port Arthur at a
size of around 100,000.
This military force was filled with men who did not respect the democratic
process and were willing to do whatever they saw as necessary for Japan
London Naval Conference 1930
Remember: Washington Naval Conference 1921-22 outlined Japan’s
comparative naval tonnage against the US and UK → 5:5:3
This meant for every 5 tonnes of naval power the US/UK were allowed, Japan
was only allowed 3
But remember: Japan was a very different country in 1930 compared to
1921-22.
How do you think the militarists and ultranationalists felt about this ratio?
Japan was unsuccessful in negotiating a new ratio in London which the
militarists were furious with - they saw this as a direct limitation of their power
Remember: Japan was meant to be the power in Asia according to these
people
Prime Minister Hamaguchi was assassinated for his role in the acceptance
and negotiation through the Diet of the conference outcome
The event showed the significance of militarism in Japan and its influence
over liberal democracy.
WW2
Second Sino-Japanese War
By 1936, much of northern China was under Japanese control either directly
by its army or indirectly through established puppet states
Read pages 65-66 of Dailey to see developments in China post-Manchurian
Incident
Despite Japan’s growing encroachment in China, Chiang Kai-Shek was still
more interested in eliminating the Communist threat
Following the Xian incident (Chiang Kai-Shek arrested by Zhang Xuelin),
Chiang was finally convinced to address Japanese presence in China and the
Second United Front was established as a result.
Marco Polo Bridge Incident - July 1937
July 7: Japanese troops on a night manoeuvre fired blanks to simulate combat
conditions near the Marco Polo Bridge → 10km west of Peking (Beijing) .
Chinese troops in response fired shells into the area WITHOUT causing any
casualties
Following the incident, one Japanese soldier was missing from roll call and on
the assumption that the Chinese had captured the man, the Japanese
ordered the attack on Wanping
The Chinese repelled the attack, but this incident marked the beginning of the
Second Sino-Japanese War (and by extension the first in WWII)
The creation of Manchukuo and subsequent instalment of Qing Emperor Puyi
in February 1932 was an insult to China, and therefore, minor clashes along
railways on the Manchukuo border continued after the 1933 Tanggu peace
agreement. Furthermore, Japan was increasing its expansionist ambitions in
the Pacific, and thus needed a steady inflow of raw materials. These factors
combined in increasing Japanese hostilities and ambitions for conquest of
China. There was a rising sense of nationalism in China and Japan, evident in
Japanese PM Konoe proclamation of a New East Asian Order with Japan at
the forefront and the increased mobilisation seen under Chiang Kai Shek in
China. Hence, friction surfaced in Sino-Japanese relations.
The Japanese were also alarmed at Chinese amalgamation, with the second
united front being formed in 1936 and the Xi’an incident occurring that same
year. They sought to curb this growing unity by re-opening hostilities.
Incident
- The 7th of July 1937, a missing soldier was reported in the
Japanese army, which led to Japanese accusations that the
Chinese had kidnapped him.
- The Japanese demanded that they were allowed to cross and
search for the missing soldier, yet the Chinese refused. Shots
ended up being fired, and both nations reinforced their positions
the 8th of July.
- The engagement lasted until 11th July and resulted in a
Japanese victory.
- Japanese PM Konoe thus ordered a full scale invasion of China.
Short Term
300 + Chinese soldiers were killed.
The short term impact of the incident was the resulting battle of
Beiping-Tianjin, starting at the end of July and ending the 18th of August 1937
with a Japanese victory.
It also led to international condemnation of Japan.
Long Term
The long term impact was the outbreak of the second Sino-Japanese war
(1937-1945).
Worsening relations between Japan and the West.
Response
USA
The US responded by ceasing diplomatic efforts with Japan, implementing a
full embargo on Japanese goods and supplying China with resources.
The US also froze all Japanese assets in US banks.
Japan
After the incident, Japan's government demanded an apology, this was
refused by Chiang Kai-Shek.
Thus, the Japanese response was a full fledged invasion of nationalist China,
diverting the majority of their military resources and personnel to China and
resultantly occupying the Shandong peninsula in less than a month.
China
The Chinese nationalist government proclaimed a mass conscription, with
their army numbers reaching as high as 3.8 million in 1941.
They also counter-attacked, with a bombing run over Japanese controlled
areas of Shanghai 13th of August 1937.
The Double seventh incident ultimately led to the start of the second
Sino-Japanese war, and fueled Japanese expansionism. The war would
cause mass devastation across China, and resultantly Japan would be
condemned by western nations, further exacerbating the strained relations
between Japan and nations such as the US. Some historians even consider
1937 as the start of WW2, as it was the prelude to a global conflict and led to
conflict between the US and Japan, historian Robert Frank stating that “The
war began here, in Asia”.
Battle of Shanghai 1937
Brief description of the event
Japanese forces rapidly advanced southward, aiming to capture Shanghai
and extend their control. On August 13, Japanese forces initiated a full-scale
invasion of Shanghai, encountering determined Chinese resistance. It was
‘street-to-street’ fighting with the city's dense population, buildings, and
intricate alleyways, which meant that they had to use guerrilla warfare and
house-to-house fighting. Eventually, around 1 million troops fought.
The first part of the battle involved street fighting and air assistance, the
second involved a Chinese military blockade of Jiangyin: another port city.
The third phase involved the full Japanese landing and combat and then
finally, the stalemate.
When the battle reached a stalemate with both sides suffering heavy
casualties, and no real decisive advantage, the Chinese government
eventually decided to withdraw its forces to preserve its military strength for
future engagements.
They retreated and many soldiers went to Nanjing, still fighting the Japanese
troops as they retreated.
Outline of the events leading up to specific turning point
Marco Polo Bridge Incident: The skirmish near Beijing leading to the
escalation of tension between the two countries; causes Second
Sino-Japanese War, with fighting across China. Japanese forces moved
southward, capturing key cities like Nanjing in their advancement(Sashimi
warfare).
Also, Shanghai was a major economic and industrial centre, making it a
strategic target for Japanese forces. Controlling Shanghai would provide
Japan with a vital port and access to key resources in the region.
After the ‘Oyama’ incident where a Japanese officer was killed by Chinese
troops, the Japanese began sending in reinforcements to Shanghai. Chinese
troops were also being deployed to the Shanghai area beginning on 11
August.
Short/Long Term Impacts
SHORT
Was the first of the twenty-two major engagements fought.
James Paulose: the Japanese suffered 92,640 casualties and the Chinese
suffered over 333,500 casualties, for a combined total of at least 426,140
casualties.
Bought enough time for the Chinese government to move some of its vital
industries to Wuhan and Xi'an, and from there to Chongqing
LONG
Even though Shanghai fell and China lost a significant portion of its best
troops, the time that the fall took surprised the Japanese forces. They had
been made to believe that their ‘cultural and martial superiority’ would enable
them to take Shanghai in days - especially with China’s troops using smaller
guns and with less manpower. The battle demotivated the Japanese.
Chiang Kai-shek's strategy of trading "space for time" proved effective in the
long term. While the Battle of Shanghai resulted in irreparable Chinese
losses, the strategy delayed the Japanese advance, preventing them from
cutting directly into Central China.
The heavy casualties inflicted on Chiang's own military strength forced him to
rely more on non-Whampoa generals, who commanded the provincial armies
and many of whom had questionable loyalty to Chiang.
 Japan: Continued bombing attacks in Chongqing in hopes to destroy Chinese
morale
China Japan OTHER
The Bombing of Chongqing was a turning point in the war as it showed how
Chinese morale was able to withstand hundreds of air raids from the
Chinese army holding Japanese forces On 12 August, representatives
Japanese which killed 15,000 people. The Japanese would give up after
onto Shanghai, hoping making significant from the United Kingdom,
for Western gains in Shanghai. France, United States and Italy December 1944 on where they would eventually surrender to allies in 1945,
intervention. Chiang Dachang falls on along with Japan and China ending the second world war.
Kai-shek orders troops Oct 26, and the participated in the joint
to fight fiercely to gain Chinese withdraw conference held in Shanghai to Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere 1938
international sympathy. from metropolitan discuss the ceasefire terms. The Dark Valley
Formal complaint to Shanghai. Chiang Japan demanded the Wartime Japan has often been depicted as a “dark valley” in which the
League of Nations on Kai-shek orders withdrawal of Chinese troops
government and military actively manipulated information and values so as to
Sep 12. The League's troops to stay in from Shanghai, while the
response was limited, Shanghai for the Chinese representative Yu achieve mass conformity and unquestioning obedience among its imperial
with the United States upcoming Nine Hung-chun dismissed the subjects. With the assassination of Prime Minister Inukai in 1932 by League of
showing more Power Treaty Japanese demand, stating that Blood radicals, party politics had effectively come to an end in Japan → Inukai
willingness to act. Conference. the terms of ceasefire have had come to office with an attempt to temper the army and navy’s influence in
Roosevelt's Quarantine Despite facing dire already been violated by Japan. national affairs/politics. Following failed coups in 1933 and 1934, Admiral
Speech boosts China's circumstances, Saito was appointed prime minister in an attempt to control the instability →
morale. Nine Power Chinese troops Shanghai had an international
members of the armed forces followed in taking civil service posts and foreign
Treaty Conference make a final stand zone that housed foreign
convenes, involving the in Shanghai. nationals and businesses. This affairs related to Manchukuo.
United States in efforts area became a focal point of
to curb Japanese the conflict, with foreign Following the failed coup of 26th February 1936, the army was purged, united
aggression. interests at risk. with government and foreign affairs coming under control of the army -
everyone in the cabinet was on active duty and there were no party men left.
League of Nations unable to
“The trend towards totalitarian society was unmistakable, but unlike Germany
impose effective sanctions.
Great Britain and France were and Italy, no organised mass totalitarian movement emerged. As this
hesitant to challenge Japan. movement came in small steps with no radical change it appeared to be less
Roosevelt's Quarantine Speech confrontational than Nazi Germany and more moderate. The army had
has a positive impact on portrayed itself as being more suitable to achieve the imperial will”
Chinese morale. The Nine
Power Treaty Conference Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
involves the United States.
Western powers in session
while Chinese troops make 1935 propaganda poster of Manchukuo promoting harmony between
their last stand in Shanghai, Japanese, Chinese, and Manchu. The caption from right to left says: "With the
hoping for intervention. help of Japan, China, and Manchukuo, the world can be at peace." The flags
shown are, right to left: the "Five Races Under One Union" flag of China, the
flag of Japan, and the flag of Manchukuo.

