Ireland’s Imperial Connections,

1775–1947 Daniel Sanjiv Roberts

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Ireland’s Imperial
Connections, 1775–1947

Edited by
Daniel Sanjiv Roberts · Jonathan Jeffrey Wright
Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies
Series

Series Editors
Richard Drayton
Department of History
King’s College London
London, UK

Saul Dubow
Magdalene College
University of Cambridge
Cambridge, UK
The Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies series is a collection of
studies on empires in world history and on the societies and cultures which
emerged from colonialism. It includes both transnational, comparative
and connective studies, and studies which address where particular regions
or nations participate in global phenomena. While in the past the series
focused on the British Empire and Commonwealth, in its current incarna-
tion there is no imperial system, period of human history or part of the
world which lies outside of its compass. While we particularly welcome the
first monographs of young researchers, we also seek major studies by more
senior scholars, and welcome collections of essays with a strong thematic
focus. The series includes work on politics, economics, culture, literature,
science, art, medicine, and war. Our aim is to collect the most exciting new
scholarship on world history with an imperial theme.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/13937
 Daniel Sanjiv Roberts
Jonathan Jeffrey Wright
Editors

Ireland’s Imperial
Connections,
1775–1947
Editors
Daniel Sanjiv Roberts Jonathan Jeffrey Wright
Queen’s University Belfast Maynooth University
Belfast, UK Maynooth, Kildare, Ireland

Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series

ISBN 978-3-030-25983-9    ISBN 978-3-030-25984-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25984-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
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microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
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tional affiliations.

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 Acknowledgements

This book originated in a conference organized by the editors under the

auspices of the erstwhile Institute for Collaborative Research in the
Humanities (ICRH) at Queen’s University Belfast. We would like to thank
its then Director, Prof. John Thompson, and the staff of the ICRH, for
their support. We are greatly indebted to all the participants of that con-
ference for their collegiality and for the many fruitful ideas that were gen-
erated by the event. Those who continued to collaborate with us towards
this publication, and others whom we approached to join us at a later
stage, are gratefully and equally acknowledged. We learned much from
them, and are delighted to present their work within the framework envi-
sioned by our call. On a practical level, we are very much indebted to our
indexer Averill Buchanan for her meticulous work accomplished in a
timely way. We are grateful, likewise, to the editors of the Cambridge
Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies series for accepting our work and
bringing it to press, and to Maeve Sinnott at Palgrave Macmillan for guid-
ing us through the submission process.
Jonathan Jeffery Wright would also like to acknowledge the encourage-
ment and support of his colleagues in the Department of History at
Maynooth University, and, above all, to thank Rhiannon for her patience
and good humour, and George and Clara for filling the house with laugh-
ter, noise, and much-needed distraction.
Daniel Sanjiv Roberts is grateful to the Faculty of Arts, Humanities and
Social Sciences, and the School of Arts, English and Languages at Queen’s
University Belfast, which provided the research facilities and a collegial
environment for the growth of this project. He is grateful to Queen’s for

v
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

research and publication funding towards this book. Finally, he thanks his
family, Satya, Syama, and Tanvi, for their support, interest, and love; he
hopes that their family connections spread between many of the locations
covered in this book will have made this project all the more endear-
ing to them.
 Contents

1 Introduction  1
Daniel Sanjiv Roberts and Jonathan Jeffrey Wright

Part I Inhabiting Empire  15

2 “Residing in this distant portion of the great empire”:

