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Introduction to Security
Introduction to Security
Tenth Edition
Robert J. Fischer
Edward P. Halibozek
David C. Walters
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
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permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the
Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: http://www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they
should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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ISBN: 978-0-12-805310-2
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visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
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Production Project Manager: Sujatha Thirugnana Sambandam
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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
About the Authors
Robert James Fischer, PhD, is President of Assets Protection Associates, Inc., a security con-
sulting firm established in 1986. He has over 40 years of experience in the security/loss pre-
vention field. He is a member of ASIS International, and the Academy of Criminal Justice
Sciences. He has also served as the Director of the Illinois Law Enforcement Executive
Institute, retiring in 2001. He is also Professor Emeritus of Law Enforcement and Justice
Administration at Western Illinois University. He has published numerous articles, several
books, and served as the editor of two journals. He has also provided extensive consulting
services to major corporations, police departments, and schools.
Edward P. Halibozek, MBA, has over 38 years of security experience. This includes experi-
ence in assets protection, government security, contingency planning, executive protection,
and security management. He retired from Northrop Grumman Corporation where he was
the Vice President of Security. He is the former Chairperson for the Aerospace Industries
Association, Industrial Security Committee, and also served as a member of the National
Industrial Security Program Policy Advisory Committee (NISPPAC). He is a lecturer on secu-
rity and management issues and has written and published numerous assets protection
plans, policies and procedures, and position papers related to corporate and government
security. He also provides security consulting services in the health care industry and the
communications industry. He holds a Master of Science degree in Criminal Justice from
California State University and an MBA from Pepperdine University.
David C. Walters, MPA, is the Corporate Senior Director of Global Safety, Security &
Business Resiliency for a fortune 20 Internet technology company headquartered in San Jose,
California. He has 30 years of experience in industry-leading security, environmental
health/safety, risk management, executive protection, investigation, and brand protection.
He is a member of the Conference Board’s Global Executive Security Council. His experience
is complemented by extensive international business travel that focuses on situational aware-
ness training in a turbulent world.
xv
Preface
Only 5 years ago, we were writing the preface for the 9th edition. At that time we mentioned
how fast the profession was changing. That statement was prophetic, as changes in technol-
ogy are coming at such a rapid pace that it is impossible to keep up with all developments in
a written text. Most of what we said in the 9th edition preface is still relevant as we bring this
10th edition to conclusion. World events during the past 5 years such as growing use of ter-
rorist attacks throughout the world, as well as ever-increasing cyber-attacks, keep security
professionals on their toes, ready to mitigate the next threat. The Parkland, Florida high
school, the Boston Marathon, the Pulse nightclub and the Paris nightclub mass casualty
events, sometime prompted by individual agendas and other times terrorist inspired, make
many of us nervous.
The computer, which is a part of our everyday life, has made information available to
anyone with a simple Google inquiry. We can now monitor our homes in real time using our
cellular phones. Unfortunately, this same technology has been exploited by the criminal ele-
ment in society. Internet purchases, credit card scanners, and use of our cellular phones are
all vulnerable to hacking. Companies which maintain information, like EQUIFAX, as well as
most large firms, are even more at risk of thefts of information. The 2016 elections were tarn-
ished by claims of hacking (allegedly by Russians) of election databases and party emails.
The 10th edition, while maintaining its presentation of basic concepts of security as ini-
tially presented in the 1st edition, spends more time focusing on the changes that must be
recognized in the security field. Our newest coauthor, Dave Walters, deals with “brand pro-
tection,” which he first brought forth in the 9th edition. This concept brings together the
need for understanding the integration of all components of security within a firm along with
other divisions of operation.
In the last edition’s preface, we noted the growing tension created by world terrorism.
That tension has seen a twist with the birth of the Islamic State (ISIS). This group has been
successful in its terrorist approaches, claiming responsibility for all type of attacks on citi-
zens, business, and governments. This threat to companies continues to evolve. As this book
goes to press, the efforts, lead by the United States, to defeat ISIS have achieved success on
several fronts.
This new edition has refocused the chapter on Homeland Security. The new focus is the
impact of terrorism on the business world. We have also added one new chapter. This new
chapter comes from creating a separate chapter for Fire Prevention and Protection. The
chapter on computer security has been thoroughly revised, becoming Holistic Security
through the Application of Integrated Technology. This chapter covers the ever changing
technology field and the importance of understanding and integrating changes in security
operations. In Chapter 20, Security: Today and Tomorrow, we have added material on the
xvii
xviii Preface
need to understand the leadership skill set. This material presents the argument that today’s
security manager must be more than a manager, but must also be a leader if security is to be
integrated and marketed throughout the company operation.
As we finished this 10th edition, the reality of our times makes it impossible to assure
readers that we have presented all the latest in technology. However, we firmly believe that
within the pages of this edition, the reader will find the tools necessary to understand the
basics of security operations and how to apply changing technology to a loss prevention
program.
Acknowledgments
Ed and I would like to give special recognition to our co-author Dave and dedicate this book
to him. During the past year, Dave has faced a major health challenge. Although he was
often times quite sick, he continued to carry his share of this project without complaint. We
couldn’t have asked for a better writing partner. We are proud to know Dave as a fellow
security professional, writer, and friend.
In addition, we wish to acknowledge those individuals who took time to complete surveys
distributed by the publisher, providing us with suggestions for updating the book for this
10th edition. These individuals include:
• Daniel Barry, Campus College Chair, College of Security and Criminal Justice, University
of Phoenix, Las Vegas Campus.
• Ryan Baggett, Associate Professor of Homeland Security, Eastern Kentucky University.
• Thomas Foley, Assistant, College of Security and Intelligence, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University.
• Simon King, Senior Lecturer and Course Leader, Department of Security and Resilience,
Bucks New University.
• Phillip Wood, Security and Resilience Advisory to the Vice Chancellor and Council,
Buckinghamshire New University.
We also wish to thank Bob’s longtime professional associate, Richard Janoski, John Deere
Corporate Security, ret., and Instructor of security at Western Illinois University, for his
insightful and thorough review of the 9th edition.
In particular, special thanks to the content experts who reviewed and at times made sub-
stantial updates to materials contained in various chapters. These include: James Falk,
Security Director, Ace Hardware, and Alan Saquella, Director Safety and Investigations, Cox
Communications, both of whom updated substantial portions of Chapter 15, Retail Security;
Steven C. Babb, retired Deputy General Counsel for Northrop Grumman Corporation, who
reviewed and updated our chapter on security and the law; Dr. Deborah Pavelka, CPA,
retired Professor Roosevelt University, for revising our chapter on cyber security; Steve
Martino, VP Information/Cyber Security, Cisco Systems, who provided an informative inter-
view for the update to Chapter 17, Holistic Security Through the Application of Integrated
Technology Objectives.
We also thank Tom Stover, Elsevier Publishing for initiating the project. Nate McFadden,
Sr. Content Development Specialist, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, gets special thanks
for his constant and consistent support while we worked on this 10th edition. Without his
support we would have had a much harder time updating our materials.
xix
xx Acknowledgments
Bob, once again, thanks those at Assets Protection Associates, Incorporated, who pro-
vided support services during his work on this revision, as well as comments and edits of
various drafts. Special thanks go to Dr. Kathy Fischer, who reviewed each chapter prior to
submission. As a retired Professor of Health Sciences, Western Illinois University, who taught
“Drug Use and Abuse” for over three decades, Dr. Fischer also finished revising the drug
section in Chapter 14, Violence and Drug Use in the Workplace. Finally, we give special
thanks to our partners in life, Kathy, Phillis, and Lola, who have supported us in our outside
interests.
PART
I
Introduction
The chapters in Part I provide an overview of the security and loss prevention industry.
Chapter 1, Origins and Development of 21st Century Security, is a brief history of the devel-
opment of the field in Europe and America, ending with a quick, crisp summary of the status
of security in the 21st century. Chapter 2, Defining Security’s Role, identifies the roles of
security, whether contract, proprietary, or hybrid. Chapter 3, Career Opportunities in Loss
Prevention, covers career options. Chapter 4, Security Education, Training, Certification, and
Regulation, discusses the development of security as a profession. Issues discussed include
training, certification, and regulation. Chapter 5, Terrorism as a Threat to Business defines
how current terrorist activities impact business in the 21st Century.
As noted in the preface, the events of September 11, 2001 and subsequent terrorist attacks
throughout the world changed the face of security operations. Security is a common theme
considered by almost every person in the developed and developing world. Yet, as security
professionals know, the basic concepts and theories of security and loss prevention are not
changed by a single event. The most significant changes are in the innovative tools that pro-
fessionals use to achieve their goals. What is important in looking at the past is that we learn
the lessons that are presented in the development of past security operations. We can then
apply those lessons to the present situation, modify those that have potential to assist us in
our efforts, and discard outdated and outmoded ideas and technology.
The information presented in Part I, along with recommendations just presented,
will serve as a basis for understanding and applying the specific materials presented in
Parts II and III.
1
Origins and Development of
21st Century Security
OBJECTIVES
The study of this chapter will enable you to:

1. Outline the historical development of security in America.
2. Discuss changing crime trends over the past decades.
3. Understand the role of professional associations/organizations in the development of a professional
security industry.
4. Consider the changing role of security in our 21st century world.
Introduction
Security implies a stable, relatively predictable environment in which an individual or group
may pursue its ends without disruption or harm and without fear of disturbance or injury.
The concept of security in an organizational sense has evolved gradually throughout the his-
tory of Western civilization, shaped by a wide variety of institutional and cultural patterns.
In examining the origins and development of security, it should be noted that security
holds a mirror up, not to nature, but to society and its institutions. Thus, in medieval
England, there were programs to clear brush and other concealment on either side of the
king’s roads as a precaution against robbers, and to protect citizens from night thieves, there
were night watchmen. In the United States in modern times, these rudimentary security
measures find their counterparts in the cleared areas adjoining perimeter fences and build-
ings, in security patrols, and in intrusion alarms. Throughout history, it is possible to trace
the emerging concept of security as a response to, and a reflection of, a changing society,
mirroring its social structure and its economic conditions, its perception of law and crime,
and its morality. Thus, security remains a field of both tradition and dramatic change. The
introduction of high-tech systems and computers has changed the nature of the job of the
21st century security professional. Security today must be directed toward modern problems
including computer crime and world terrorism, yet we cannot forget the basic foundations
on which the field has developed. While there are many large companies that have invested
in modern security systems, there are also homes and small businesses that rely on the stan-
dard lock and key or guard dog for their basic protection. But, even the home security indus-
try is seeing significant changes with the introduction of new technology allowing home
owners to monitor their property in real time.
Introduction to Security. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805310-2.00001-9