Justification of significance as a turning point in the war

The battle strategically delayed the Japanese advance, providing essential
time for relocating vital industries from Shanghai to Chongqing, sustaining
China's war effort. It also prevented Japan from directly invading Central
China, allowing the Chinese government to regroup and fortify their defences,
and it was a significant shift towards a more resilient and nationalistic
approach by China.
Also, it was significant because it drew international attention, and gained
China some sympathy if no action was taken.
China's strategy of war of attrition was affected because of the damage to
Shanghai’s wartime industrial capacity.

Bombing of Chongqing 1938

The Bombing of Chongqing were bombing campaigns conducted by the
Japanese air force in the city of Chongqing from 1938 to 1944.
Following the outbreak of the Second Sino Japanese War, the Nationalist
government was losing badly as they continued to lose important cities during
the Japanese conquest.
After the Japanese had taken the cities of Shanghai, Beijing, Nanjing and
Wuhan, Chiang Kai-Shek’s government relocated to Chongqing. The city was
surrounded by treacherous terrain which made it difficult for the Imperial army
to invade. With this, the Japanese hoped to topple the Nationalist government
by destroying the morale of the people of Chongqing with bombings.
Anti-Comintern Pact 1936
December 1936:
The first bombing attack was launched on December 26, 1938 and was
Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany and Italy - aimed to stop
followed by several more over the next month. However, none of the attacks
the spread of Communism but in reality, was an alliance aimed squarely at the
proved effective due to the poor weather. In 1939, the Japanese launched
USSR
operation 100 with the intention to bomb the Chinese people into submission
This was in fact the Japanese army that negotiated the terms and not the
which resulted in devastating bombings of the city and thousands of deaths.
foreign office
With the frequent bombings of the city from 1938-1944, thousands of private
August 1939:
and public bomb shelters were constructed which were able to house over
Given the concern towards Communism in Japan, the Molotov-Ribbentrop
400,000 people. The public would spend plenty of time in the shelters over the
Pact in 1939 was seen as a betrayal to Japan which resulted in Japan
next few years. The last raid was launched in December 1944, which still
declaring neutrality in the European conflict
failed to destroy Chinese morale. Throughout the 6 years of bombings, the
Japanese dropped 22,000 bombs, killed 15,000 people and conducted over
Tripartite Pact 1940
200 air raids.
Given Nazi Germany’s success in the initial years of the war, Tokyo
interpreted the situation in Europe as proof of the fundamental weakness in
Short term:
western democracies and concluded that the situation should be exploited by
The death of 15,000 people from the bombings
seeking a closer relationship with Berlin. Hitler would also mutually benefit
The destruction of Chongqing
from a relationship with Tokyo given his concerns about raw materials and
Long term:
food and his plans to invade the USSR.
Failure of the Japanese army to destroy Chinese morale
Economic sanctions made to Japan from the west
27 September 1940:
The Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin between foreign ministers from
Reactions
Germany, Italy and Japan in the presence of Hitler
US: Imposing of economic sanctions to Japan
Read the terms of the Tripartite Pact
China: Construction of thousands of bomb shelters + Mobilising the air force
to defend the Japanese attacks
The purpose of the Pact, directed against an unnamed power presumed to be
the United States, was to deter that power from supporting Britain, thereby not
only strengthening Germany's and Italy's cause in the North African Campaign
and the Mediterranean theatre, but also weakening British colonies in
South-East Asia in advance of a Japanese invasion. The treaty stated that the
three countries would respect each other's "leadership" in their respective
spheres of influence, and would assist each other if attacked by an outside
party. However, already-ongoing conflicts, as of the signing of the Pact, were
explicitly excluded. With this defensive terminology, aggression on the part of
a member state toward a non-member state would result in no obligations
under the Pact. These limitations can be interpreted as a symptom of the
German-Japanese relations of that time being driven by mutual self-interest,
underpinned by the shared militarist, expansionist and nationalistic ideologies
of their respective governments.
To strike south however, the Japanese knew they would have to remove the
only viable threat: the Americans at Pearl Harbour (the British weren’t
considered a threat given their preoccupation with the European theatre).
The Japanese never believed they could knock the Americans out of the war
given the size of their war economy (USA had given $1Billion in aid to USSR
in response to Operation Barbarossa)
However, they did believe they could delay their entry into a Pacific conflict by
two years
This would be enough time to conquer South-East Asia without American
intervention and then they could negotiate from a position of strength
Aims
Delay American entry by two years by:

Trade Embargos Main aims Peripheral aims

US Embargo
USA
Despite USA’s traditional isolationism, the invasion of Poland by Nazi
Germany did see them support the allies through programs like Lend Lease - Destroy US aircraft carriers. A restoration of pride in the
lending or leasing arms and supplies to the British and Chinese while still navy (similar to their defeat
avoiding direct intervention of Russia in 1905)
(Roosevelt’s “short of war” policy. 1940 election promises were also of not Attack submarine bases and oil
sending Americans to war) reserves.