The Irish in Imperial Halifax, Nova Scotia 17
Peter Ludlow and Terrence Murphy

3 From Enniskillen to Nairobi: The Coles in British East

Africa 37
Eve Patten

4 Walking to China: Infatuation and the Irish in New

South Wales 57
Killian Quigley

5 Competing Narratives: White Slavery, Servitude and the

Irish in Late-Eighteenth-­Century America 75
Martyn Powell

vii
viii Contents

Part II Writing/Imagining Empire 101

6 “Humble Obedience to the Will of Heaven”: Charles

Johnston’s Providential and Migratory Sensibility103
Daniel Sanjiv Roberts

7 Prudence and Prejudice in Maria Edgeworth’s “Murad

the Unlucky” (1804)121
Sonja Lawrenson

8 “A work purely local?”: Narratives of Empire in George

Benn’s A History of the Town of Belfast143
Jonathan Jeffrey Wright

Part III Resistance/Collusion 169

9 The 1857 Indian Uprising in Irish Ballads: Voices of the

Subaltern171
Raphaela Adjobimey

10 Afghanistan, the Indian “Mutiny,” and the Bicultural

Stereotype of John Nicholson191
Pramod K. Nayar

11 Violent Resistance: The Irish Revolution and India213

Kate O’Malley

Part IV Networking 231

12 Stateless and Destitute: The O’Rourke Family of Saint-

Domingue, Nantes and Wexford, 1788–1805233
Orla Power
 Contents  ix

13 An Irish Surgeon in Barbados and Demerara: Vexation,

Misery and Opportunity251
Jennifer McLaren

14 “Colouring the map red”: Lady Hariot Dufferin and the

Imperial Networks of the Dufferin Fund273
Sarah Hunter

Bibliography of Principal Works Cited291

Index315
 Notes on Contributors

Raphaela Adjobimey teaches English and Religion at the Städtische

Gymnasium Sedanstraße in Wuppertal, Germany. She holds a BA in
English and American Studies and Theology (2007) and an MEd (2009)
(Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany). She completed her MA in Modern
Literary Studies (Queen’s University Belfast, 2008) after being awarded a
scholarship from the DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service). She
subsequently completed her PhD on “Irish Perspectives on the Indian
‘Mutiny’ of 1857” in 2013 as a recipient of a grant from the English
Department of QUB.
Sarah Hunter was awarded a PhD from Trinity College, Dublin in 2015.
Her PhD, titled “The Dublin University Mission—Irish medical mission-
aries in Britain’s empire in India, 1891–1929: identity, impact and sustain-
ability,” assessed the role of, and contribution made by, predominately
female doctors and nurses working in a remote region of India. She works
in university partnerships for the Global Team at Ulster University.
Sonja Lawrenson lectures on eighteenth- and nineteenth-century litera-
ture at Manchester Metropolitan University. Her research centres on wom-
en’s writing in eighteenth-century and Romantic Ireland. She has published
on authors such as Frances Sheridan, Elizabeth Hamilton, Maria Edgeworth,
and Sydney Owenson, and more broadly on Romantic Orientalism,
Romantic popular fiction and the eighteenth-­century Irish stage.
Peter Ludlow is an adjunct professor of Catholic Studies at St. Francis
Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. As the President of the

xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Canadian Catholic Historical Association, he has published widely

on religion and migration in Atlantic Canada. His first book The
Canny Scot: Archbishop James Morrison of Antigonish was published by
McGill-Queen’s University Press in 2015.
Jennifer McLaren returned to study after a legal career in Australia and
the UK, and she completed her PhD at Macquarie University in 2018.
Her thesis utilised the biographies of ten sojourners in the Caribbean to
examine the Irish experience of empire during the revolutionary era. Her
Masters of Research thesis on the reporting of imperial news in
England and Ireland regarding the Battle of the Saintes (1783) was
adapted for publication in a special issue of Éire-Ireland on transna-
tional Ireland in 2016.
Terrence Murphy is Emeritus Professor of Religious Studies and History
at Saint Mary’s University (Halifax), where he previously served as Vice-­
President, Academic and Research. A specialist in the religious history of
Canada, with an emphasis on the Atlantic region, he is the co-author of a
number of books and articles including A Concise History of Christianity
in Canada (1996) and Creed and Culture: The Place of English-speaking
Catholics in Canadian Society, 1780–1930 (1993). He is the former editor
of Historical Studies, the annual journal of the Canadian Catholic Historical
Society.
Pramod K. Nayar teaches at the Department of English, the University
of Hyderabad. He is the author, most recently, of Ecoprecarity: Vulnerability
in Literature and Culture (2019), Brand Postcolonial (2019), Bhopal’s
Ecological Gothic (2017), The Extreme in Contemporary Culture (2017),
Human Rights and Literature (2016) and The Indian Graphic Novel
(2016) besides essays on graphic novels, celebrity studies, Fanon and oth-
ers in several journals. His current projects include a book on human
rights comics and one on Indian travel writing, 1830–1947.
Kate O’Malley is Managing Editor of the Royal Irish Academy’s
Dictionary of Irish Biography (DIB). She was Assistant Editor with the
Documents on Irish Foreign Policy (DIFP) series from 2005 to 2019. She
is a graduate of Trinity College, Dublin (BA, PhD). She has written exten-
sively on Indo-Irish relations and her book Ireland, India and Empire was
published by Manchester University Press in 2008. Her research interests
encompass Irish diplomatic and political history, twentieth-­century Indian
history, British imperial and Commonwealth history and British decoloni-
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