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
3
4 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY
Security in England
The development of systems of protection (security) and law enforcement in England began
to come with greater rapidity and sophistication beginning in the 14th through the 18th cen-
turies. Seeds for this development were planted during the social revolution that heralded
the end of the remaining elements of the feudal structure in the latter half of the 13th
century.
Security was one thing in a largely rural society controlled by kings and feudal barons; it
was another thing entirely in a world swept by enormous changes. The voyages of explora-
tion, which opened new markets and trade routes, created a new and increasingly important
merchant class whose activities came to dominate the port cities and trading centers.
Concurrently, acts of enclosure and consolidation drove displaced small tenants off the land,
and they migrated to the cities in great numbers.
By 1700, the social patterns of the Middle Ages were breaking down. Increased urbaniza-
tion of the population had created conditions of considerable hardship. Poverty and crime
increased rapidly. No public law enforcement agencies existed that could restrain the mount-
ing wave of crime and violence, and no agencies existed that could alleviate the causes of
the problem.
Different kinds of police agencies were privately formed. Individual merchants hired men
to guard their property. Merchant associations also created the merchant police to guard
shops and warehouses. Night watchmen were employed to make their rounds. Agents were
engaged to recover stolen property, and the people of various parishes into which the major
cities were divided hired parochial police.
Attention then turned to the reaffirmation of laws to protect the common good. Although
the Court of Star Chamber, which gave the English monarchy all control over decisions of
law, had been abolished in 1641, its practices were not officially proscribed until 1689 when
Parliament agreed to crown William and Mary if they would reaffirm the ancient rights and
privileges of the people. They agreed, and Parliament ratified the Bill of Rights, which for all
time limited the power of the king, as well as affirming and protecting the inalienable rights
of the individual.
The 18th Century

By the 18th century, it is possible to discern both the shape of efforts toward communal
security and the kinds of problems that would continue to plague an increasingly urban soci-
ety into modern times.
In 1737, for instance, a new aspect of individual rights came to be acknowledged: for the
first time, tax revenues were used for the payment of a night watch. This was a significant
development in security practice, because it was a precedent-setting step that established for
the first time the use of tax revenues for common security purposes.
After 8 years, Parliament authorized a special committee to study security problems. The
study resulted in a program employing various existing private security forces to extend the
Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 5
scope of their protection. The resulting heterogeneous group, however, was too much at
odds. It proved ineffective in providing any satisfactory level of protection.
In 1748 Henry Fielding, magistrate and author (most notably of the
unforgettable Tom Jones), proposed a permanent, professional, and adequately paid security
force. His invaluable contributions included a foot patrol to make the streets safe, a mounted
patrol for the highways, the famous “Bow Street Amateur Volunteer Force” of special investi-
gators, and police courts. Fielding is credited with conceiving the idea of preventing crime
instead of seeking to control it.
The Impact of Industrial Expansion

The Industrial Revolution began to gather momentum in the latter half of the 18th century.
Like the migrations off the land 200 years earlier, people again flocked to the cities—not
pushed this time, by enclosure and dispossession as they had been earlier, but rather lured
by promises of work and wages.
The already crowded cities were choked with this new influx of wealth seekers. What they
found were long hours, crippling work, and miserly wages. Family life, heretofore the root of
all stability, was virtually destroyed in this environment. Thievery, crimes of violence, and
juvenile delinquency were the order of the day. All the ills of such a structure, as we see in
analogous situations today, overtook the emerging industrial centers.
Little was done to alleviate the growing problems. Indeed the prevailing philosophy of
the time argued against doing anything. In this new age in which statements of laissez-faire
were generally accepted, industrial centers became the spawning grounds for crimes of all
kinds. At one time, counterfeiting was so common that it was estimated that more counter-
feit than government-issue money was in circulation. More than 50 false mints were found
in London alone.
The backlash to such a high crime rate was inevitable and predictable. Penalties were
increased to deter potential criminals. At one time, more than 150 capital offenses existed,
ranging from picking pockets to serious crimes of violence. Yet no visible decline in crime
resulted. It was a “society that lacked any effective means of enforcing the criminal laws in
general. A Draconian code of penalties that proscribed the death penalty for a host of crimes
failed to balance the absence of efficient enforcement machinery.”
Private citizens resorted to carrying arms for protection, and they continued to band
together to hire special police to protect their homes and businesses.
For a more detailed consideration of the development of security and policing in
England, see an introductory text on law enforcement.
Security in the United States

Security practices in the early days of colonial America followed the patterns that colonists
had been familiar with in England. The need for mutual protection in a new and alien land
drew them together in groups much like those of earlier centuries.
As the settlers moved west in Massachusetts, along the Mohawk Valley in New York, and
into central Pennsylvania and Virginia, the need for protection against hostile Indians and
other colonists—French and Spanish—was their principal security interest. Settlements gen-
erally consisted of a central fort or stockade surrounded by the farms of the inhabitants. If
hostilities threatened, an alarm was sounded and the members of the community left their
homes for the protection of the fort, where all able-bodied persons were involved in its
defense. In such circumstances, a semimilitary flavor often characterized security measures,
which included guard posts and occasional patrols.
Protection of people and property in established towns again followed English traditions.
Sheriffs were elected as chief security officers (CSOs) in colonial Virginia and Georgia;
constables were appointed in New England. Watchmen were hired to patrol the streets at
night. As Private Security: Report of the Task Force on Private Security notes, “These watch-
men remained familiar figures and constituted the primary security measures until the estab-
lishment of full-time police forces in the mid-1800’s.” [1]
Such watchmen, it should be pointed out, were without training, had no legal authority,
were either volunteer or else paid a pittance, and were generally held in low regard—
circumstances that bear a remarkable similarity to observations in the RAND report on
private security in 1971 [2].
Development of Private Security

The development of police and security forces seemed to follow no predictable pattern other
than that such development was traditionally in response to public pressure for action.
Outside of the establishment of night watch patrols in the 17th century, little effort to
establish formal security agencies was made until the beginnings of a police department
were established in New York City in 1783. Detroit followed in 1801, and Cincinnati in 1803.
Chicago established a police department in 1837; San Francisco in 1846; Los Angeles in
1850; Philadelphia in 1855; and Dallas in 1856.
New York, influenced by the recent success of the police reforms of Sir Robert Peel,
adopted his general principles in 1833. By and large, however, police methods in depart-
ments across the country were rudimentary. Most American police departments of the early
19th century, as a whole, were inefficient, ill trained, and corrupt.
In addition, the slow development of public law enforcement agencies (both state and
federal) combined with the steady escalation of crime in an increasingly urban and industri-
alized society, created security needs that were met by what might be called the first profes-
sional private security responses in the second half of the 19th century.
In the 1850s, Allan Pinkerton (see Fig. 1.1), a “copper” (police officers who were identified
by the copper badges they wore) from Scotland, and the Chicago Police Department’s first
detective, established what was to become one of the oldest and largest private security
operations in the United States, Pinkerton. Pinkerton’s North West Police Agency, formed in
1855, provided security and conducted investigations of crimes for various railroads. After 2
years, the Pinkerton Protection Patrol began to offer a private watchman service for railroad
FIGURE 1.1 Allan Pinkerton, President Lincoln, and Major General John McClellan. Photographed October 1862,
Antietam, Md. Courtesy of National Archives.
yards and industrial concerns. President Lincoln recognized Pinkerton’s organizational skills
and hired the agency to perform intelligence duties during the Civil War. Pinkerton is also
credited with hiring the first woman to become a detective in this country, well before the
women’s suffrage movement had realized its aims [3].
In 1850, Henry Wells and William Fargo were partners in the American Express
Company, chartered to operate a freight service east of the Mississippi River; by 1852 they
had expanded their operating charter westward as Wells Fargo and Company. Freight trans-
portation was a dangerous business, and these early companies usually had their own detec-
tives and security personnel, known as “shotgun riders.”
Washington Perry Brink founded Brinks, Inc., in 1859 as a freight and package delivery
service in Chicago. More than 30 years later, he transported his first payroll—the beginning
of armored car and courier service. By 1900, Brinks had a fleet of 85 wagons in the field [4].
Brinks, Wells Fargo, and Adams Express were the first major firms to offer security for the
transportation of valuables and money.
William J. Burns, a former Secret Service investigator and head of the Bureau of
Investigation [forerunner of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)], started the William J.
Burns Detective Agency in 1909. It became the sole investigating agency for the American
Bankers’ Association and grew to become the second largest (after Pinkerton) contract guard
and investigative service in the United States. For all intents and purposes, Pinkerton and
Burns were the only national investigative bodies concerned with nonspecialized crimes in
the country until the advent of the FBI.
Another 19th century pioneer in this field was Edwin Holmes, who offered the first bur-
glar alarm service in the country in 1858. Holmes purchased an alarm system designed by
Augustus Pope. Following Holmes, American District Telegraph (ADT) was founded in 1874.
Both companies installed alarms and provided response to alarm situations as well as main-
taining their own equipment. Baker Industries initiated a fire control and detection equip-
ment business in 1909.
From the 1870s, only private agencies had provided contract security services to indus-
trial facilities across the country. In many cases, particularly around the end of the 19th cen-
tury and during the Great Depression of the 1930s, the services were, to say the least,
controversial. Both the Battle of Homestead in 1892, during which workers striking that
plant were shot and beaten by security forces, and the strikes in the automobile industry in
the middle 1930s, are examples of excesses from overzealous security operatives in relatively
recent history [5].
With few exceptions, proprietary, or in-house, security forces hardly existed before the
defense-related “plant protection” boom of the early 1940s. The impetus for modern private
security effectively began in that decade with the creation of the federal Industrial Security
Program [today named the National Industrial Security Program (NISP)], a subordinate com-
mand within the Department of Defense. The NISP is the nominal authority in the United
States for managing the needs of private industry to access classified information. The NISPs’
Operating Manual (NISPOM/DoD 5220.22-M) today consists of 11 chapters and 3 appendi-
ces totaling 141 pages. The 2006 manual included The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004 and other changes taking effect since September 11, 2001 [6]. The
manual was updated in March 2013 and most recently in May 2016. The changes reflect the
continuing changes in federal agencies involved in national security as well as relationships
with our international partners.
The Beginning of Modern Security