Japan’s actions in Asia-Pacific by 1940 however did worry the Americans Destroy the Pacific fleet. Reaffirm racial pride of the
which led to diplomats from both countries attempting to negotiate a peaceful Japanese
solution in the Pacific
Destroy the Naval base to the extent
Events like the invasion of Manchuria (1931), Second-Sino Japanese War that the Americans would have to move
(1937) and Rape of Nanking (1937) turned public opinion in the US against it to the West coast.
Japan.
Ultimately, the biggest concern for the US was Japan’s invasion of China
violating the economic Open Door Policy which dictated the protection of
equal privileges for all countries trading with China Achieve surprise, but not before a
formal declaration of war.
Japan’s concerns were about increasing their influence in the Asia-Pacific
region for both economic and ideological reasons.
Given the growth in these tensions Admiral Yamamoto saw the possibility of
Successes:
war occuring with the US in the Asia-Pacific region

Given the growth in these tensions Admiral Yamamoto saw the possibility of
war occuring with the US in the Asia-Pacific region
July 1940: US embargoed the export of aviation fuel to Japan
September 1940: US embargoed the export of iron and steel to Japan
Embargoes on these resources were not crippling - the US still exported oil to
Japan

Indo-China 1940-41
By 1940, Chiang Kai Sheck had moved his nationalist government/capital to
Chongqing and was being supplied from the US along the Burma road.
Japan asked Germany to encourage Vichy France to allow Japan to occupy
the northern part of Indochina to cut off the Chinese supply line with
permission granted.

Japan signed a nonaggression pact with the USSR. Neutralising any Soviet
threat meant that Japan could fully occupy French-Indo China without threat
of invasion by the USSR. The French were preoccupied by the European
conflict and did not have the resources to protect its colony.
Indochina was also a vital supply of oil and rubber.
July 1941: 40,000 Japanese troops occupied the rest of
Vietnam.

Pearl Harbour

Territory Gained

Territory Brief Methods Reason Reasons Reasons

gained descripti used s for for for Japan’s
on success Japan’s success
success (Allied
(Japan failures)
military)

Motives
Remember: The Japanese knew that they could not continue their war in Philippin -8 - Bombing - Strategic Inadequate
es December of an America planning, defences,
China without vital resources being embargoed by the US and Allies → the
Decembe 1941, American n forces swift underestima
prospect was clear: withdraw from China and lose face or strike south for r 1941 - Gen. air base in helpless amphibiou ting the
natural resources and continue the war. Douglas Luzon as s assaults Japanese,
The Hull Note (Nov 1941): USA’s final proposal delivered to Japan re: MacArthur bombers and Arthur
Asia-Pacific → See page 84 of Daily for terms - - Surprise and coordinate Percival:
 Factors to consider in Allied defeat/Japanese success in Malaya:
Withdraw attack fighters d air and misallocatio
al to Java were ground n of troops. Bicycle Blitzkrieg - Malaya’s jungle terrain meant impact on motorised vehicles
due to the parked attacks,
lack air to refuel highly The Allies → bicycles allowed Japanese troops to move quickly and silently along
cover which motivated military were narrow roads and jungle trails. (They still utilised light tanks)
- 76,000 made + unprepared, The Allied forces in contrast were underprepared and under-resourced →
troops in them supposed caught off Arthur Percival had little air support and artillery to repel the Japanese attack
Bataan vulnerabl racial guard by on Singapore on the 8th of Feb 1942
surrender e superiority Japanese
ed, forced . surprise
31 Jan 1942:
to a Death - Allies attacks
March, 8 unprepar The (airplanes A 70ft hole was blown in the causeway after the last of Allied troops retreated
May 1942 ed Japanese vulnerably across into Singapore. 70ft is 21m…
military parked).
- were The military
Japanes better lacked
e air prepared. investment
superiorit Surprise due to their
y attacks involvement
were well in the
planned European
(Luzon, war (Nazi
Malaya Java). The Germany
February army was occupied
1942 quick and Netherlands
organised ).They did
in their not have as
Singapor Arthur Surprise The
assault to many naval
e Percival attack and allied
take ships or
February Yamashit crossing resource
different army as the
1942 a the Malay s were
parts of Japanese
Two peninsula spread
the did.
Weeks through a too 5 February 1942:
countries,
supposedly much.
and did The Japanese attacked Pulau Ubin drawing Allied forces East
impenetrabl
not allow 8-9 February 1942: Japanese forces landed in NW Singapore
e jungle. The
the Allies 15 Feb 1942:
Japanes
to react
Propagand e had Japanese engineers repaired the damage allowing Japanese troops to march
quickly
a to destroy strategic into Singapore
enough.
civilian strength LT GEN Arthur Percival and LTGEN Yamashita met at the Fort Factory in
The
morale. over Bukit Timah and signed Britain’s surrender in Singapore - the largest in British
Japanese
them
had military history
Air raids, despite
military
amphibious being
superiority During the Japanese occupation of Singapore, which they called Syonan-To,
assaults, made of
over the
and land numbers life underwent drastic changes for the local population. Nipponisation, or the
allies as
invasions. half their process of imposing Japanese culture and ideology, was one aspect that
their entire
size. profoundly influenced daily life. Under this policy, the Japanese authorities
war effort
was sought to assimilate the local population into Japanese culture, language, and
Winston
focused customs.
Churchill
on South
had
East Asia.
restricted One example of Nipponisation was the enforcement of the Japanese
the language in schools and official documents. Japanese became a compulsory
money subject in schools, and signs, posters, and public announcements were often
being in Japanese rather than the local languages of Malay, Chinese, or English.
spent to
This forced assimilation aimed to erase the local identity and replace it with a
fortify
Singapor Japanese one.
e.
Moreover, Japanese cultural practices and ceremonies were imposed on the
population. People were required to bow to Japanese soldiers and authorities
Dutch - The - - Lack of
East Dutch Destruction Dutch as a sign of respect. Failure to comply often resulted in severe punishments
Indies declared of the investme or even death.
March war on entire nt
1942 Japan Dutch fleet, (troops + Another aspect of life under Japanese occupation was the implementation of
after Pearl Navy equipme Operation Sook Ching, which means "purge through purification" in Chinese.
Harbour bombing nt) due This was a brutal massacre carried out by the Japanese military against
(Battle of to
suspected anti-Japanese elements among the Chinese population in
- Started Java, 28 Europea
in 10 February n war Singapore.
January 1942)
1942 - Rapid Operation Sook Ching aimed to eliminate potential resistance and assert
- - Japanes control over the local populace. Changi Beach became infamous as one of
Surrender Encouragin e the sites where thousands of Chinese men were rounded up, interrogated,
ed 8 g the locals invasion, and often executed by the Japanese military. Families were torn apart, and
March to take the Island
1942 fight hopping many innocent civilians lost their lives during this operation.
against the
Oil and Dutch. - Military The intention behind Operation Sook Ching was to instil fear and subjugate
natural Fairly superiorit the local population, as well as to send a clear message of Japanese
resources successful y dominance and ruthlessness. It served as a brutal reminder of the
needed as the consequences of opposing Japanese rule and contributed to the atmosphere
by the Indonesian
of terror and oppression that characterised life under Japanese occupation in
Japanese s gave the
to Japanese Singapore.
continue key
their war information Midway
effort about Within 6 months of the Pearl Harbour attacks, Japan had conquered
Dutch thousands of square kilometres of territory and brought more than 140 million
locations or people under control
information
This was the peak of the Japanese expansion in June 1942
Despite the rapid and impressive expansion by the Japanese, there were
clear external and internal problems which Japan was facing:
The Fall of Singapore
Malayan Campaign: December 8 1941
By February 1942, the Japanese were successful in conquering the Malayan External Internal
peninsula and were looking to force British Surrender in Singapore.