sation. She is an occasional lecturer at Trinity College, Dublin as well as an

associate of the Centre for Contemporary Irish History. She has also
taught at University College Dublin and at Queen’s University, Belfast.
Eve Patten is a professor in the School of English at Trinity College,
Dublin, and Director of the MPhil in Irish Writing at Trinity’s Oscar Wilde
Centre for Irish and Creative Writing. She has published widely on mod-
ern Irish literary and cultural studies and is the author of Samuel Ferguson
and the Culture of Nineteenth-Century Ireland (2004) and Imperial
Refugee: Olivia Manning’s Fictions of War (2012). She is the editor of
Irish Literature in Transition, 1940–1980, forthcoming from Cambridge
University Press in 2020, and is researching a book on the representation
of Ireland in English literary modernism.
Martyn Powell is Professor and Head of the School of Humanities at the
University of Bristol. He is a specialist in Irish political, cultural and social
history, and his publications include Britain and Ireland in the Eighteenth-­
Century Crisis of Empire (2003), The Politics of Consumption in Eighteenth-­
Century Ireland (2005), Piss-Pots, Printers and Public Opinion in
Eighteenth-Century Dublin (2009), Clubs and Societies in Eighteenth-­
Century Ireland (2010) (edited with James Kelly), and many articles and
essays. He is working on a study of violence in Irish society, titled
“Houghers and Chalkers: The Knife in Revolutionary Ireland, 1760–
1815,” and an edition of the political works of Richard Brinsley Sheridan,
part of a Leverhulme-funded research project, for Oxford University
Press.
Orla Power completed her PhD “Irish Planters, Atlantic Merchants: The
Development of Saint Croix, Danish West Indies, 1750–1766” at the
Moore Institute, NUI Galway in 2011. She was an Irish Research
Council Postdoctoral Fellow at the Department of History, Trinity
College Dublin from 2012 to 2014. Her areas of interest include
eighteenth-century Irish merchant families and their activities in
Europe and the French, Spanish and Danish Caribbean. She lives in
Galway with her husband and two children where she also works as medi-
cal doctor.
Killian Quigley is a postdoctoral fellow at the Sydney Environment
Institute, University of Sydney. His PhD was awarded by the Department
of English at Vanderbilt University. He has recently been investigating the
poetics and aesthetics of oceanic, and particularly submarine, environ-
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