In 1955, security took a major leap forward with the formation of the American Society for
Industrial Security (ASIS). Today, the organization is the ASIS International, reflecting the
global emphasis on security operations. For most practitioners, 1955 signifies the beginning
of the modern age of security. Before 1955 there were no professional organizations of note,
no certifications, no college programs, and no cohesive body to advance the interests of
the field.
Today’s changed climate for increased security services came as businesses undertook
expanded operations that in turn needed more protection. Retail establishments, hotels, res-
taurants, theaters, warehouses, trucking companies, industrial companies, hospitals, and
other institutional and service functions were all growing and facing a serious need to protect
their property and personnel. Security officers were the first line of defense, but it was not
long before that
Through out this book the authors will use the term “security officer”. We chose to use
this term in lieu of other terms such as “guard” or plant protection officer since “security
officer” is a more common title for security personnel performing traditional guard or
plant protection duties.
important function was being overchallenged by the increasing complexity of fraud, arson,
burglary, and other areas in which more sophisticated criminal practices began to prevail.
Security consulting agencies and private investigation firms were founded in increasing
numbers to handle these special types of cases. From among these, another large contractor
was to emerge and join the field alongside Pinkerton, Burns, Globe, and Brinks. In 1954,
George R. Wackenhut formed the Wackenhut Corporation in company with three other for-
mer FBI agents. In July 2015 Guardsmark, a giant in the US security business, merged with
competitor Universal Protection Service, now jointly employing over 60,000, making the firm
the largest American owned security firm. In 2002, Wackenhut was purchased by the British
firm G4S Secure Solutions. At the time, Wackenhut was the second largest security firm oper-
ating in the United States.
In 2015, G4S rebranded as G4S Security Integration. Pinkerton became part of Securitas,
the largest security firm operating globally. Securitas acquired Diebold, known for their safes,
in February 2016. In 2000, Burns became a subsidiary of Borg Warner Protective Services. As
security becomes more reliant on technology, firms such as CISCO become more important
in designing systems that utilize and protect digital security operations. In addition, many
regional firms such as Per Mar Security, located in Davenport, Iowa, continue to develop
and provide quality security services.
Early Security Information Sharing

The private sector entered security in another form during the 1960s and 1970s. Common
businesses and industries created central repositories of security information deemed impor-
tant to all of their common interests nationwide, and made it available in various ways to
their separate groups. Their purpose was to decrease loss by networking information that
would prevent criminals from victimizing members of the group once anything was known
that could be used to alert them.
Variously called “alliances,” “bureaus,” or possibly security or loss-prevention “institutes,”
these groups became deeply entrenched as providers of valuable information and services.
Their methods of dissemination vary with what is appropriate to the business for which they
were founded but include circulating “hot” lists, newsletters with “wanted” pictures and
descriptions of characteristic modes of operation, telephone chain calling to alert merchants
within an area, and so on. Nationally available repositories of other types of industry-specific
data are usually maintained also, and can be accessed by members. These groups serve the
private sector in its effort to survive against crime, and make their collected intelligence
available to law enforcement.
Some presently existing groups are the National Insurance Crime Bureau (NICB) (www.
nicb.org), founded in 1992; the International Association of Arson Investigators (IAAI)
(http://firearson.com), founded in 1951; the Property and Liability Research Bureau (PLRB)
(www.plrd.org); and the Jewelers Security Alliance (JSA) (www.jewelerssecurity.org), founded
in 1883—to name a few. Still other groups serve similar functions by collecting records of
insurance claims and spotting fraud, issuing periodic records of defaulted or dubious credit
cards, and so on. The measures taken by these and other business associations to limit their
losses and protect their members have spread to other areas in which there is today an
increasing concern about excessive risk. Some of these areas include computer and other
high-tech industries, and antiterrorism and executive protection alliances. The need for
information for employment background checks has also led to the creation of information
bureaus. The Internet has added its own twist in providing fast service for those looking for
information ranging from criminal histories to credit checks. A number of websites sell infor-
mation for fees ranging from a low of US$35 to more than US$100 for each search request.
The Costs
Just as the anti-Vietnam War protest created a demand for additional security services during
the 1960s and 1970s, the threat of terrorism against US business throughout the world, the
kidnaping of executives assigned outside the United States by various extremist groups, and
drugs and violence in the workplace create a demand for the 21st century. With this dynamic
growth have come profits, problems, and a need for increasing professionalism. Each is a sig-
nificant part of the picture of security today.
The attack on the World Trade Center in 2001 has continued to fuel expenditures and
growth in the private security sector. The Freedonia Group projected that the demand for
contracted security services would continue to increase at an annual rate of 5.4% from 2012
through 2016. The annual expenditure in 2016 would be approximately US$64.5 billion [7].
Conflicting data were presented by ASIS International and the Institute of Finance and
Management, which found that the US security market exceeds US$350 billion annually with
a projected annual growth in 2013 of 6.59% [8]. The disparity in data is common in most
studies of the security field due to differences in definition of what is being studied and the
lack of required reporting for the security industry.
Crime Trends and Security

During the 25 years roughly spanning the mid-1950s to the late 1970s, the United States
became the victim of what the Task Force on Private Security of the National Advisory
Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals has called “a crime epidemic.” The
FBI’s annual Uniform Crime Report Program (UCRP) documented the continuing steady
increase in crimes of all types until 1981. Then, for the first time, the UCRP reflected a mod-
est overall decrease that has continued through the beginning of the 21st century [9].
However, in 2005, there was a slight upward trend of 0.2%. The most troubling data
showed a 7.3% increase in arrests for murder. The trend continued over the next 2 years, but
at a declining rate [9]. Why this 2 year increase occurred will be a topic of discussion for
many years. However, the downward trend resumed in 2007 and continued through 2011.
Data for 2011 showed a 6.4% decrease in violent crime during the first 6 months, while prop-
erty crimes decreased 3.7% during the same period [10].
The latest data from the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports for 2015 reveal a 3.9% increase in
violent crimes, but a 2.6% decrease in property crimes. While the increase in violent crimes
is worth noting, the overall trend is still downward. Comparing the violent crime
figures from 2011, the rate is 7% less and in comparison to 2006, it is 16.5% lower [11].
Although the statistical crime data trend indicates less crime, the problem with crime is
the perception that the public holds. Gallup polls taken each year indicate that the fear of
crime is an even greater problem than the crime rate itself would indicate. The consistency
of survey results indicating that crime touched 25% of all American households during the
year preceding each survey led Gallup to conclude that “the actual crime situation in this
country is more serious than official governmental figures indicate.” The most recent
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) data (for 2015) show no significant difference
from 2014 for violent crimes, and a decline in property crime [12]. This continuing trend
over the past 30 years is inconsistent with the general perception held by the American pub-
lic. It is likely that much of this inconsistency is fueled by regular media presentation of
news worthy events. To summarize, the data actually show that during the first decade of the
21st century, violent crime had declined 41% while property crime rates fell by 32% [13].
Crime Against Business Only an Estimate?

Although the NCVS indicates a decline in the number of offenses across all categories, the
cost of business crime continues to be a major concern. The estimated figures on the extent
of crime against business, ranging from US$67 billion to US$320 billion, have not been ade-
quately studied since the mid-1980s, dramatizing the absence of consistent hard data indi-
cating the exact size of the problem today. Variations of billions of dollars in estimates are
the result of educated guessing, interpolation, and adjustment for inflation. For example,
according to the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE), it is estimated that there
was US$3.7 trillion lost by companies due to employee theft on a global basis in 2014 [14].
White Collar and Economic Crimes

According to a 2002 Brookings Institute report, the Enron and WorldCom scandals alone
cost the US economy approximately US$37 billion to US$42 billion off the gross domestic
product during the 1st year [15]. More recently, one individual, Bernard Madoff, was con-
victed of scamming over US$40 billion from investors [16]. A 2002 joint conference of the
National White Collar Crime Center and the Coalition for the Prevention of Economic Crime
concluded that the amount of “dirty money” worldwide topped US$3 trillion. They identified
the following as the most serious of economic crime problems:
• Money laundering
• Identity fraud
• E-commerce crime
• Insurance crime
• Victim services
• Terrorism [17]
More categories may be added as other types of electronic crime become more prevalent.
For example, Anne Fisher noted in a 2015 Fortune article that employees are taking advan-
tage of company-owned software and intellectual property. She believes that “borrowing”
software from work for personal use may account for US$33 billion lost to software piracy
worldwide [18]. The National White Collar Crime Center also recognized the following in
addition to the list above.
• Crypto ransomware
• Cyber intrusion
• Cyberstalking
• Health care fraud [19]
The 2002 conference of the National White Collar Crime Center and the Coalition for the
Prevention of Economic Crime figure is double the US$1.5 trillion estimate for money launder-
ing suggested by the International Monetary Fund. Sadly, the US Department of Treasury esti-
mated that 99.9% of foreign criminal and terrorist money the United States attempts to stop
gets deposited into secure accounts [20]. Obviously, figures vary, principally because satisfac-
tory measures of many crimes against business and industry have not yet been found. In addi-
tion, much internal crime in particular is never reported to the police. Often, businesses have
not reported crime because internal disciplinary action has already been taken. In other situa-
tion, management wants to avoid bad publicity and embarrassment that could result from
exposing the business’s lack of security controls. Nevertheless, such questions, as may exist,
concern only the degree, not the fact of the dramatic escalation of crimes against business in
our society. Security concerns remain constant for employee theft, property crime, and issues
related to life safety. The newest problems revolve around fraud, computer crime, workplace
violence, and terrorism. The National Computer Security Survey in 2005 found that 67% of
businesses detected at least one cybercrime. Yet, most did not report the attack to law enforce-
ment [21].
Society and Crime

As this brief history of security has indicated, there is always an intimate link between cul-
tural and social change and crime, just as there is between crime and the security measures
adopted to combat the threat. A bewildering variety of causes, both social and economic, are
cited for criminal behavior in this era. Among them are an erosion of family and religious
restraints, the trend toward permissiveness, the increasing anonymity of business at every
level of commerce, the decline in feelings of worker loyalty toward the company, and a gen-
eral decline in morality accompanied by the pervasive attitude that there is no such thing as
right and wrong, but rather only what is in the person’s best interest.
In addition, the rapidly changing technology of business and personal lives is often far
out ahead of security measures used to protect personal and business intellectual property.
The dominance of the computer and related technology in business has improved worldwide
business efficiency, but not without a price. The Internet, while providing the path for infor-
mation transfer, has also provided unheard of opportunities to steal or manipulate intellec-
tual property. Who had heard of a computer virus in the 1970s? And no one likely imagined
Facebook and Twitter would be a new means of global community in 2000.
These changes in attitudes, personal values, and technology have created a new problem
for security managers. In the wake of the Enron scandal, the government passed the
Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to combat corruption in public companies. This regulation has
aided the typical CSO by hopefully minimizing scandal and requiring greater financial disclo-
sures, better scrutiny by corporate boards and their audit committees, and tighter overall
accounting controls. Oversight by Security Exchange Commission (SEC) regulators, coupled
with stronger internal control mechanisms, clearly define white collar crimes as being preva-
lent and a security challenge that cannot be overlooked. Since the stock market crash of
2008, additional regulation of the financial sector by the federal government has been grow-
ing. New legislation, as well as major amendments to existing regulatory rules, has been
ostensibly enacted to make sure that further financial instability in the markets will not hap-
pen in the future. It is far beyond the scope of this book to attempt to analyze or even to cat-
alog all of the factors involved in the trend toward increasing crime, even if we restricted the
study to crimes against business and industry. What is important here is to make clear note
of the fact of such increases—and of their impact on society’s attempts to protect itself.
Most significant is the realization that “the sheer magnitude of crime in our society pre-
vents the criminal justice system by itself from adequately controlling or preventing crime.”
In spite of their steady growth, both in costs and in numbers of personnel, public law
enforcement agencies have increasingly been compelled to be reactive and to concentrate
more of their activities on the maintenance of public order and the apprehension of crim-
inals. Even community-oriented policing rests on the need for a cooperative approach to law
enforcement. The approximately 650,000 local law enforcement personnel in this country
cannot possibly provide protection for all those who need it [22]. Sadly, cooperation with law
enforcement has taken a setback in the last 10 years with the growing belief that at least
some law enforcement officials are biased in their enforcement of the law.
Growth of Private Security