With its newly conquered territory,
Japan had to manage more than
6000 km of supply lines over land
and sea. The land and sea empire
which it had conquered was made
up of 140 million people speaking
numerous different languages
which made administrative
decisions fairly difficult. Think also
of the 300,000 POWs under
Japanese control (passive
resistance)
The Japanese were facing threats
from multiple military forces (UK
and its allies, the Netherlands and
the US)
There was little cooperation and
communication between the
army and navy
While the navy were committed
to the conflict in the pacific, the
army were mostly concentrated
on the war in China where a
majority of ground troops were
concentrated
Internal communication
between the different sections
of the Japanese military was
poor leading to no clear
decision about the second
phase of the war
Emphasis on dispersion meant lack of support among Japanese formations.
Aleutian Invasion:
IJN supported the IJA invasion of the Aleutian Islands.
Aimed to place Japanese home islands out of range of U.S. bombers.
Operations in the Aleutians diverted resources from the Midway attack.
Prelude:
American reinforcements rushed to bolster the Pacific fleet ahead of the
battle.
Admiral Nimitz recalled carriers, including USS Yorktown, from various
locations.
Yorktown, damaged in Battle of the Coral Sea, underwent rapid repairs at
Pearl Harbor.
American Reinforcements:
Yorktown was battle-ready within 72 hours, despite initial estimates of months
for repairs.
Partially depleted air group replenished with planes and pilots from other
carriers.
Efforts to ready USS Saratoga were hindered, limiting her involvement in the
battle.

American Forces at Midway:

The U.S. Navy stationed reconnaissance aircraft and bombers on Midway.
The Marine Corps stationed various aircraft on the island.
USAAF contributed B-17 Flying Fortresses and Martin B-26 Marauders.

Japanese Shortcomings:
Japanese carriers suffered losses and damage prior to the battle.
Zuikaku remained docked awaiting replacement planes and pilots.
Production issues and worn-out aircraft reduced Japanese carrier strength.

Deficiencies in Japanese Forces:

Japanese carriers lacked sufficient aircraft and spare parts.
Defensive deficiencies in anti-aircraft guns and early warning systems.
Scouting arrangements were disorganised, allowing U.S. carriers to reach
assembly point undetected.

U.S. Code-breaking:
U.S. cryptanalysts broke parts of the Japanese Navy's code, revealing plans
for Operation "AF" (Midway).
Station HYPO confirmed Midway as the objective and provided crucial
information to Admiral Nimitz.
In a bid to control Port Moresby, Japan and the US clashed in the Battle of the Delayed introduction of a new Japanese codebook allowed the U.S. to read
Coral Sea (May 1942) messages crucial for battle planning.
Although the US carrier Lexington was destroyed, the Japanese were unable Nimitz entered the battle with a good understanding of Japanese strength and
to take Port Moresby and retreated dispositions.
A Japanese attack failed for the first time and as a result, Australia, New
Guinea and the vital Allied perimeter held

MIDWAY:
Background:
The Battle of Midway occurred June 4–7, 1942, six months post-Pearl Harbor.
The U.S. The Navy, led by Admirals Nimitz, Fletcher, and Spruance, defeated
the Japanese fleet.
Considered one of the most decisive naval battles by historians like John
Keegan and Craig Symonds.

Japanese Strategy:
Response to the Doolittle raid led to a Japanese "barrier" strategy.
Aimed to lure American carriers into a trap to clear seas for attacks.
Plan undermined by faulty intelligence and U.S. code-breaking.

Participating Forces:
Four Japanese and three American carriers were involved.
Japanese carriers sunk along with a heavy cruiser, while the U.S. lost one
carrier and a destroyer.

Strategic Significance:
Japan's losses strained its capacity to replace carriers and trained personnel.
U.S.' industrial strength made losses easier to replenish.
Considered a turning point in the Pacific War alongside the Guadalcanal
campaign.

Japanese Preparations:
Initial strategic goals achieved through expansion into western colonies.
Strategic disagreements delayed follow-up planning until April 1942.
Yamamoto's plan focused on eliminating American carrier forces.

Selection of Midway:
Yamamoto chose Midway due to its perceived importance to the U.S.
Deception tactics used to lure U.S. fleet into compromised situations.
Yamamoto's plan was based on a misjudgment of American morale.

Yamamoto's Battle Plan:

Complex plan required coordination over vast distances.
Based on broken intelligence and misjudgment of U.S. fleet strength.
 November 13-15, 1942: The First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal occurs, where
both sides suffer heavy losses, but the Allies manage to prevent Japanese
reinforcements from reaching Guadalcanal.
November 20-25, 1942: The Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal takes place,
resulting in a decisive victory for the Allies, sinking several Japanese ships
and effectively ending Japan's attempts to reinforce its troops on the island.
February 9, 1943: Japanese forces evacuate Guadalcanal, marking the end of
the campaign.

Impact and Effects:

Guadalcanal
Post Midway 1942
The Japanese lost approximately 3,057 men, four carriers, one cruiser, and
hundreds of aircraft, while the United States lost approximately 362 men, one
carrier, one destroyer, and 144 aircraft.
The Battle of Midway was a decisive victory for the US:
- Japan’s navy suffered heavy losses - carriers Akagi, Kaga, Soryu and Hiryu
were sunk along with numerous aircraft and pilots - which ultimately
diminished its offensive capabilities
Also showed the importance of intelligence and code-cracking
- With the defeat of Japan’s navy, this also signalled a stronger shift towards a
US offensive from a secure Pacific position.
Following Midway, Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands was selected as the
next place to confront the Japanese
Guadalcanal was selected by the Allies for a number of reasons:
1. Guadalcanal had an existing airfield, later named Henderson Field, which
was strategically crucial.
Control of this airfield would provide the Allies with a base to launch air
operations, disrupt Japanese supply lines, and defend against further
Japanese advances in the Pacific.
2. Guadalcanal was chosen as part of a broader strategy to isolate and
neutralise Rabaul, a major Japanese naval and air base on New Britain.
The capture of Guadalcanal would disrupt Japanese communication and
supply routes in the region, hindering their ability to coordinate and sustain
operations in the South Pacific.
3. Guadalcanal, was strategically located in the South Pacific. By capturing
and securing these islands, the Allies aimed to protect vital sea lanes and
shipping routes.
Additionally, the Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands posed a direct
threat to Australia, and capturing Guadalcanal was part of the strategy to
defend Australia.
Timeline
August 7, 1942: Allied forces, primarily the United States Marines, land on
Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands.
August 8-9, 1942: The Battle of Savo Island occurs, resulting in a devastating
defeat for the Allied naval forces by the Japanese.
August 20-25, 1942: The Battle of the Tenaru (also known as the Battle of the
Ilu River or Alligator Creek) takes place, where the Japanese attempt to
recapture Henderson Field but are repulsed by the Marines.
September 12-14, 1942: The Battle of Edson's Ridge (also known as the
Battle of the Bloody Ridge) occurs, with the Marines successfully defending
their positions against intense Japanese assaults.
October 23-26, 1942: The Naval Battle of Santa Cruz Islands takes place,
resulting in a tactical victory for the Japanese but with significant losses,
particularly in aircraft carriers, reducing their naval power in the area.
Strategic Shift: The successful defence of Guadalcanal by the Allies marked a
turning point in the Pacific War. It was the first major offensive against
Japanese-held territory and demonstrated that Japan could be defeated.
Psychological Impact: The Guadalcanal campaign boosted Allied morale,
proving that Japanese forces were not invincible and could be beaten through
determined and coordinated efforts.
Losses: Both sides suffered heavy casualties during the campaign,
particularly in terms of ships and aircraft. The Japanese lost a significant
portion of their naval and air power, which weakened their ability to defend
other strategic locations in the Pacific.
Island-Hopping Strategy: The victory at Guadalcanal validated the Allied
island-hopping strategy, which involved capturing key islands in the Pacific
and using them as bases for further advances towards Japan.
Logistical Challenges: The harsh conditions faced by troops during the
Guadalcanal campaign highlighted the logistical challenges of operating in
sub-tropical environments, including disease, difficult terrain, and limited
resources.
Guadalcanal was a critical turning point in World War II for both Japan and the
United States due to several key reasons:
For Japan:
Loss of Resources: The failure to hold Guadalcanal resulted in significant
losses for Japan in terms of ships, aircraft, and personnel. The island's
capture by the Allies threatened Japan's ability to defend its empire and
disrupted its control over key shipping routes in the Pacific.
Strategic Reversal: Guadalcanal marked the first major offensive by the Allies
against Japanese-held territory. The inability to repel the Allied advance
demonstrated to Japan that its military expansion had reached its limits and
that its forces were not invincible.
Weakened Naval Power: The heavy losses suffered by the Japanese navy
during the naval battles around Guadalcanal significantly weakened their
naval dominance in the Pacific. This loss of naval power would have
far-reaching consequences for Japan's ability to defend its territories and
supply its forces in the region.
For the United States:
Boost in Morale: The successful defence and eventual capture of
Guadalcanal boosted Allied morale significantly. It was the first major
offensive victory against Japan in the Pacific and demonstrated that Japanese
forces were not invincible. This morale boost was crucial for sustaining Allied
efforts in the Pacific theatre.
Validation of Strategy: The victory at Guadalcanal validated the Allied
island-hopping strategy, which involved capturing key islands in the Pacific
and using them as bases for further advances towards Japan. The successful
implementation of this strategy at Guadalcanal provided a blueprint for future
Allied campaigns in the Pacific.
Shift in Momentum: Guadalcanal marked a significant shift in momentum in
the Pacific War. The successful defence and capture of the island put Japan
on the defensive and forced them to divert resources to defend their
remaining territories. This shift allowed the Allies to seize the initiative and
continue their advance towards Japan.
Debate