ments. He is co-editor, with Margaret Cohen, of The Aesthetics of the

Undersea (Routledge Environmental Humanities, 2019) and author of a
manuscript entitled The Myriad Sea: Submarine Poetics (under review).
His research is also available in Eighteenth-Century Studies, Eighteenth-
Century Life, and The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation, and
forthcoming in A Cultural History of the Sea in the Age of Enlightenment
(Bloomsbury) and elsewhere.
Daniel Sanjiv Roberts is a reader in English at Queen’s University
Belfast and the current Director of its Centre for Eighteenth-Century
Studies. He has published major scholarly editions of works by Charles
Johnston, Robert Southey and Thomas De Quincey, and written widely
on eighteenth-century and Romantic-period literature in relation to
empire. His edition of Southey’s The Curse of Kehama won a citation from
the MLA as a Distinguished Scholarly Edition in 2005.
Jonathan Jeffrey Wright is Lecturer in History at Maynooth University.
His research focuses on Ulster’s connections with the Atlantic World dur-
ing the Age of Revolution. He has recently completed an edition of the
letters of the Belfast-born Trinidadian slave-owner John Black, and his
previous publications include The “Natural Leaders” and Their World:
Politics, Culture and Society in Belfast, c. 1801–1832 (2012), Spaces of
Global Knowledge: Exhibition, Encounter and Exchange in an Age of
Empire (2015, edited with Diarmid A. Finnegan) and Urban Spaces in
Nineteenth-Century Ireland (2018, edited with Georgina Laragy and
Olwen Purdue).
 List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 The fourth Earl of Enniskillen with family and senior estate
servants at Florence Court, County Fermanagh. (Enniskillen
Papers, by kind permission of the Deputy Keeper of the Public
Records Office of Northern Ireland) 38
Fig. 3.2 Berkeley, Galbraith and Florence Cole as children at Florence
Court, County Fermanagh. (Enniskillen Papers, by kind
permission of the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records Office of
Northern Ireland) 39
Fig. 10.1 Brigadier-General John Nicholson, Memorial Statue, Lisburn,
Northern Ireland (Copyright, Alamy Stock Photo) 192
Fig. 13.1 The late John Crawford MD RWGM of Masons in Maryland.
Engraved agreeably to a resolution of Cassia Lodge, No.45, as a
tribute in personal regard and of respect for the many virtues that
adorn his character, 1814. (Source: Julia E. Wilson, “Dr. John
Crawford, 1746–1813.” Bulletin of the School of Medicine
University of Maryland 25 (1950): 121. Reproduced with
permission from the University of Maryland Health Sciences and
Human Services Library. https://archive.org/details/
bulletinofuniver2525/page/120)252

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Daniel Sanjiv Roberts and Jonathan Jeffrey Wright

Among the many statues and memorials surrounding Belfast’s impressive

City Hall, “much the finest” (in the opinion of architectural historian
C. E. B. Brett) is that of the first Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, Frederick
Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood (1826–1902).1 Posing in full rega-
lia, which recall his distinguished career as a former Governor-General of
Canada and Viceroy of India (among other eminent posts), Lord Dufferin
is attended by two imperial subjects, a Canadian boatman seated on the
body of a moose, and a turbaned Sikh warrior, with a sword, seated on a
cannon (see the cover image for the latter). Though it is the imperial gran-
dee, Lord Dufferin, standing with insouciant ease, who is undoubtedly
meant to be the focus of attention, his attentive and unnamed attendants
are nonetheless, in their own way, finely realised portraits, their different
histories, geographies and ethnicities suggestive of the reach and power of
the empire. Their generally overlooked presence in the heart of Belfast,
alongside their imperial master (his statue, an adjunct to the more impos-
ing, though somewhat less successful, memorial to Queen Victoria,

D. S. Roberts (*)
Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK
e-mail: d.s.roberts@qub.ac.uk
J. J. Wright
Maynooth University, Maynooth, Kildare, Ireland
e-mail: Jonathan.Wright@mu.ie

© The Author(s) 2019 1

D. S. Roberts, J. J. Wright (eds.), Ireland’s Imperial Connections,
1775–1947, Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25984-6_1
2 D. S. ROBERTS AND J. J. WRIGHT