Society has in the past relied almost exclusively on the police and other arms of the criminal
justice system to prevent and control crime. But today, as stated earlier, the types of crime
and its cost, along with cutbacks (and at times a lack of confidence) in the public sector have
overstrained public law enforcement agencies. Private security must play a greater role in
the prevention and control of crime than ever before. This need has been recognized in the
growth in protective services. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that there were 1.2 mil-
lion protective services employees in 2016, compared to public police officers who numbered
only 806,400 [23].
Growing Pains and Government Involvement

Inevitably, the explosive growth of the security industry in the second half of the 20th century
was not without its problems, leading to rising concern for the quality of selection, training,
and performance of security personnel. This situation was debated during the 1990s. The
Gore Bill, introduced in 1991 by then-Senator Al Gore (D-TN), recommended minimum
training for all security personnel without setting a minimum standard. The Sundquist Bill,
introduced in 1993 by Representative Don Sundquist (R-TN), spelled out specific training
requirements, adding to the 1991 Senate bill. The Sundquist Bill recommended 16 hours of
training for unarmed officers and 40 hours for armed personnel. Also in 1993, Representative
Matthew Martinez (D-CA) reintroduced a bill mandating 12 hours of training for unarmed
security personnel and 27 hours for armed officers. What is obvious is that the federal gov-
ernment had started to take an active interest in setting minimum standards for the security
profession [for a discussion of these bills, see “Why Is Security Officer Training Legislation
Needed?” by John Chuvala III, Certified Protection Professional (CPP), and Robert J. Fischer,
Security Management, April 1994].
The hijackings that led to the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001 were blamed
on poorly trained contract security screeners at US airports and governmental intelligence
agencies. Whether the blame is fair may be debatable because screeners were not looking
for box cutters or other implements used by the hijackers. Within months of the hijackings,
the US government had established federal control over this segment of security. The
Transportation Security Administration (TSA) now handles all airport boarding security.
Within the industry itself, there is increasing pressure for improved standards, higher pay,
and greater professionalism. The ASIS International has developed industry standards that
are regularly being discussed by representatives in the security industry and federal
government.
It is important to note that no federal legislation regulating private security had been
passed until 2002, following the World Trade Center disaster. With the support of ASIS, the
Private Security Officer Employment Standards Act of 2002 was passed, allowing all security
employers access to federal employment background checks through National Crime
Information Center. An effort to expand the Act in 2012 failed.
The efforts at federalization often fail due to heavy lobbying efforts by some contract com-
panies who oppose anything that raises their costs and cuts into profits. It is sad that only
36 states regulate security officer training. Of those that do, none come close to meeting the
recommended 80 hours supported by the International Foundation of Protection Officers [24].
Professionalism
Despite the lack of federal regulation, today private security has moved toward a new profes-
sionalism. In defining the desired professionalism, most authorities often cite the need for a
code of ethics and for credentials including education and training, experience, and
membership in a professional society.
Professional Organizations
This continuing thrust toward professionalism is observable in the proliferation of active pri-
vate security professional organizations and associations. It is promoted by such organiza-
tions as ASIS International (which has a membership of more than 30,000 security
managers), the Academy of Security Educators and Trainers (ASET), the International
Association for Healthcare Security and Safety (IAHSS), the National Association of School
Security Safety and Law Enforcement Officers (NASSLEO), the International Foundation of
Protective Officers (IFPO), and the Security Industry Association (SIA). It finds its voice in
the library of professional security literature—magazines, Internet sites, and books. And it
looks to its future in the continued development of college-level courses and degree pro-
grams in security.
ASIS International has adhered to a professional code of ethics, one mark of a true profes-
sion, since its inception. The group established the CPP program, which requires security
managers desiring certification to be nominated by a CPP member and to complete a rigor-
ous test. This program and others are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4, Security
Education, Training, Certification, and Regulation.
The Problem With Training

Despite the many efforts to professionalize the field of private security, there are still many
who feel that major obstacles need to be overcome. The most persistent one has to do with
the training and education of the contract security officer. (A distinction between contract
and proprietary officers needs to be made. Proprietary officers—those hired directly by a
company—are generally better trained and better paid than are their contract counterparts.)
Many officers—no matter whether they are contract or proprietary—are underpaid, under-
trained, undersupervised, and unregulated. Minimal standards do exist in some places, but
there is still a reluctance to train, educate, and adequately compensate the security force.
Business considerations in making a product for profit can make it difficult for companies to
see the need for paying for costly security programs. Thus they often opt for the lowest-
priced solution whether it affords real protection or not.
Considering the importance of private security personnel in the anticrime effort and their
quasilaw enforcement functions, it is ironic that they receive so little training in comparison
to their public-sector contemporaries. According to a 2005 study by Associated Criminal
Justice and Security Consultants, the median number of hours of basic police training is
720 hours prior to licensing or certification by state police training boards. The same study
found that many security officers, on average, receive less than 8 hours of prejob training
[25]. Often this training is completed merely through an orientation video. Still, there are
contract and proprietary security operations that provide very good training programs. Some
contract security companies, such as G4S Security Integration, have established client con-
tracts that provide from 40 to 120 hours of prepost assignment training requirements, depen-
dent upon the designated officer’s position. This does not include on-the-job training(OJT).
In addition, a specified 16 hours annualized training requirement to refresh officers and
avoid complacency can be established. Security managers must not overlook the value of
maximizing training opportunities and requirements.
The traditional business emphasis on profit will always be foremost in priorities for secu-
rity contractors as well as proprietary security operations concerned with the companies
“bottom line.” Fortunately, this kind of thinking is undergoing a change as industry realizes
that the adage “you get what you pay for” very definitely applies to the quality of security.
This realization should in turn add pressure to industry to upgrade the position of the secu-
rity officer. Current standards, codes of ethics, and educational courses need to be supported
by industry participation.
One development in the evolution of training for line security staff is the Certified
Protection Officer (CPO) program, established in 1986 by the International Foundation for
Protection Officers, a nonprofit organization. The CPO program is being offered at a number
of colleges in the United States and Canada. Additional information on this program is pre-
sented in Chapter 4, Security Education, Training, Certification, and Regulation.
New Thinking
A systematic approach to security is appropriate today, as more and more businesses are giv-
ing the responsibility for protecting all aspects of company assets to the security and loss-
prevention department. Security and loss prevention has evolved well beyond the officer at
the gate. Though that post is still vital, today’s business assets comprise an almost infinite
variety of protection needs. Moreover, security increasingly includes protection against con-
tingencies that might prevent normal company operation from continuing and from making
a profit. And as the concept of risk management is further integrated into a comprehensive
loss-prevention program, the security function focuses less and less on enforcement and
more on anticipating and preventing loss through proactive programing. Security is now
more about protection, including brand or company identity protection, than about solving
crimes. Such challenges indisputably require high-level security management and an