The debate over the turning point in the Pacific War
involves various factors, notably comparing losses
and strategic implications between Midway and
Guadalcanal.
At Midway, the Japanese lost four carriers and one
cruiser, while losses in tonnage were comparable to
those in the Guadalcanal campaign. However, the
high value of carriers complicates tonnage
comparisons.
Midway prevented the Japanese from securing the
island, leaving part of their perimeter vulnerable.
However, maintaining a garrison at Midway might
have been logistically challenging.
Guadalcanal served as a major forward base,
threatening supply routes to Australia and providing
a strategic flank for operations in the Coral Sea. Its
loss forced the Japanese to rely on Rabaul as their
main base in the Solomons.
The US had an industrial advantage, which
influenced the duration and outcome of the war.
American pilots flew aircraft designed for
survivability and were trained differently from their
Japanese counterparts.
Midway resulted in a huge Japanese loss:
After Midway, the Japanese were psychologically
and militarily on the defensive. From a military
standpoint the Japanese Navy was stripped of
two-thirds of the fleet carriers that provided the
mobile firepower for offensive operations (or for
rapid responses to attacks on the perimeter).
Perhaps as importantly, the losses at Midway
included at least 90 veteran pilots. With Japan
training only about 100 carrier pilots per year, this
was a significant loss, "the coming months were to
reveal that the loss could never be made good and
was as serious as that of the destruction of the
carriers themselves".(10) Psychologically, it is clear
that the loss was shattering. Midway was to be the
Mahanian "decisive battle".(11) The capture of
Midway, important in closing the western perimeter,
was also intended to draw the American carriers to
battle. The destruction of the American carrier arm
was seen as a necessary step before returning to an
offensive designed to isolate Australia, although
many in the Imperial Headquarters favoured
immediate operations that could threaten the
Continued Offensive: The six months of fighting on
Guadalcanal indeed resulted in high casualties on
both sides, but Japan maintained its offensive
capabilities throughout the campaign. Despite facing
heavy losses, the Japanese forces on Guadalcanal
continued to launch attacks and contest control of
the island. This resilience demonstrates that the
setback at Guadalcanal did not fundamentally
weaken Japan's ability to conduct offensive
operations.
Industrial Output: While Guadalcanal may have
strained Japan's industrial output to some extent, it
did not significantly cripple their production capacity.
Japan's industrial base was already limited
compared to the United States, and the losses
incurred during the campaign could be absorbed
and replaced to some degree. Therefore, while
Guadalcanal may have posed challenges, it did not
result in a decisive weakening of Japan's industrial
capabilities.
Limited Production Capacity: In comparison to the
United States, Japan indeed had a smaller
production capacity to replace losses incurred
The air war, crucial in both Midway and
Guadalcanal, showcased American superiority in
numbers, training, and aircraft quality.
Neither Midway nor Guadalcanal can be solely
credited with shattering Japanese air power, but
both significantly contributed to it.
Various methods of measuring the turning point,
including surface warships, aircraft carriers, pilots,
territory, and psychological impact, offer compelling
but inconclusive evidence.
Japanese Captain Tamagawa highlighted the
enduring significance of Midway and Guadalcanal
among veterans of the Pacific War.
In terms of aircraft losses, both sides incurred
significant losses, with the Allies losing 615 aircraft
and Japan losing 683 aircraft. While the numbers
are somewhat comparable, it's essential to consider
the overall production capacity and resources
available to each side.
During 1942, the United States produced far more
aircraft (49,445) compared to Japan's production of
8,861 aircraft. This suggests that while the Allies lost
a substantial number of aircraft during the
Guadalcanal Campaign, they had a significantly
larger reserve and production capacity to replace
these losses compared to Japan.
In terms of naval losses, the Allies lost more ships
overall, including carriers, heavy cruisers, light
cruisers, destroyers, and transport ships. However,
Japan also suffered significant losses, particularly in
submarines and transport ships, which could impact
their ability to reinforce or resupply their forces in the
area.
Furthermore, casualty figures, including personnel
losses, are also critical. The Allies lost 1,769 army
and marine corps personnel, 4,911 navy personnel,
and 420 aircrew, while Japan lost 25,600 imperial
army personnel, 3,543 imperial navy personnel, and
1,200 aircrew. These figures indicate significant
personnel losses for both sides, but Japan suffered
higher casualties among its ground forces.
Overall, considering the larger production capacity
of the United States and the significant losses
incurred by Japan in terms of personnel, naval
vessels, and aircraft, it could be argued that Japan
suffered worse losses in the Guadalcanal
Campaign. However, the campaign's outcome was
also influenced by strategic factors, terrain, and
other operational considerations beyond just
numerical losses.
The Battle of Midway, a pivotal engagement in
World War II, resulted in the destruction of four
Japanese fleet carriers, fundamentally altering the
balance of power in the Pacific theatre. This
significant outcome had far-reaching consequences:
It shifted the carrier strength balance between the
Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and the United States
Navy (USN), crippling the Japanese carrier force
and giving the USN a strategic advantage.
The loss of four carriers severely diminished
Japan's ability to project power and maintain
offensive momentum in the Pacific.
By depriving Japan of its carrier force, the battle
hastened the inevitable defeat of Japan in the
Pacific War, highlighting the overwhelming industrial
and economic strength of the United States
The Battle of Midway was meticulously planned by
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, aiming to lure the US
carriers into a decisive engagement and destroy
them. However, the outcome of the battle resulted in
catastrophic losses for the Japanese, including the
sinking of their four most formidable carriers.
The Japanese carrier force, organised into Carrier
Divisions (CarDivs), represented the pinnacle of
naval aviation expertise and operational capability,
having been meticulously developed over 14 years.
The loss of these CarDivs not only inflicted
irreparable material damage but also depleted
Japan's pool of highly skilled personnel, crippling its
carrier operations.
Furthermore, the defeat at Midway shattered
Japan's initiative in the Pacific, as it lost the ability to
launch large-scale air attacks from mobile platforms.
This loss of initiative left Japan on the defensive,
unable to dictate naval operations and ultimately
accelerating its defeat in the war.
Despite discussions about the hypothetical scenario
of Japan winning at Midway, the overwhelming
Australian supply lines.(12) The "decisive" loss of
the battle that was designed to ensure
overwhelming (albeit temporary) naval supremacy
undoubtedly contributed to the huge impact on
Japanese morale. Admiral Ugaki, in a diary entry
written on 8 June 1942 summarising the Battle,
concluded by writing "Thus the distressing day of 5
June came to an end. Don't let another day like this
come to us during the course of this war! Let this
day be the only one of the greatest failures of my
life!"(13). Midway allowed Guadalcanal to happen.
Strategically, it enabled the Allies to focus efforts
against Germany, preventing potential collaboration
between Japan and Germany in the Middle East.
Midway facilitated planning for future Allied
offensives, including the invasion of North Africa and
operations in the Pacific.
After Midway Japanese planning was defensive, no
meaningful offensive operations were conducted.
This is clearly a fundamental change from the
pre-Midway planning, when further offensive
operations were being studied. Winston Churchill
wrote that Midway is "rightly regarded as the
turning-point of the war in the Pacific".(16) Of the
Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway he wrote, "The
annals of war at sea present no more intense,
heart-shaking shock than these two battles, in which
the qualities of the United States Navy and Air Force
and the American race shone forth in splendour. . .
As the Japanese Fleet withdrew to their far-off home
ports their commanders knew not only that their
aircraft-carrier struggle was irretrievably broken, but
that they were confronted with a will-power and
passion in the foe they had challenged worthy of the
highest traditions of their Samurai ancestors and
backed by a development of power, numbers, and
science to which no limit could be set."(17)
Yamamoto only risked carriers in two major
operations in this time, first with the Pearl Harbor
strike, and then at Midway.
What you might say:
Many authors have argued that the struggle for
Guadalcanal, from August 1942 to February 1943,
marked the turning point in the Pacific theater.(19)
There are certainly sound reasons for making this
argument. During the campaign the Japanese, for
the first time, lost territory. The Navy suffered
significant losses, including two battleships (Hiei and
Kirishima), a carrier (Ryujo), four cruisers, and
thirteen destroyers. Against these losses the Allies
lost eight cruisers and fourteen destroyers in surface
action, and the carriers
Wasp and Hornet. Japanese ground and air forces
committed to Guadalcanal also suffered heavy
casualties. As a percentage of total Japanese
strength the losses in ground forces were not
severe, but the air losses came from among the
most seasoned of the Japanese groups remaining
after Midway and were losses the Japanese were
not able to replace.
Despite the difficulties in attempting to weigh the
various factors on each side in the respective battles
(geographical, material, psychological, etc.), the
problems Midway created for the Japanese and the
opportunities it presented for the Allies unalterably
changed the balance of power in the critical
category of fleet aircraft carriers, providing the
Americans with offensive options that otherwise
would not have occurred nearly as early in the war.
Basically, this argument is that in the absence of the
victory at Midway, the Allies would have not
undertaken an offensive in the Solomons in August
1942.
You might argue that GCanal was more significant
geographically:
While Guadalcanal was a critical theatre of
operations, the Battle of Midway had broader
strategic implications. Midway marked a turning
point in the Pacific War, crippling the Japanese
carrier force and shifting the balance of power in
favour of the United States. The destruction of four
Japanese carriers at Midway severely limited
Japan's ability to project power across the Pacific,
whereas the Japanese failure at Guadalcanal, while
important, did not have the same far-reaching
consequences.
Tactical Impact: Highlight the tactical brilliance
displayed by American forces at Midway, which
resulted in a decisive victory despite being
outnumbered and outgunned. In contrast, while the
Naval Battle of Guadalcanal was significant in its
own right, it did not demonstrate the same level of
strategic acumen or decisive outcome. The inability
of the Japanese to neutralise Henderson Field and
sustain their forces on Guadalcanal was a testament
to Allied resilience rather than a result of a single,
decisive engagement. No new techniques were
tested at Canal, but the techniques from Midway
would go on to be used by the Americans``Midway
during the Guadalcanal campaign. However,
Japan's military doctrine and resource allocation
prioritised quality over quantity, and their production
efforts were focused on key technologies and
strategic priorities. Therefore, while Japan may have
faced challenges in replacing lost equipment, their
production efforts were still sufficient to sustain their
military operations.
Internal Strife and Loss of Yamamoto: The
Guadalcanal campaign did indeed cause internal
friction within the Japanese military, as did the
defeat at Midway. However, internal disagreements
and leadership losses are common in warfare, and
Japan was able to adapt and continue its operations
despite these challenges. While the loss of Admiral
Yamamoto was significant, Japan's military structure
allowed for the promotion of other capable leaders
to fill the void, ensuring continuity in command.
Strategic Perspective: While the Guadalcanal
campaign was significant in terms of the Allies
gaining a foothold in the Solomon Islands and
disrupting Japan's plans for expansion in the Pacific,
it did not directly threaten Japan's mainland. Japan's
strategic focus remained on defending its core
territories, and the loss of Guadalcanal did not
immediately jeopardise this.
Resource Allocation: Although Japan did commit
considerable resources to defend Guadalcanal, it
did not significantly deplete Japan's overall military
capabilities. Japan was still able to maintain its
presence in other areas of the Pacific and continue
its offensive operations in other regions.
Long-Term Impact: While the loss of Guadalcanal
was a setback for Japan, it did not fundamentally
alter the course of the war in the Pacific. Japan
continued to fight for several more years, and its
eventual defeat was influenced by a combination of
factors beyond just the loss of Guadalcanal.
Adaptability: Japan had a highly adaptable military
strategy and was able to recover from losses by
shifting its focus to other areas of the Pacific. The
defeat at Guadalcanal prompted Japan to reassess
its naval tactics and adjust its overall strategy
accordingly.
Psychological Impact: While the loss of Guadalcanal
was undoubtedly a blow to Japan's morale and
prestige, it did not lead to a collapse of Japanese
resolve. Japan remained committed to its war effort
in the Pacific, and its military leadership continued to
pursue aggressive strategies despite setbacks.
Guadalcanal by Comparison:
Tactical Impact: Highlight the tactical brilliance
displayed by American forces at Midway, which
resulted in a decisive victory despite being
outnumbered and outgunned. In contrast, while the
Naval Battle of Guadalcanal was significant in its
own right, it did not demonstrate the same level of
strategic acumen or decisive outcome. The inability
of the Japanese to neutralise Henderson Field and
sustain their forces on Guadalcanal was a testament
to Allied resilience rather than a result of a single,
decisive engagement.
Long-Term Implications: Argue that the outcome of
Midway had a more profound and lasting impact on
the course of the war. The loss of experienced
personnel, ships, and aircraft carriers at Midway
severely weakened the Japanese Navy's
capabilities, whereas the Allied victory at
Guadalcanal, while important, did not fundamentally
alter the balance of power in the Pacific. The
subsequent Allied ability to resupply and reinforce
Guadalcanal further underscores the limited
strategic significance of the battle compared to
Midway.
Historical Perspective: Provide historical analysis
and commentary that emphasises the consensus
among historians regarding the significance of
Midway as a turning point in the Pacific War. While
the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal is acknowledged for
its ferocity and importance in the broader campaign,
it is often overshadowed by the strategic magnitude
of Midway.
Interesting point about TURNING POINT BEING
NEITHER NEGATIVE NOR POSITIVE,
MAGIC AT MIDWAY: Communications intelligence
provided by Admiral Nimitz, allowing for strategic
positioning of American forces.
Arguments that you might make:
Strategic Importance: While Guadalcanal may have
been geographically closer to key Allied territories
like Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand, its
strategic value was limited. Guadalcanal was just
one of many islands in the South Pacific, and its
capture did not fundamentally alter the balance of
power in the region. In contrast, Midway, although a
distant outpost, was strategically significant as it
marked a decisive turning point in the Pacific War,
crippling the Japanese carrier force and shifting the
momentum in favour of the Allies.
 industrial capacity of the United States made
Japan's defeat inevitable. The disparity in
production output between the two nations ensured
that Japan would be overwhelmed in a prolonged
conflict, regardless of the outcome at Midway.
The Battle of Midway marked a crucial turning point
in the Pacific War as it halted the Japanese
advancement and shifted the operational initiative to
the Americans.
Key facts:
Before Midway, Japan dominated the Pacific, but
their defeat at Midway halted their expansion and
forced them into a reactionary stance.
The list of victories the Japanese recorded is by any
means extremely impressive for a six month period
in such a vast theatre. Hong Kong, Singapore, the
Philippines, Wake, Guam, the Dutch East Indies,
New Britain, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and other
areas all fell to Japanese forces.(5) Including the
losses inflicted on the American Navy at Pearl
Harbor, the Imperial Navy destroyed four
battleships, two aircraft carriers, seven cruisers, 21
destroyers, and many lesser vessels. Many other
Allied ships were damaged. Against this impressive
score, the Japanese lost one light carrier, the
Shoho, six destroyers, and some smaller ships.(6)
was indeed the 'decisive' battle of the war in the
Pacific. If it had been won by the Japanese, it is
unlikely that it alone would have brought about the
defeat of America, but it surely would have
prolonged the war. However, Japan's loss of the
decisive battle doomed the Japanese Navy and
insured the ultimate defeat of Japan, for she could
never match the industrial capability of the United
States".(21) Psychologically and militarily, the defeat
at Midway was, as Fuchida wrote, "the battle that
doomed Japan".
After Midway Japan still had numerical advantage in
comparison to the other countries involved.
In the 6 months of Guadalcanal fighting, there were
HIGH NUMBERS of losses and the Japanese
maintained their offensive.
Did not have industrial output because of
guadalcanal
Compared to the US, Japan only had little
production to replace what was lost at the
guadalcanal.
The campaign also caused internal fighting in the
Japanese army (Midway did that do)
Lost admiral Yamamoto
Victory in Guadalcanal meant that they could launch
a European front war.
Numerical Advantage: Despite the setback at
Midway, Japan still maintained a numerical
advantage over its adversaries, including the United
States. The loss of four carriers was significant, but
Japan's overall fleet strength remained formidable.
Therefore, while Midway may have shifted the
balance of power, Japan's numerical superiority
persisted, limiting the impact of the defeat.
Tactical Considerations: While Guadalcanal
witnessed fierce fighting and significant losses on
both sides, it did not demonstrate the same level of
tactical brilliance or strategic impact as the Battle of
Midway. Midway showcased American naval
superiority and strategic planning, resulting in a
decisive victory despite being outnumbered and
outgunned. The loss of ships, planes, and men at
Guadalcanal may have been significant, but it did
not deliver the same devastating blow to the
Japanese as the destruction of their carrier force at
Midway.
Long-Term Consequences: While the capture of
Guadalcanal may have disrupted Japanese plans
for further expansion in the South Pacific, it did not
fundamentally change the trajectory of the war.
Japan's empire was already overstretched, and the
loss of Guadalcanal did not spell the end of their
offensive capabilities. In contrast, the defeat at
Midway severely weakened Japan's naval power
and hastened its eventual defeat in the Pacific War.
Additionally, the loss of Guadalcanal did not prevent
Japan from continuing to fight aggressively in other
theatres, whereas the loss at Midway fundamentally
altered the strategic dynamics of the entire Pacific
theatre.
Historical Perspective: While Guadalcanal may have
been hailed as a significant victory for the Allies, it is
important to consider the broader context of the
Pacific War. Midway is widely regarded as the
turning point in the conflict, whereas the significance
of Guadalcanal is often overshadowed by other
major battles. In hindsight, the outcome of Midway
had far-reaching consequences that shaped the
course of the war, whereas the impact of
Guadalcanal, while important, was more localised
and limited in scope.