Empress of India, in front of the City Hall) serves also to foreground the
thematic concern of the present volume—that of Ireland’s relationship
with the wider British Empire.
Viewed one way, the history of Ireland during the long period covered
by this collection (1775–1947) evokes a narrative characterised by the
gradual wresting of national self-determination, the overthrow of British
rule and the emergence of the modern nation. At the same time, however,
this period saw British imperial power reach its peak, before dramatically
declining in the post–Second World War era of de-colonisation. Hence, an
equally important and intertwined dimension of Ireland’s historical expe-
rience within this timeframe concerns its diffuse and multifaceted connec-
tions with the empire. Despite Ireland being formally recognised as a
kingdom in 1541, some Irish writers and politicians had, by the eigh-
teenth century, come to compare its treatment to that meted out to
Britain’s colonies. In the late seventeenth century William Molyneux pro-
tested, in his influential work, The Case of Ireland, Stated (1698), against
the notion that “Ireland is to be looked upon only as a Colony from
England.”2 But Molyneux’s protestation notwithstanding, Ireland’s par-
liament was rendered subservient to Westminster by the passage of the
Declaratory Act of 1720—subservient, that is, until 1782, when, against
the backdrop of imperial conflict in North America, parliamentary and
popular agitation in Ireland led Britain to concede the legislative indepen-
dence of the Irish parliament. Ireland’s experience of parliamentary inde-
pendence was, though, short-lived. Following the dramatic convulsions of
the 1790s in the wake of the American and French revolutions—reformist
and radical agitation, rebellion, counter-reaction and, in places, sectarian
blood-letting—the British government looked again at its relationship
with its sister kingdom and, on 1 January 1801, as is well known, Ireland
was subsumed within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,
under the terms of the Act of Union.3
In theory, Ireland under the union was an equal partner in Britain’s
imperial enterprise; in reality, things were more complex. The union was,
as Alvin Jackson has noted, “incomplete.” Catholic Emancipation was not
granted until 1829 and “Ireland was ruled partly in colonial and partly in
metropolitan terms.” Thus, while political representatives were sent to
Westminster, a Lord Lieutenant resided in Dublin and, as was the case
elsewhere in the empire, elements of Irish bureaucracy, not least policing,
were “highly centralized.”4 Over the course of the nineteenth century,
Ireland’s perceived subservience to Britain would generate powerful calls
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

for reform and freedom. From repeal to Home Rule, O’Connell to Parnell,
and Young Ireland to the Fenians, the political narrative of nineteenth-­
century Ireland is well known.5 Yet against this backdrop, Ireland took its
place within the imperial order, despatching disproportionately high num-
bers of men (and later, increasingly, women) to serve in the colonies. “As
well as belonging to a colony at the heart of the British Empire,” Kevin
Kenny has written, “Irish people helped, conquer, populate, and govern
the colonies overseas.”6
The early years of the twentieth century would, of course, bring
Ireland’s independence. With the creation of the Free State in 1921, the
curtain fell on the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, rising
instead on the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
and in 1949 a further, formal distancing from empire on Ireland’s part
occurred, as it became a republic and left the Commonwealth. Such
attempts at distancing, though understandable in an emerging republic,
might be said, at a popular level, to have left a residue of imperial amne-
sia—that is, a tendency to overlook the imperial past of Ireland and the
Irish. This is particularly true of those whose careers, whether as soldiers
or administrators, contributed to the development of empire and whose
stories form, in Hiram Morgan’s words, “an uncomfortable Irish heri-
tage.”7 In recent years, however, this heritage has attracted increasing
scholarly attention. In his Ireland and Empire: Colonial Legacies in Irish
History and Culture, Stephen Howe has undertaken a sustained examina-
tion of “the ways in which the languages of imperialism, colonialism, post-
coloniality and anticolonialism have been deployed in Irish contexts,” and
a series of monographs and essay collections published within the last
twenty years has sought to shed light on the Irish men and women who
were active within the empire, to highlight connections between Irish and
Indian nationalists and, from a critical perspective, to apply the insights of
postcolonial and subaltern studies to Irish cultural productions.8 Such
work has served to raise a raft of important and often difficult questions
for the modern nation. Should we view Ireland as a colony? What role did
the Irish play in the oppression of other, now postcolonial, nations? And,
by contrast, to what extent did Ireland encourage or serve as an example
for other anti-colonial movements elsewhere in the empire? As for the
Irish themselves, how did they view empire as it applied to them? Was it
viewed as an opportunity or as a curse? Were the Anglo-Irish overseas
subsumed into Britishness by the empire or did they retain a distinctive
Irish side to their identity even as they went abroad? Did the bifurcated
4 D. S. ROBERTS AND J. J. WRIGHT