increasingly well-credentialed group of security professionals.
This new approach lends itself well to the systems approach, as outlined by C. West
Churchman in 1968. This is the process of focusing on central objectives rather than on
attempting to solve individual problems within an organization. By concentrating on the cen-
tral objectives, the management team can address specific problems that will lead toward
the accomplishment of the central objective. As noted earlier, these central objectives for the
21st century include protection from terrorism, control of economic crimes, and brand pro-
tection, as well as continuing to combat traditional security problems. Today, we talk about
integrated security systems, total assets protection, and contingency plans.
These problems must be approached from a team perspective. Public law enforcement at
local, state, and federal levels, along with security interaction and operations, must work
together, sharing intelligence to control these problems and reestablish a sense of security in
the world’s citizens. Security, therefore, is the safety of reassurance.
The establishment of joint councils within ASIS and the International Association of
Chiefs of Police (IACP) has increased communication between the public and private sectors.
In addition, the National Sheriffs’ Association (NSA) has its Private Security Industry
Committee. These groups have developed numerous cooperative programs. In the aftermath
of September 11, 2001, cooperation among various law enforcement agencies—local, state,
and federal as well as private security organizations—has been enhanced. With the establish-
ment of the Department of Homeland Security, the federal government has attempted to
increase the interoperability of all areas of the criminal justice system in an effort to eradicate
terrorism in this country.
Summary
Although modern security relies heavily on technology, the basic theory of protection has
changed little over the past centuries. Only the tools to implement the theory have changed.
Where moats were once used, we have high-tech sensors and fences. Where warded locks
once protected buildings and rooms, we see state-of-the-art, computer-controlled, electronic
locking mechanisms. Where watchmen once walked the beat, we now find sophisticated
camera systems.
Still, not every security measure has kept pace with the development of technology. Old
techniques and technology are still commonplace in many operations. The one thing that
has changed in the 21st century is the need to consider terrorism as a significant threat to
our country and its businesses. Homeland Security and Terrorism are discussed in
Chapter 17. Our government and public businesses are now targets of individuals who
choose to use terrorist tools to make their positions known. The potential has always been
present, as noted by many security experts. However, the use of terrorist tools was not seen
as likely given the ability of most individuals to find other means to express their positions.
We have entered a new era where the security professional must give full consideration
to potential terrorist threats, just as they would to theft of intellectual property, burglary, rob-
bery, shoplifting, fire, and other loss risks commonly associated with security/loss-prevention
strategies. Add to this list, the threats against the computer, now one of business’s most
prominent tools, and the mix becomes very interesting!
In sum, the security industry of the 21st century is moving toward a model of single solu-
tion security integrating all areas and operation of the firm. Although, there are many parts
to the plan, in the final plan, there is convergence. Technology, information, human compo-
nents, design, etc. must all be considered in the final operation. The following chapters
discuss specific areas of interest, but in the end, a good security program must consider all
elements in order to succeed in today’s world.
▪ ▪ Critical Thinking ▪
Why should a security professional have any interest in the historical development of
the discipline?
Review Questions
1. What events in medieval England brought about the creation and use of private night
watches and patrols?
2. How did World War II affect the growth of modern private security?
3. How do you believe the events of September 11, 2001 impacted the changes occurring in
the private security/law enforcement relationship?
4. Discuss the extent of security’s growth in this country. What are some of the reasons for
the professionalization of the field of private security?
5. What do you believe are the greatest challenges facing private security in the 21st
century?
References
[1] C. Van Meter, Private Security: Report of the Task Force on Private Security, National Advisory
Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Washington, DC, 1976.
[2] J.S. Kakalik, S. Wildhorn, Private Police in the United States: Findings and Recommendations, The RAND
Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 1971.
[3] S.A. Levine, Allan Pinkerton: America’s First Private Eye, Dodd, Mead, New York, 1963.
[4] J.S., Kakalik, S., Wildhorn, Private Police, pp. 94 95.
[5] W. Cunningham, J.J. Strauchs, C.W. Van Meter, The Hallcrest Report II: Private Security Trends
1970 2000, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, 1990.
[6] ,www.dss.mil.odda/mspm06.htlm., (downloaded 9.17.2010).
[7] Private Security Services, Industry Study 2944, October 2012.
[8] The United States Security Industry: Size and Scope, Insights, Trends, and Data, ASIS International and
the Institute of Finance and Management, 2012.
[9] Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice. Uniform Crime Reporting Program.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
[10] ,www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s./2011/preliminary., (downloaded 3.10.2012).
[11] Latest Crime Statistics Released, September 26, 2016, ,www.fbi.gov/news/stories/latest-crime-statistics-
released..
[12] BJS’s Crime Victimization Survey Shows Rate of Overall Villent Crim Remained Flat from 2014 to 2015:
Property Crime Rate Decreased, Advance for Relaease, October 20, 2016. ,http://www.bjs.gov/..
[13] Criminal Victimization 2008, BJS Bulletin, September 2009.
[14] Report to the Nations on Occupational Fraud and Abuse, ACFE, 2014.
[15] Brookings Institute. Brookings Study Details Economic Cost of Recent Corporate Crises. ,www.brook-
ings.edu/comm/news/20020725graham.htm..
[16] Three New Federal Lawsuits Against Madoff Family Business. ,www.dailyfinance.com/story/investing/
court-appointed-trustee-madoff-family-lawsuit., (downloaded 9.4.2010).
[17] Funny Money. The Economist Global Agenda, May 3, 2002. ,www.economist.com/agenda/
displayStory.cfm?story_id 1 1116239..
[18] A. Fisher, U.S. retail workers are No. 1 . . . in employee theft, Fortune (January 26, 2015).
[19] ,www.nw3c.org/services/research/whitepapers., (accessed 11.19.16).
[20] Dealing with Dirty Money. Hellenic Communication Service. ,www.helleniccomserve.com/dirtymoney.
html., (downloaded 9.4.2010).
[21] Cybercrime Against Business, National computer crime survey, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2005).
Available from: , www.bjs.gov/index.cjf?ty 5 tp&tid 5 41 . (accessed 11.18.16).
[22] BLS Occupational Employment Statistics, 33-3051 Police and Sheriff’s Patrol Officers, May 2009.
[23] , data.bls.gov/search/query/results., (accessed 11.19.2016).
[24] S. Walter, Why legislative efforts to improve security guard training keep failing, Reveal (December 9,
2014). Available from: , www.revealnews.org/why-legislative-eforts-to-improve-security-guard-training-
keep-failing . .
[25] Associated Criminal Justice & Security Consultants, PLACE Project, Kaplan University, Evaluation of
Basic Training Programs in Law Enforcement, Security and Corrections for Academic Credit, June 2005.
2
Defining Security’s Role
OBJECTIVES
The study of the chapter will enable you to:
1. Define the concept of private security.
2. List various services offered by private security operations.
3. Understand the differences among proprietary, contract, and hybrid security operations.
4. Discuss the issues that contribute to continued relations issues between private security operations
and public law enforcement.
Introduction
During the 19th and 20th centuries, public police operated only on a local basis. They had
neither the resources nor the authority to extend their investigations or pursuit of criminals
beyond the sharply circumscribed boundaries in which they performed their duties. When
the need arose to reach beyond these boundaries or to cut through several of these jurisdic-
tions, law enforcement was undertaken by such private security forces as the Pinkerton
Agency, railway police, or the Burns Detective Agency.
As the police sciences developed, public agencies began to assume a more significant
role in the investigation of crime and, through increased cooperation among government
agencies, the pursuit of suspected criminals. Concurrent with this evolution of public law
enforcement, private agencies shifted their emphases away from investigation and toward
crime prevention. This led to an increasing use of security services to protect property and to
maintain order. Today, in terms of numbers, surety forces are by far the predominant
element in private security.
But what other protective measures are available? Who provides them? Who is responsi-
ble for planning and executing these procedures? Where do the roles of private and public
police overlap, and where do they diverge? What are the particular hazards for which private
security is now held responsible, and how is it determined that threats are sufficient to justify
the adoption of protective procedures? To answer these questions, it is necessary to define
private security and its role more exactly.
What is Private Security?

Although the term private security has been used in previous pages without question, there
is no universal agreement on a definition or even on the suitability of the term itself. Cogent
Introduction to Security. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805310-2.00002-0

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
21
arguments have been made, for example, for substituting the term loss prevention for
security.
The RAND report defines private security to include all protective and loss-prevention
activities not performed by law enforcement agencies. Specifically,
the terms private police and private security forces and security personnel are used gener-
ically in this report to include all types of private organizations and individuals provid-
ing all of security-related services, including investigation, staffing key posts, patrol,
executive protection, alarm monitoring and response, and armored transportation [1].
The Task Force on Private Security takes exception to this definition on several grounds.
The task force argues that “quasi-public police” should be excluded from consideration on
the grounds that they are paid out of public funds, even though they may be performing
what are essentially private security functions. The task force also makes the distinction that
private security personnel must be employees of a “for-profit” organization or firm as
opposed to a nonprofit or governmental agency. The complete task force definition states:
Private security includes those self-employed individuals and privately funded business
entities and organizations providing security-related services to specific clientele for a
fee, for the individual or entity that retains or employs them, or for themselves, in order
to protect their persons, private property, or interests from varied hazards [2].
The task force argues that the profit motive and the source of profits are basic elements
of private security. While this definition might be suitable for the specific purposes of the
report, it hardly seems acceptable as a general definition. Many hospitals and schools, to
name only two types of institutions, employ private security forces without for-profit orienta-
tion. Yet it would be difficult to contend, for example, that the members of the International
Association for Healthcare Security and Safety (IAHSS) are not private security personnel.
The Hallcrest reports never formally defined the terms security or loss prevention but
relied on the earlier definitions of these terms. These reports consider, however, the security
or loss-prevention field in its broadest application and thus avoid getting bogged down in
discussions of profit motive or specific tasks. The reports focus on the functional aspects of
security, recognizing that the functions of security and loss prevention are performed by
both the public law enforcement sector and private agencies.
Thus, neither the profit nature of the organization being protected nor even the source of
funds by which personnel are paid holds up as a useful distinction. A security officer at a
public school is engaged to protect a nonprofit institution and is paid out of public funds.
The function, however, is clearly different from that of a public law enforcement officer. The
officer is—and is universally accepted as—a private security officer. How then should private
security be defined for the purpose of this text?
The opening lines of Chapter 1, Origins and Development of 21st Century Security sug-
gest that “security implies a stable, relatively predictable environment in which an individual
or group may pursue its ends without disruption or harm and without fear of disturbance or
Chapter 2 • Defining Security’s Role 23
injury.” Such security can be effected by military forces, by public law enforcement agencies,
by the individual or organization concerned, or by organized private enterprises. Where the
protective services are provided by personnel who are paid out of public funds and also
charged with the general responsibility for the public welfare, their function is that of public
police. Where the services are provided for the protection of specific individuals or organiza-
tions, they normally fall into the area of private security.
Protection of Life and Property