Island Hopping
Following the success at Guadalcanal, the decision was made to skirt Rabaul
and to isolate it from its supply line and instead move westward to invade
less-well-defended islands. This strategy known as island hopping was the
practice of skipping heavily fortified islands in order to seize lightly defended
locations that could support the next advance
The intention of the strategy was to:
- Isolate Japanese strongholds leaving the defenders to starve
and weaken → “wither at the vine”
- Get closer to Japan
- This strategy would span three years and would take U.S. forces
in almost a full circle around the Pacific.
“The Japanese defenders on Iwo Jima were commanded by lieutenant
General Kuribayashi Tadamichi…he had no illusions about the final outcome
of the battle but he had prepared his positions to prolong it for as long as
possible
“The beaches of soft volcanic sand were so steep that the heavily laden
(American) marines in their camouflage helmets struggled up them with
difficulty. Japanese gunfire intensified, with huge mortars of 320mm dropping
their bombs on the landing area. Wounded men brought back to the beach
were often killed before they could be evacuated to one of the ships.
“After three days of constant combat, a small group…made it to the summit of
the volcano (Suribachi) and raised the Stars and Stripes on a metal pole”

“Hardly any prisoners were taken: even the badly wounded Japanese were
killed, since they usually concealed a grenade to destroy themselves and any
navy corpsman who tried to help them. The advance from ravine to ravine and
ridge to ridge, which were given names such as ‘Meat Grinder’, ‘Death Valley’
and ‘Bloody Ridge’, was slow and horrific. Japanese soldiers, taking uniforms
off dead marines, slipped through American lines at night to kill and cause
mayhem in the rear”.

“By March 25 when the battle for Iwo Jima ended, 6821 (American) marines
had been killed or mortally wounded as well as another 19217 severely
wounded. Apart from 54 Japanese soldier taken prisoner, two of whom
committed suicide, Kuribayashi’s force of 21,000 men were all dead”.

Tokyo Firebombing
Operation Meetinghouse
Plans for the Incendiary bombing of Tokyo were made for the 9th of March.
Some sources have suggested that the rationale for the fire bombing was to
Feb 1943: target areas of industrial significance - Steel, Aircraft plants, electronics,
Guadalcanal campaign ends merchant shipping, antifriction bearings and urban industrial areas - all of
which were present in Tokyo
1943-1944: Other sources have suggested that the allies were specific in wanting to target
Victories for the Allies at Tarawa, the Philippines and Guam civilians: the thought was that by causing significant damage to Japanese
civilians, the allies could break the will and morale of the Japanese.
1945: Considering the brutality of the fighting in the Pacific leading up to this point,
Battle of Iwo Jima interpretations of the Americans wanting vengeance are also certainly
Battle of Okinawa justified.