identities of Ireland—“native” and “settler,” Protestant and Catholic, loy-

alist and republican—manifest and perpetuate themselves in imperial con-
texts or were these irrelevant to the empire? If Ireland were to be considered
a colony, was its plight under British rule as abject as that of other colonies
which were judged to be racially “inferior,” or was it racially privileged as
white? And what of Irish migration: did it result in the loss or abandon-
ment of Irish identity, or in its enhancement and diversification overseas?
Such questions have prompted debate (at times heated) and generated
a series of valuable historical and cultural meditations in recent years. All
of these evidently antagonistic or exclusive positions have been plausibly
demonstrated under some sets of circumstances. Equally, none of these
questions has been entirely resolved in any absolute sense, though many
useful distinctions have been drawn and crucial ambiguities made mani-
fest. Fundamentally, it has become increasingly apparent through such
debates that Ireland’s constitutional status—and, indeed, its imperial sta-
tus—was inherently equivocal.9 This allowed for a range of attitudes to be
held, both by administrators and subjects. Furthermore, the regional, reli-
gious and ethnic divisions within Ireland, and the immense variety of
Britain’s overseas colonies and imperial relationships, necessitate a varie-
gated approach to empire, one that takes into consideration the specificity
of particular imperial contexts. With this in mind, the current volume
seeks to avoid the pitfalls of polarised debate and simplistic dichotomy,
instead embracing particularity, nuance and complexity. While some of the
contributors whose essays are presented in the pages that follow espouse
methodological and historiographical approaches informed by postcolo-
nial theory or the insights of the “new imperial history,” no single editorial
line has been imposed and the various case studies, close readings and
explorations gathered here have been informed by a plurality of method-
ological assumptions, often working in revealingly mutual ways.
Covering the period from the commencement of the American revolu-
tionary war in 1775 to the declaration of independence by India (the
“jewel in the crown” of Britain’s eastern empire10) in 1947, the chapters
that follow have been subdivided into four major thematic areas, though
each, as will be evident, overlaps in some respects with others. The open-
ing part, “Inhabiting Empire,” addresses the issue of emigration, an area
of obvious significance given the scale, diversity and continuity of Irish
outward migration throughout the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twen-
tieth centuries. Although associated most strongly with the mid-­
nineteenth-­century famine in popular imagination and visual illustration,
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

emigration proceeded apace before and after the famine years, making the
Irish diaspora the largest of all European nations when taken over the
entire period. Although statistics are problematic, it has been estimated
that between 1820 and 1920 around 5 million migrated to the United
States alone, and that by 1890, 39% of all Irish-born people were living
abroad, variously adapting to and recreating anew their living environ-
ments wherever they went. As Roy Foster has commented pithily: “There
was, in a very real sense, an Ireland abroad.”11 Peter Ludlow and Terry
Murphy’s chapter on imperial Halifax—one of Britain’s most important
naval garrison cities by the mid-nineteenth century—provides a revealing
account of the largely Catholic (though partially mixed) Irish population
within the establishment of this multi-ethnic military and urban location.
Their chapter analyses the staggered “two-boat” or “three-boat” nature of
their passage and throws interesting light on their interactions with neigh-
bours and internecine disputes with coreligionists. What emerges most
distinctly, quite in opposition to stereotypical views of Irish sectarianism
and Irish Catholic unruliness, is the extent to which this pre-famine
migrant population can be seen, over the course of the nineteenth century,
to have played an energetic and well-integrated role in the development of
the city’s imperial institutions and character. Following this, Eve Patten’s
chapter, “From Enniskillen to Nairobi: the Coles in British East Africa,”
turns from urban history to the pioneer and plantation ethos cultivated by
an aristocratic Ulster family in former Rhodesia. Patten traces an intrigu-
ing connection from Ireland to British East Africa in the early twentieth
century, covering three of the children of the fourth Earl of Enniskillen
(Florence Cole, b. 1878; Galbraith Cole, b. 1881; and Berkeley Cole, b.
1882), who became pioneer settlers in British East Africa between the
1890s Protectorate and the 1920 establishment of the crown colony.
Their experiences, encountered through letters, memoirs and the work of
authors Karen Blixen and Llewelyn Powys, are perhaps idiosyncratic but
offer nonetheless an illumination of the complex position of Ulster-born
aristocrat imperialists, in relation to Irish national narratives on one hand,
and colonial settlement history on the other. The chapter hints at the ways
in which the Coles—Ireland’s “livestock barons of the Rift Valley,” as
described by Elspeth Huxley—saw events back home, from the Home
Rule crisis to the Rising, as bearing on the emergence of a modern Kenya,
and places their embryonic white-settler nationalism in ironic juxtaposi-
tion to their political views on Ireland’s revolutionary transition.
6 D. S. ROBERTS AND J. J. WRIGHT