The hazards against which private security seeks to provide protection are commonly
divided into human-made and natural. Natural hazards may include fire, tornado, flood,
earthquake, hurricane, blizzards, and other acts of nature that could result in disruptions or
damage to the enterprise or organization such as to cause building collapse, equipment fail-
ure, accidents, safety hazards and other events that interrupt normal business processes
causing work delays, stoppages, and loss of revenue. It should be noted that fire is also quite
often human-made, intentionally or unintentionally.
Human-made hazards may include crimes against the person (e.g., robbery or rape) or
crimes against property (theft and pilferage, fraud and embezzlement). In addition, people
also creates problems through terrorism (domestic and international), espionage and sabotage,
civil disturbances, bomb threats, fire (as noted above), workplace violence, accidents as well as
information systems misuse, intrusions, disruptions of service, and malicious cyber-attacks.
The degree of exposure to specific hazards will vary for different facilities. The threat of
fire or explosion is greatest in a chemical plant; the potential of loss from shoplifting or inter-
nal theft is greatest in a retail store. Each organization or facility must ideally be protected
against a full range of hazards, but in practice, a particular protection system will emphasize
some hazards (those most likely to occur) more than others.
In some organizations, the area of accident prevention and safety has taken on such
importance (primarily because of state and federal occupational safety and health legisla-
tion), that this responsibility has become a full-time objective in itself, in the charge of a
director of safety. Security can then devote its energies to other areas of loss. Similarly, some
large industrial facilities have full fire brigades. In most situations, however, fire, accident
prevention and disaster preparedness and business recovery are part of the responsibility of
the security department. Disaster preparedness and business recovery are sub-processes of
the macro processes of contingency planning and business resilience. Each is discussed
further in Chapter 11, Contingency Planning Emergency Response and Safety.
Security Functions
Security practices and procedures cover a broad spectrum of activities designed to eliminate
or mitigate the full range of potential hazards (loss, damage, or injury). These protection
measures may include but are by no means limited to the following:
1. Building and perimeter protection, by means of barriers, fences, walls, and gates;
protected openings; lighting; and surveillance (security officers and video).
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“Weel, I gaed, an’ I better gaed. ‘The wind blew as ’twad blawn its
last;’ the fitfu’ changes o’ the shrouded moon threw flitting shadows
across my path;—whiles like a muckle colley, and syne as if I stood
on the brink o’ a dreadfu’ precipice, when I wad then stand still, till
the moon shone again. The bleachfield dogs sent round their lang,
uncanny bodings; the vera cocks crawed,—sic horror had the time;
the last leaves o’ hairst were driftin’ an’ clatterin’ amang my feet—
whiles hittin’ me like a whup on the face; or tappin’ me on the back,
as if ane wad say, ‘Saunders, this is death!’ when I wad then stand
stockstill again, my knees fechtin’ an’ thumpin’ at ane anither, and
my teeth gaun like a watchman’s rattle; while noos and thans, the
wind wad howl and birr, as if the Prince o’ Air himsel were pipin’ to
the clouds. I ne’er doubted thae things to be the bodings o’ death; but
I thocht sic feydoms might hae been better wared on a muckle better
man than me. At length I got to the house-door, as the laird’s messan
began to bark.
“‘Look to the door, Peggy!’ quo’ the gudewife.
“‘Ay, mither. Jock, look to the door for your mither, will ye no?’
“‘Look till’t yersel! Can I gang, when I’m greetin’ this way?—Pate—
look to the door!’
“‘I’m greetin’ too,’ says Pate.
“‘Peggy Mucklewham, will ye no look to the door, for your deein’
faither’s sake?’
“‘Tuts!’ quo’ Peggy, ‘Can ye not get up yersel—fashin’ folk?’
“Weel, I then got entrance—the sneck being cannily lifted, an’ the
bairns makin’ a breenge into a hidin’ corner, until, by the light o’ the
fire, they kent my face.
“‘Ou, it’s auld Saunders, as sure as death. Ay, man, my faither’s
real ill—he’s just gaspin’, and that’s a’! Hear till that—that’s him
whistlin’! Hae ye no brought Towzie wi’ ye? Man, Pate and me wad
hae’n sic grand fun chasin’ the mawkins, when my mither’s at the
kirk the morn.’
“‘Are ye sorry to lose your faither, bairnies?’ quo’ I.
“‘Ou, ay,’ quo’ Pate, ‘but I dinna like to look at him, he maks sic
awfu’ faces, man; but I hae been thrang greetin’, sin’ four o’clock
even on—twice as muckle’s Jock!’
“A lang deep groan now was heard from out o’ the spence, whaur
the laird was lying; and the bairnies, in a fricht, ran screeching to
anither apartment, leaving the youngest wean by the fireside, rowed
in ane o’ the auld man’s black coats.
“‘Gude save us, lammie!’ quo’ I, ‘is there naebody tending your
puir auld faither? Whaur’s uncle, lammie? and aunty? and your
minnie, lammie?’ I mind weel the bit bairnie’s answer—‘Unkey a’
doon—aunty a’ doon—daddy a’ doon!’
“Mrs Mucklewham was a stout buirdly quean, like a house-end;
and the laird was just a bit han’fu’ o’ a cratur—a bit saxteen-to-the-
dizzen body. They were a pair o’ whom it was said, by the kintra-side,
that they had married afore they had courted. The laird was an auld
man when he brought hame a woman thirty years younger than
himsel;—auld folk are twice bairns, and he was beginning to need
nursing. It’s wonderfu’ to think how little a matter hinders
gentlebred folk frae getting on in the warld! A’ that Jenny
Screameger wantit o’ the complete leddy was the bit dirty penny
siller; an’ sae they were joined thegither, without its ever being
mentioned in the contract, or understood, that they bound and
obliged themselves to hae a heartliking for ane anither!
“She had been keepit by the gudeman geyan short by the tether;
sae as her hale life was made just a dull round till her—o’ rising and
lying down—eating, drinking, and sleeping—feeding the pigs, milking
the cow—flyting the servant—and skelping the weans a’ round;—
unless when she dreamed o’ burials, or saw a spale at the candle—or
heard o’ a murder committed in the neighbourhood—or a marriage
made or broken aff—or a criminal to suffer on the gallows; till at her
advanced time o’ life it was grown just as neccessar’ that food should
be gotten for her mind’s maintenance, as it was for her body’s.
“‘This is a sair time for ye, Mrs Mucklewhaum,’ quo’ I, as she cam
ben frae her bedroom gauntin’.
“‘Hey! ho! hy! Saunders—I haena closed an ee thae twa lang
nichts! But I hear there’s something gaun to be dune noo—Hey! ho!
hy!’
“I stappit ben wi’ her to the laird’s room; and I saw in his face he
was bespoken. Everything was laid out in the room, comfortable and
in apple-pie order, befitting the occasion. The straughtin’ board, on
whilk his death’s ee was fixed, stood up against the wa’; here lay a
bowt o’ tippeny knittin’ for binding his limbs, and as mony black
preens as wad hae stockit a shop; there hung his dead shirt, o’ new
hamespun claith, providently airing afore the fire.
“‘Gin ye be thrang, Saunders, ye needna wait on the gudeman—ye
ken his length—and gie him a deep biel,’ quo’ the gudewife; when
just as I laid my hand upon his brow, he fixed his ee upon me like a
hawk; an’ after anither kirkyard groan—the like I never heard from
mortal man—he seemed reviving, an’ new strength to be filling his
limbs, as he rose up on his elbow, on the bed, and laid his other hand
on mine—sic an icy hand as I never felt abune grund!—thus speaking
to me in his seeming agony:
“‘Saunders, do not pray for me; I have been long a dead man; lay
your hand upon my bosom, and you will feel the flames of hell
ascending to my soul!’ I laid my hand upon his heart, and I declare,
sir, I thocht the flesh wad hae cindered aff the finger-banes! The heat
was just awfu’!
“‘I was made life-renter of a sum which at my decease descends to
the younger branches of my father’s family; and my life has been
miserable to myself—a burden to others—and my death the desire of
my kindred!’
“‘He’s raving, Saunders—he’s clean raving! An’ I canna persuade
him he’s a deein’ man,’ quo’ Mrs Mucklewham, as she stapped forrit
wi’ a red bottle, to gie him a quatenin’ dram.
“‘Haud, haud!’ quo’ I, ‘he’ll do without it,’ as the laird, raising his
voice, began again to speak:
“‘I had but one friend in the world,—the highwayman that robbed
me, and then laid my skull open with the butt-end of his whip;—
would to God he had made me a beggar, and saved my soul! I had no
worse wish to bestow on him than that he might be a life-renter for
his poor relations. Saunders, look on the face of that unfeeling
woman—more horrible to me than death itself;—look on my deserted
death-bed, and my chamber decorated like a charnel house? Horrible
as the sensation of death is, as his iron gropings are stealing round
my heart, there is yet to me a sight more hideous, and which I thank
God I shall be spared witnessing—when the dead shall bury the
dead!’
“Mrs Mucklewham broke frae my weak hand—wrenched open his
locked teeth, and emptied the hale contents down his throat—grunds
an’ a’—o’ his ‘quatenin’ draught;’ I felt myself a’ ug, as I saw his teeth
gnash thegither, an’ his lips close in quateness for ever.
“I gaed out wi’ the mortclaith; I saw the gathering; I was present
when the bread an’ dram service were waiting for the grace:—‘Try
ye’t, John,’ quo’ ane. ‘Begin yersel; ye’re dead sweer,’ quo’ anither;
when I heard ane break down an’ auld prayer into twa blessin’s.
Some were crackin’ about the rise o’ oats; some about the fa’ o’ hay.
His bit callans were there in rowth o’ claith; auld elbows of coats mak
gude breekknees for bairns. I saw the coffin carried out to the hearse
without ane admiring its bonnie gilding—quite sair and melancholy
to see! I saw the bedral bodies, wi’ their light-coloured gravats, an’
rusty black cowls, stuffing their wide pouches—maist pitifu’, I
thought, to behold. Then I saw the house-servants, wha had drunk
deepest o’ the cup o’ woe; till sae mista’en were their notions o’
sorrow, that they were just by the conception o’ the mind o’ man.
Then there was sic a clanjamphry o’ beggars; some praising the laird
for virtues that they wha kenned him kent they were failings in him;
an’ ithers were cracking o’ familiarities wi’ him, that might hae been
painful to his nearest o’ kin to hear: there was but sma’ grief when
they first gathered; but when they learned there was nae awmous for
them, I trow ony tears that were shed at the burial were o’ their
drappin’.
“There was the witless idewit Jock Murra, mair mournfu’ to see
than a’ that was sad there; when just as the hearse began to move on,
he liltit up a rantin’ sang—
Mony an awmous I’ve got.
I lookit round me when the company began to move on frae the

house wi’ the hearse; but as I shall answer, sir, there wasna ae face
that lookit sad but might as well hae smiled; the vera look o’t, in a
Christian land, broucht the saut tears gushing frae my ain auld dry
withered ee!
“In compliance with the friends’ request, as it was a lang road to
come back, his will had been read afore the interment; when sae
muckle was left to ae hospit an’ sae muckle to anither, as if the only
gude he had ever done was reserved for the day o’ his burial; or like
ane wha delays his letter till after the mail shuts, and then pays thrice
the sum to overtake the coach. It was the certainty o’ thae things that
made it the maist mournfu’ plantin’ I e’er made; an’ I threw the yird
on him, as he was let down by stranger hands (for the friends
excused themselves frae gaun ony farther, after they had heard his
will), and happit him up, wi’ a heavier heart than on the morning
when I took my ain wifie frae my side, an’ laid her in the clay.—You’ll
excuse me, sir; here’s ‘success to trade!’”—“The Auld Kirk Yard.”
THE FAIRY BRIDE:
A TRADITIONARY TALE.
A short time before the rising of the Presbyterians, which