Iwo Jima + Okinawa Firebombing of Tokyo: 9-10 March 1945

Iwo Jima and Okinawa were the last of the fortified positions within Japan’s
inner line of defence: these needed to be captured by the Allies if an invasion
of Japan was to be viable
The capture of this island was particularly important in order for the American
aerial bombing offensive against Japan was to go ahead
February 19 1945:
US Marines made an amphibious landing on Iwo Jima
Challenges faced by the allies at Iwo Jima
“The denizens of Shitamachi never had a chance of defending themselves.
Their fire brigades were hopelessly undermanned, poorly trained and poorly
equipped. At 5:34 p.m., Superfortress B-29 bombers took off from Saipan and
Tinian, reaching their target at 12:15 a.m. on March 10. Three hundred and
thirty-four bombers, flying at a mere 500 feet, dropped their loads, creating a
giant bonfire fanned by 30-knot winds that helped raze Shitamachi and spread
the flames throughout Tokyo. Masses of panicked and terrified Japanese
civilians scrambled to escape the inferno, most unsuccessfully. The human
carnage was so great that the blood-red mists and stench of burning flesh that
wafted up sickened the bomber pilots, forcing them to grab oxygen masks to
keep from vomiting”.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Post-Okinawa 1945 (1 April - 22 June 1945)

The Battle of Okinawa resulted in over 50,000 casualties for the Allies.
Given the intention of Okinawa was to set the stage for an allied invasion of
the Japanese mainland, the staggering loss of life actually gave insight into
what an invasion of the Japanese mainland might look like.

Furthermore, Japan had still not surrendered even after the Battle of Okinawa
→ a conflict so fierce that it became known as the “Typhoon of Steel” in
Japanese
The battles on Iwo Jima and Okinawa also showed that the Japanese were
willing to fight to the last man → potentially what Japanese civilians would do
in response to an allied invasion of the mainland?

July 24 1945:
Potsdam Conference
The Big Three met at Potsdam in Germany to discuss the terms of the end of
WWII.
Aside from discussing European matters, the conference also produced the
Potsdam Declaration: a call by the US, UK and China for Japan’s
unconditional surrender or for it to face “prompt and utter destruction”
Japan ignored this ultimatum (maybe not knowing what this meant? Probably
not…)

The reason why the US were able to offer such an ultimatum is because they
had successfully tested an atomic bomb in July 17 1945
An event which Truman was very particular about informing Stalin about.
The Manhattan Project - US plans to develop the nuclear weapon - began as
the US entered the war but Truman was not aware of the project until he
became president in April
Now with information about the destructive power of the weapon, Truman
decided to use the weapon to end the war

August 6 1945
Following Japan ignoring the Potsdam declaration, the city of Hiroshima was
selected as a target for the atomic bomb for a number of reasons:
It was a major port and a military headquarters
It had not been destroyed in previous bombing raids which meant that the
impact/effect of the atomic bomb could be photographed
Some believed the destruction of urban areas might break the fighting will of
the Japanese people
Hiroshima was bombed on the morning of the 6th and given the destruction,
eyewitnesses on the ground were largely unaware that it had been a single
attack - there was widespread shock at realising the entire city had been
affected by a single plane
16 hours after the bomb, Truman once again called for Japan’s surrender.

August 9 1945
Despite the destruction of Hiroshima and the death of 70,000 Japanese
people, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki 3 days later killing 40,000
people instantly
The plans to drop the second bomb had already been made pre-Hiroshima
Nagasaki was another key port city but questions have been raised since
about whether the second bomb was necessary
Historians have suggested that the second bomb was more for the Soviets:
more specifically, for the US show their new ideological enemy the power of
their new weapon
One other aspect to consider is the fact that the the USSR had finally
declared war against Japan on August 7 1945 and had made plans for an
invasion of the Japanese mainland - given US fears of a Soviet/Communist
occupation of Japan, this also played a part in the decision to bomb Nagasaki
to force Japan’s surrender before Soviet invasion

August 14 1945
Japan offered to surrender to the allies which was formalised on the 2nd of
September
For Against
Post-war US occupation (1945-52)
How important was Douglas Macarthur's role in the US occupation?
Douglas MacArthur played a pivotal role in the US occupation of Japan. As
the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP), he wielded significant
authority over the occupation administration. MacArthur's leadership style,
vision, and decisions greatly influenced the direction of post-war Japan. He
spearheaded various reforms in political, social, and economic spheres,
aiming to democratise Japan and ensure its peaceful transformation.
MacArthur's strong presence and influence helped shape the trajectory of
Japan's reconstruction during the occupation period.
New Constitution (1947) ← political
Explain the significance of Japan’s new constitution (be specific in
referencing changes from the Meiji constitution)
Japan's new constitution, promulgated in 1947 under the guidance of the
Allied Occupation forces, marked a significant departure from the previous
Meiji Constitution of 1889. The key changes included:
Shift in Sovereignty: The new constitution declared that sovereignty resided
with the people, not the emperor. This fundamentally altered the power
structure, moving away from the imperial system towards a more democratic
framework where the people held ultimate authority.
Emperor's Role: While the emperor retained a symbolic position as a unifying
figure, he was stripped of political authority. This shift aimed to prevent a
resurgence of militarism and promote democratic governance.
Parliamentary System: The new constitution established the Diet as the
supreme political institution, composed of freely elected representatives of the
people. This transitioned Japan towards a parliamentary democracy, with
elected officials responsible for policy making.
Women, Land, trade unions, education ← social + cultural
Summarise the reforms made for women, land, trade unions and
education during the occupation
Women's Rights: The constitution granted women equal rights, including the
right to vote, marking a significant advancement in gender equality compared
to the Meiji era.
Civil Liberties: It enshrined various civil liberties, such as freedom of speech,
and imposed regulations on police powers to safeguard individual rights.
Pacifist Clause: Article 9 of the constitution renounced war as a sovereign
right of the nation and prohibited Japan from maintaining military forces,
reflecting a commitment to pacifism and non-aggression.
Social and cultural reforms during the occupation aimed to democratise
various aspects of Japanese society:
Women's Rights: Women were granted equal rights under the new
constitution, including suffrage, marking a significant advancement towards
gender equality.
Land Reform: Land reform initiatives redistributed agricultural land from large
landlords to farmers, enabling them to own the land they cultivated. This
empowered farm families economically and promoted rural development.

Trade Unions: Reforms allowed for the formation of free trade unions,
enhancing workers' rights and collective bargaining power in the industrial
sector.

Education Reform: The occupation authorities revised the education system

to promote democratic values and critical thinking. They abolished "moral
training" in schools and emphasised instruction in democratic principles.
Additionally, control of education was decentralised, shifting authority from the
central government to local administrations.

What was the reverse course?

The "reverse course" refers to a shift in US policy towards Japan following the
onset of the Cold War. Initially, the occupation aimed at thorough
democratisation and demilitarisation. However, as tensions with the Soviet
Union escalated and the Korean War erupted, the US prioritised Japan's
rehabilitation as a bulwark against communism in East Asia. This led to a
relaxation of some democratisation efforts and a focus on Japan's economic
recovery and rearmament, albeit within the framework of the new pacifist
constitution. The reverse course underscored the complexities of US
occupation policy in balancing geopolitical interests with democratic ideals.