The next two chapters within this section, one focusing on Australia
and the other returning to North America, examine through print culture
what might be called mythical or mediated views of Irish plight (and,
indeed, flight) in colonial outposts. In “Walking to China: Infatuation and
the Irish in New South Wales,” Killian Quigley examines the puzzling
phenomenon of Irish convict transportees to Australia who supposedly
attempted to escape to China on foot. Quigley considers these accounts
not with a view to explicating or resolving them, but in order to analyse
the discursive connections that are manifested in them regarding tropes of
infatuation, convict labour, Irishness and apparently pathological forms of
mobility. As Quigley argues, when observers commented that the would-
be China-bound travellers were engaged in undermining the colonial
­
enterprise, what they were describing was a form of resistance that was
oblique and uncertain but which bore comparison with colonial and anti-­
colonial movements across the globe. Martyn Powell’s chapter,
“Competing Narratives: White Slavery, Servitude and the Irish in Late-­
Eighteenth-­Century America,” examines how Irish servitude in America
after independence was uneasily aligned with slavery in the Irish and
American press. Powell’s chapter serves as an important reminder that
Ireland’s connections with British colonies would persist even after major
structural developments had occurred within the empire, developments
including the securing of American independence. The importance of
America as a destination for Irish migrants in the colonial period and,
again, in the nineteenth century is well known. However, as Powell shows,
the Irish continued to emigrate to North America in large numbers in the
years immediately following the American War of Independence and,
equally importantly, the former American colonies remained significant in
Irish political discourse. It is arguably the case, Powell’s discussion sug-
gests, that the conventional chronologies of colonisation and de-­
colonisation can obscure as much as they reveal. Here, and elsewhere in
the volume (as, for instance, in Raphaela Adjobimey’s discussion of
“mutiny ballads”), one becomes aware of just how malleable sympathy for
the colonial and racial “other” could be from an Irish point of view.
Examining various versions of Irish settler cultures from institutional and
personal records, and analysing the mythology and print cultures that they
generated, these chapters demonstrate the multifaceted and evolving
nature of the Irish diaspora within the empire.
Part II, “Writing/Imagining Empire,” gathers three chapters, two dis-
cussing literary production and one on the writing of history, specifically the
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