terminated in the rout at Pentland, a young gentleman of the name
of Elliot had been called by business to Edinburgh. On his way
homeward, he resolved to pay a visit to an old friend named Scott,
whose residence was either upon the banks of the Tweed or some of
its larger tributaries,—for on this point the tradition is not very
distinct. Elliot stopped at a small house of entertainment not far
from Scott’s mansion, in order to give his parting directions to a
servant he was despatching home with some commissions.
The signs of the times had not altogether escaped the notice of our
hero. The people were quiet, but reserved, and their looks expressed
anything but satisfaction. In Edinburgh there were musterings and
inspections of troops, and expresses to and from London were hourly
departing and arriving. As Elliot travelled along, he had more than
once encountered small parties of military reconnoitring the country,
or hastening to some post which had been assigned them. Fewer
labourers were to be seen in the fields than was usual at the season.
The cottars lounged before their doors, and gazed after the passing
warriors with an air of sullen apathy. There was no violence or
disturbance on the part of the people,—there had as yet been no
arrestments,—but it was evident to the most careless that hostile
suspicion was rapidly taking the place of that inactive dislike which
had previously existed between the governors and the governed.
It was natural that in such a condition of the national temper,
affairs of state should form the chief subject of gossip around the
fireside of a country inn. Elliot was not surprised, therefore, while
sitting at the long deal table, giving directions to his servant, to hear
the name of his friend frequent in the mouths of the peasantry. It
was a matter of course that at such a period the motions and
inclinations of a wealthy and active landholder of old family should
be jealously watched. But it struck him that Scott’s name was always
uttered in a low, hesitating tone, as if the speakers were labouring
under a high degree of awe. He continued, therefore, some time after
he had dismissed his attendant, sitting as if lost in thought, but
anxiously listening to the desultory conversation dropping around
him, like the few shots of a distant skirmish. The allusions of the
peasants were chiefly directed to his friend’s wife. She was beautiful
and kind, but there was an unearthly light in her dark eye. Then
there was a dark allusion to a marriage on the hillside,—far from
human habitation,—to the terror of the clergyman who officiated, at
meeting so lovely a creature in so lonely a place. The Episcopalian
predilections of the family of Scott were not passed unnoticed. And it
seemed universally admitted that the house had been given over to
the glamour and fascination of some unearthly being. The power of a
leader so connected, in the impending strife, was the subject of dark
forebodings.
Rather amused to find his old crony become a person of such
consequence, Elliot discharged his reckoning, mounted his steed,
and on reaching Scott’s residence, was warmly and cheerfully
welcomed. He was immediately introduced to the lady, whom he
regarded with a degree of attention which he would have been
ashamed to confess to himself was in some degree owing to the
conversation he had lately overheard. She was a figure of a fairy size,
delicately proportioned, with not one feature or point of her form to
which objection could be urged. Her rich brown hair clustered down
her neck, and lay in massive curls upon her bosom. Her complexion
was delicate in the extreme, and the rich blood mantled in her face at
every word. Her eyes were a rich brownish hazel, and emitted an
almost preternatural light, but there was nothing ungentle in their
expression. The honeymoon had not elapsed, and she stood before
the admiring traveller in all the beauty of a bride—the most beautiful
state of woman’s existence, when, to the unfolding delicate beauty of
girlhood is superadded the flush of a fuller consciousness of
existence, the warmth of affection which dare now utter itself
unchecked, the first half-serious, half-playful assumption of
matronly dignity. After a brief interchange of compliment with her
guest, she left the apartment, either because “the house affairs did
call her thence,” or because she wished to leave the friends to the
indulgence of an unrestrained confidential conversation.
“A perfect fairy queen,” said Elliot, as the door closed behind her.
“So you have already heard that silly story?” answered his host.
“Well! I have no right to complain, for I have only myself to thank for
it.”
Elliot requested that he would explain his meaning, and he in
compliance narrated his “whole course of wooing.”
“I was detained abroad, as you well know, for some years after his
Majesty’s restoration, partly on account of the dilapidated state of my
fortunes, and partly because I wished to prosecute the career of arms
I had commenced. It is now about nine months since I returned to
my native country. It was a gloomy day as I approached home. You
remember the footpath which strikes across the hill behind the
house, from the bed of the stream which mingles, about a mile below
us, with that on whose banks we now are. Where it separates from
the public road, I gave my horse to the servant, intending to pursue
the by-path alone, resolved that no one should watch my emotions
when I again beheld the home of my fathers. I was looking after the
lad, when I heard the tread of horses close behind me. On turning, I
saw a tall, elderly gentleman, of commanding aspect, and by his side
a young lady upon a slender milk-white palfrey. I need not describe
her; you have seen her to-day. I was struck with the delicacy of her
features, the sweet smile upon her lips, and the living fire that
sparkled from her eyes. I gazed after her until a turning of the road
concealed her from my view.
“It was in vain that I inquired among my relations and
acquaintances. No person was known in the neighbourhood such as I
described her. The impression she left upon me, vivid though it was
at the moment, had died away, when one day, as I was walking near
the turn of the road where I had lost her, she again rode past me with
the same companion. The sweet smile, the glance of the eye, were
heightened this time by a blush of recognition. The pair were soon
lost to me round the elbow of the road. I hurried on, but they had
disappeared. The straggling trees which obscured the view, ceased at
a bridge which stood a couple of gun-shots before me. Ere I could
reach it, I caught a glimpse of the companions. They were at the edge
of the stream, a little way above the bridge—their horses were
drinking. I pressed onward, but before I had cleared the intervening
trees and reached the bridge, they had once more disappeared. There
was a small break in the water immediately beneath the place where
they had stood. For a moment, I thought that I must have mistaken
its whiteness for the white palfrey, but the glance I had got of them
was too clear to have been an illusion. Yet no road led in that
direction. I examined the banks on both sides of the river, but that on
which I saw them was too hard to receive a hoof-print, and the
opposite bank was loose shingle, which refused to retain it when
made. The exceeding beauty of the maiden, the mysterious nature of
her disappearance, the irritable humour into which I had worked
myself by conjectures and an unavailing search, riveted her
impression upon my memory. I traversed the country telling my
story, and making incessant inquiry. In vain! No one knew of such a
person. The peasants began to look strangely on me, and whisper in
each other’s ears, that I had been deluded by some Nixy. And many
were the old prophecies regarding my family remembered—or
manufactured—for the occasion.
“Five months passed away in vain pursuit. My pertinacity was
beginning to relax, when one evening, returning from a visit to our
friend Whitelee, I heard a clashing of swords on the road before me.
Two fellows ran off as I rode hastily up, leaving a gentleman, who
had vigorously defended himself against their joint assault. ‘Are you
hurt, sir?’ was my first inquiry. ‘I fear I am,’ replied the stranger,
whom I immediately recognised as the companion of the mysterious
beauty. ‘Can I assist you?’ He looked earnestly at me, and with an
expression of hesitation on his countenance. ‘Henry Scott, you are a
man of honour.’ He paused, but immediately resumed, ‘I have no
choice, and I dare trust a soldier. Lend me your arm, sir. My dwelling
is not far from here.’ I accompanied him, he leaning heavily upon
me, for the exertion of the combat had shaken his frame, and the loss
of blood weakened him. We followed the direction he indicated for
nearly half an hour round the trackless base of a hill, until we came
in sight of one of those old gray towers which stud our ravines.
‘There,’ said my companion, pointing to the ruin. I recognised it
immediately; it stood not far distant from the place where he and his
fair fellow-traveller had disappeared, and had often been examined
by me, but always in vain.
“Turning an angle of the building, we approached a heap of debris,
which in one part encumbered its base. Putting aside some tangled
briers which clustered around, he showed me a narrow entry
between the ruins and the wall. Passing up to this, he stopped before
a door, and gave three gentle knocks; it opened, and we were
admitted into a rude, narrow vault. It was tenanted, as I had
anticipated, by his fair companion. As soon as her alarm at seeing
her father return exhausted, bleeding, and in company with a
stranger, was stilled, and the old man’s wound dressed, he turned to
explain to me the circumstances in which I found him. His story was
brief. He was of good family; had killed a cadet of a noble house, and
was obliged to save himself from its resentment by hiding in ruins
and holes of the earth. In all his wanderings his gentle daughter had
never quitted his side.
“I need not weary you with the further details of our growing
acquaintance. It is the common story of a young man and a young
woman thrown frequently into each other’s company in a lonely
place. But, oh! tame though it may appear to others, the mere
memory of the three months of my life which followed is ecstasy! I
saw her daily—in that unfrequented spot there was small danger of
intrusion, and she dared range the hillside freely. We walked, and
sat, and talked together in the birchen wood beneath the tower, and
we felt our love unfold itself as their leaves spread out to the
advancing summer. There was no check in the tranquil progress of
our affections—no jealousies, for there was none to be jealous of.
Unmarked, it overpowered us both. It swelled upon us, like the tide
of a breathless summer day, purely and noiselessly.
“A few weeks ago her father took me aside, and prefacing that he
had marked with pleasure our growing attachment, asked me if I had
sufficient confidence in my own constancy to pledge myself to be for
life an affectionate and watchful guardian of his child? He went on to
say, that means of escaping from the country had been provided, and
offers of promotion in the Spanish service made to him. Your own
heart will suggest my answer; and I left him, charged to return after
nightfall with a clergyman. Our good curate is too much attached to
the family to refuse me anything. To him I revealed my story. At
midnight he united me to Ellen, and scarcely was the ceremony over,
when Sir James tore himself away, leaving his weeping child almost
insensible in my arms.
“Two gentlemen, who accompanied Sir James to the coast, were
witnesses of the marriage. It was therefore unnecessary to let any of
the household into the secret. You may guess their astonishment,
therefore, when, having seen the curate and me ride up the solitary
glen alone under cloud of night, they saw us return in the course of a
few hours with a lady, who was introduced to them as their mistress.
Great has been their questioning, and great has been the delight of
our jolly priest to mystify them with dark hints of ruined towers,
hillsides opening, and such like. The story of the Nixy has been
revived, too, and Ellen is looked on by many with a superstitious
awe. I rather enjoyed the joke at first, but now begin to fear, from the
deep root the folly seems to have taken, that it may one day bear evil
fruits for my delicate girl.”
His augury of evil was well-founded, but the blight fell upon his
own heart. As soon as he heard of the rising in the west, he joined the
royal forces at the head of his tenantry. During his absence, and
while the storm of civil war was raging over the land, his cherished
one was seized with the pangs of premature labour. She lay in the
same grave with her child, before her husband could reach his home.
The remembrance of what she had undergone, her loneliness amid
the tempests of winter, her isolation from all friends, had so shaken
her frame that the first attack of illness snapped the thread of life.
Her sufferings were comparatively short. But the widower! He
sought to efface the remembrance of his loss in active service.
Wherever insubordination showed itself, he prayed for employment.
The Presbyterians learned at last to consider him as the embodied
personification of persecution. The story of his mysterious marriage
got wind. He was regarded as one allied to, and acting under, the
influence of unholy powers. He knew it, and, in the bitterness of his
heart, he rejoiced to be marked out by their fear and terror, as one
who had nothing in common with them. His own misery, and this
outcast feeling, made him aspire to be ranked in their minds as a
destroying spirit. The young, gallant, and kind-hearted soldier
became the most relentless persecutor of the followers of the
Covenant. Even yet does his memory, and that of his Fairy Bride, live
in popular tradition like a thunderstorm, gloomy and desolating, yet
not without lambent flashes of more than earthly beauty.—
Edinburgh Literary Journal.
THE LOST LITTLE ONES.
Chapter I.
I have a story to tell relative to what happened to Sir George and
Lady Beaumont, the excellent and beloved proprietors of the
Hermitage, in a neighbouring county. At the period of which I speak,
their family consisted of five children, three sons and two daughters;
and their eldest, a daughter called Charlotte, was then nine years of
age. She was a remarkably clever child, and a great favourite of her
parents; but her mother used to remark that her vivacity required
checking, and, notwithstanding her partiality for her, she never failed
to exercise it when it became necessary. It would have been well had
others acted equally judiciously.
It happened one day, as the family were going to sit down to
dinner, that Charlotte did not make her appearance. The maid was
sent up to her room, but she was not there. The dinner-bell was
ordered to be rung again, and a servant was at the same time
dispatched to the garden; and this having been done, Sir George and
his lady proceeded with the other youngsters to the dining-room, not
doubting but Charlotte would be home immediately. The soup,
however, was finished without any tidings of her, when, Lady
Beaumont seeming a little uneasy, Sir George assured her there was
no cause for alarm, as Charlotte would probably be found under her
favourite gooseberry bush. Lady Beaumont seemed to acquiesce in
this, and appeared tolerably composed, till the servant who had been
sent to the garden came back to say that she was not there. Sir
George insisted that the man had probably passed her without seeing
her, the garden being so large; but the servant averred that he had
been through the whole of it, and had shouted repeatedly Miss
Charlotte’s name.
“Oh!” exclaimed Sir George, “she has pretended not to hear you,
Robert, and, I daresay, will be back immediately, now that she has
succeeded in giving you a race round the garden; however,” added
he, “you may go back again, and take Samuel and Thomas with you,
and if you do not find her hiding herself in the garden, you may take
a peep into the shrubbery, as she may slip in there, on seeing you
returning; and as you go along, you may call to her, and say that
dinner waits, and that Lady Beaumont is much displeased with her
being out at this time of the day. And now, my love,” continued Sir
George to his lady, “just let us proceed with dinner, and compose
yourself.”
Lady Beaumont forced a smile, and busied herself in attending to
her young ones; but her own plate was neglected, and her eyes were
continually turned towards the window which looked upon the lawn.
“What can keep Robert, papa?” said Charles to his father.
“Indeed, my boy,” said Sir George, “I do not know. Charlotte,”
continued he to Lady Beaumont, “do you see any thing?”
“They are all coming back,” exclaimed Lady Beaumont, “and
alone!” and she rose hastily from her chair.
Robert and the other men now entered, and reported that they had
searched every spot in the garden and the shrubbery, but without
finding any trace of her; and the people who had been working there
all day had seen nothing of her. Lady Beaumont now became
excessively alarmed, and Sir George himself was far from easy,
though he appeared before his lady to treat the matter lightly.
“She’ll have gone up to the cottages to see her god-brother,” said
Sir George; “or perhaps have wandered over to the mill.”
“And if she has fallen into the stream!” ejaculated Lady Beaumont.
“Now, dear Charlotte, do not needlessly alarm yourself; there’s no
fear but we shall soon find her.”
“God grant it!” said Lady Beaumont, “but my mind misgives me
sadly.”
Messengers were now dispatched to the cottages, and to the mill,
and in various other directions around the Hermitage, but all came
back without having obtained any tidings of the missing child. Sir
George, now very seriously alarmed, gave private directions for
having the fish-pond, and the stream which ran at the bottom of the
garden, carefully dragged. It was done, but nothing was found. The
whole household was now in motion, and as the story spread, the
tenants and neighbours came pouring from all quarters, with offers
to search the country round in every direction; so much was Sir
George esteemed and beloved by all classes. Their offers were
thankfully accepted, and after choosing their ground, and dividing
themselves into different parties, they set out from the Hermitage,
resolved, as they said, to find the little one, if she was above ground.
Sir George and his lady went out as the parties set off in their
different directions, and continued walking up and down the avenue,
that they might the sooner perceive the approach of those bringing
intelligence; but hour after hour elapsed, and no one came. Sir
George then proposed that Lady Beaumont should go home and see
the young ones put to bed. She did so, but soon returned again.
“I know,” said she, answering Sir George’s look, “that you wished
me to remain at home and rest myself; but what rest can there be for
me, till we have some intelligence of”——and her voice faltered.
“Well, well, then,” said Sir George, pressing her arm in his, “let us
take a few more turns—surely we must hear something soon.”
The people now began to come dropping in from different
quarters, but all had the same melancholy answer—no one had seen
or heard of her. The hearts of the poor parents were sadly depressed,
for daylight was fast closing in, and almost all those who had set off
on the search had now returned, and amongst them their faithful
servant Robert, principally from anxiety to learn if any intelligence
had been obtained of his favourite. But when he found that all had
returned unsuccessful, he declared his determination to continue the
search during the night; and he, and a good many others who joined
him, set off soon afterwards, being supplied with torches and
lanterns of various descriptions.
This determination gave new hopes to the inmates of the
Hermitage, and Lady Beaumont endeavoured to rally her spirits; but
when at length, as daylight broke, Robert and his party returned
alone, and without intelligence, nature exhausted gave way, and she
fell senseless in her husband’s arms.
In the morning Robert tapped at Sir George’s door, and
communicated quietly to him his recollecting to have seen a rather
suspicious-looking woman near the Hermitage the previous day, and
that he had just heard from a neighbour, that a woman of that
description, with a child in her arms, had been seen passing to the
eastward. Orders were immediately given for a pursuit on horseback;
—Sir George giving directions to bring in every one whom they
suspected; saying, that he would compensate those who had reason
to complain of being used in this way. But, though many were
brought to the Hermitage, and large rewards were offered, yet week
after week passed over without bringing them the smallest
intelligence of their lost little one.
Some months had elapsed since their child had disappeared, and
the minds of the parents had become comparatively composed, when
their attention was one evening attracted by the appearance of an
unusual number of people in the grounds below the terrace, and
whose motions it seemed difficult to understand.
“What can have brought so many people there?” asked Lady
Beaumont; “and what are they doing?”
“Indeed, my love, I do not know,” said Sir George, “but there’s
Robert, passing down the walk, and he will tell us;” and he called to
Robert, who, however, seemed rather not to wish to hear; but Sir
George called again, and so loudly, that Robert was obliged to stop.
“Robert,” said Sir George, “what do these people seek in the low
grounds there?”
“They are looking for —— of Widow Watt’s, your honour,” said
Robert.
“Did you hear what it was, my dear?” said Sir George to his lady.
“No,” said Lady Beaumont; “but probably her pet lamb, or more
likely her cow, has strayed.”
“Is it her cow that’s amissing, Robert?” called Sir George.
“No, your honour,” said Robert.
“Her lamb then, or some other beast?” asked Sir George.
“Naething o’ the kind, your honour,” answered Robert.
“What then?” demanded Sir George, in a tone that showed he
would be answered.
“Why, your honour, they say that wee Leezie Watt’s no come
hame, and the folk are gaun to seek for her; and nae doubt they’ll
soon find her,” added Robert, stepping hastily away to join them.
Sir George had felt Lady Beaumont’s convulsive grasp of his arm,
and gently led her to a seat, where after a while she became more
composed, and was able to walk to the Hermitage.
“And now,” said she, on reaching the door, “think no more of me,
but give all your thoughts to the most likely means of restoring the
poor child to its widowed parent.”
“Spoken like yourself,” said Sir George, pressing her hand; and
immediately flew to give directions for making the most thorough
and effectual search. But this search, alas! proved equally unavailing
as the former one, and no trace whatever could be found of the
widow’s child.
The story, joined to the disappearance of Sir George’s daughter,
made a great noise, and created considerable alarm in that part of
the country; and this alarm was increased fourfold, when, in three
weeks afterwards, another child was lost. The whole population now
turned out, and people were stationed to watch in different places by
night and by day. But no discovery was made; and, to add to their
horror, child after child disappeared, till the number of the lost little
ones amounted to seven. Parents no longer durst trust their children
for a moment out of their sight. They went with them to school, and
also went to bring them back again; and these precautions had the
best effect, many weeks having elapsed without anything unpleasant
happening. The neighbours now began to congratulate each other on
the probability, or rather certainty, that those who had inflicted so
much misery in that quarter of the country had gone somewhere else,
and that they would now be able to live in some kind of peace and
comfort. But this peaceful state was not destined to continue.
One of Sir George’s best tenants, David Williams, had been busily
engaged in ploughing the whole day, and was thinking of unyoking
and going home, when his wife looked over the dyke, and asked him
how he was coming on. “But whaur,” continued she, “are the bairns?
are they at the t’ither end o’ the field?”
“The bairns!” said David, “I haena seen them; but is’t time for their
being back frae the school?”
“Time!” exclaimed his wife; “muckle mair than time, they should
hae been hame an hour syne; and that brought me out to see gif they
were wi’ you, as you said ye wad may be lowse and gang to meet
them!”
“’Od, I was unco keen,” said David, “to finish this bit lea, and had
nae notion it was sae far in the day.”
“Preserve us!” exclaimed Matty, “gif anything has happened to
them!”
“Nonsense,” cried David, “when there’s three o’ them thegither;
but, here,” says he, “tak ye the beasts hame, and I’se be off, and will
soon be back wi’ them; sae dinna vex yoursel.”
“I hope it may be sae,” said Matty, “but my heart misgies me sair—
however, dinna wait to speak about it.”
David Williams was not long of reaching the school, where he
learned from the mistress, that his children had remained a good
while after the rest, expecting him to come for them; but that they
had at length set out to meet him, as she understood, and that they
had been gone above an hour, and she thought they would have been
home long ago. “But, perhaps,” continued she, “they may have called
in at their aunt’s, for I heard them speaking of her to-day.”
David took a hasty leave, and posted away to his sister’s, but the
children had not been there, nor had any one seen them. His
brother-in-law, John Maxwell, seeing his distress, proposed taking
one road, while David took the other, towards home, and to meet at
the corner of the planting near his house. They did so, and arrived
nearly at the same time, and each without having heard or seen
anything of the children. David Williams was now in a perfect agony,
and the perspiration ran like water from his forehead.
“Maybe they’re hame already,” said his brother-in-law; “I daurna
gang up mysel to speir, bit we’ll send yon herd laddie.”
John went, and gave the boy his directions to ask, first, if David
Williams was at hame, and then to ask, cannie-like, if the weans were
in. He then sat down beside David, keeping his eye on the cottage,
when he sees Matty come fleeing out like one distracted.
“Down, David! down wi’ your head, man,” cried John, “that she
mayna see us.” But Matty had got a glimpse of them, and came right
down on them as fast as she could run.
“Whaur’s my bairns, David?” cried she; “whaur’s our bonnie
bairns? I kent weel, whenever the callant askit if they were come
hame, what was the meaning o’t. They’re lost, they’re lost!”
continued the poor woman, wringing her hands, “and what’ll become
o’ me?”
“Now Matty, Matty, my ain wife,” said David, “dinna ye gang on at
that gate, and hurt yoursel; naebody but John and me has been
looking for them, and we’ve come straught hame, and there’s a heap
o’ ither ways, ye ken, that they may hae gane by.”
“Ay, ower mony—ower mony ways, I’m doubtin’,” said Matty
mournfully, shaking her head; “but dinna let us put aff time this gate.
Rin ye baith an’ alarm the neebours, and I’ll awa to the Hermitage,
where we’re sure to get help; and God grant it mayna end wi’ mine as
it did wi’ ithers!”
Chapter II.
“By heavens!” exclaimed Sir George, while the blood mounted to
his forehead, “but this is infamous. Ring the alarm bell,” continued
he, “and let all my tenants and domestics turn out on foot or on
horseback, and form as large a circle round the place as possible; and
let them bring out all their dogs, in case this horrid business is
caused by some wild animal or another which may have broken from
its keeper; and Robert,” continued Sir George, “see that no strangers
are allowed to pass the circle, on any pretence whatever, without my
having seen and examined them.”
These orders were immediately obeyed, and the alarm having
spread far and near, an immense body of people quickly assembled,
and commenced a most determined and active search, gradually
narrowing their circle as they advanced.
Lady Beaumont, ascending to the top of the Hermitage, which
commanded a view of the whole surrounding country, watched their
proceedings with the most intense interest; trusting that the result
would be not only the restoration of David Williams’ children, but
the discovery also of the others which had disappeared, and of her
own little one amongst the number. At times, single horsemen would
dash from the circle at a gallop, and presently return with some man
or woman for Sir George’s examination; and while that lasted, Lady
Beaumont’s heart beat fast and thick; but the dismissal of the people,
and the re-commencement of the search, painfully convinced her
that no discovery had yet been made; and sighing deeply, she again
turned her eyes on the searchers. At other times, the furious barking
of the dogs, and the running of the people on foot towards the spot,
seemed to promise some discovery; but the bursting out from the
plantation of some unfortunate calf or sheep, showed that the people
had been merely hastening to protect them from the unruly animals
which had been brought together, and who, having straggled away
from their masters, were under no control.
The day was now fast closing in, and the circle had become greatly
diminished in extent; and when, in a short time afterwards, it had

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