history of Belfast, which emerged as a leading imperial city during the

nineteenth century. Here, issues of print culture flow into broader con-
cerns relating to the production of imperial histories and literatures. An
influential study on this subject indebted obviously to Edward Said’s land-
mark work, Orientalism (1978), was Joseph Lennon’s book Irish
Orientalism: A Literary and Intellectual History (2004). Lennon’s work
investigated a long genealogy in Irish writing from the medieval period
into the mid-twentieth century, with roots in classical tradition, that found
affinities between Ireland and the Oriental world. Such affinities would
acquire resonant political connotations via the construction of Celticism
over the nineteenth century as Britain’s empire expanded eastwards.
Located in this broad context, Daniel S. Roberts’s chapter, “‘Humble
Obedience to the Will of Heaven’: Charles Johnston’s Providential and
Migratory Sensibility,” foregrounds continuities between the novelist
Johnston’s narrative technique—which typically portrayed objects and
people circulating in the empire—and the writer’s own sensibility as a
migrant and an Irishman. Roberts demonstrates a continuity between
Johnston’s providential theology, derived from the works of Irish
Enlightenment philosophers George Berkeley and Robert Clayton, and
his fictional writings published in Britain and in India. Also drawing upon
Enlightenment ideas for its analysis of a fictional work (and concentrating
upon themes of identity and circulation), Sonja Lawrenson’s chapter,
“Prudence and Prejudice in Maria Edgeworth’s ‘Murad the Unlucky’
(1804),” issues a useful gender corrective to Lennon’s influential study of
“Irish Orientalism,” the Celtic-Oriental affinity developed in antiquarian
discourse of the eighteenth century. Highlighting the relatively neglected
aspect of gender politics within this discourse, Lawrenson places
Edgeworth’s Oriental fable in the context of competing theories of iden-
tity and exchange, arguing that Edgeworth ultimately relinquishes
Edmund Burke’s traditional and conservative model of cultural inheri-
tance in favour of an extension of Adam Smith’s concept of free commer-
cial exchange. Despite wide differences in style, Johnston and Edgeworth,
from these readings, show interesting discursive similarities, drawing on
Irish Orientalism and Enlightenment thinking while veering between con-
servative theories of imperialism and those based on liberal ideas of com-
mercial exchange.
Fiction is, of course, only one form of literary production, and Jonathan
Jeffrey Wright’s essay, “‘A work purely local?’: Narratives of Empire in
George Benn’s History of the Town of Belfast,” focuses on another form of
8 D. S. ROBERTS AND J. J. WRIGHT

literary production—the writing of history. Its subject, George Benn, was

a nineteenth-century historian of Belfast, whose major work, his two-­
volume History, published in 1870 and 1880, remains influential to this
day. While a superficial reading of this text would suggest it is a limited,
local history, with little to interest the historian of empire, Wright here
reveals, and explores the significance of, a series of references to empire
and imperial dynamics that appear in the work. In so doing he establishes
Benn’s History as a work that reflects both the historic realities of Belfast,
a town with numerous connections to empire, and the ways in which an
awareness of empire shaped Benn’s thinking.
Part III, “Resistance/Collusion,” returns to the vexed question of
Ireland’s complicity in, and opposition to, Britain’s treatment of its
empire’s “others.” Two chapters here, both literary in orientation, focus
on a key moment of native resistance, the so-called Indian “Mutiny” of
1857,12 which saw Indian troops (“sepoys”), supported by civilian popula-
tions, across the North and East of India, rebelling against the rule of the
East India Company. By contrast, the third looks at radical connections
between Ireland and India during the 1930s and beyond. The Indian
uprising of 1857 posed the greatest crisis faced by the empire since the
American War of Independence, resulting in widespread horror and dis-
quiet amongst the metropolitan public, and prompting the reconstitution
of British rule in India from Westminster. Ireland’s disproportionately
high contribution to the East India Company Army—estimated at 50% of
its white soldiers13—meant that Irish interest in India ran deep, spawning
media reports as well as references to the mutiny in sermons and popular
literature. Unpublished materials in the form of correspondence and jour-
nals from India during the mutiny are also available in various archives.14
Yet the dispersal of such archives in locations across Britain and India, and
the often unidentified nature of Irish involvement, has led to a relative
neglect of such materials from a specifically Irish point of view.15 Raphaela
Adjobimey’s chapter, “The 1857 Indian Uprising in Irish Ballads: Voices
of the Subaltern,” provides valuable service in identifying and analysing
representations of the mutiny in songs and ballads of the Irish broadside
tradition preserved in archives. These orally circulated ballads, as
Adjobimey argues, provide us with unique access to public opinion
amongst those members of Irish society whose voices, if heard at all, are
perceived as faint echoes in contemporary published accounts. As she sug-
gests, responses to the uprising were diverse and mutable, ranging from
solidarity with the sepoys and their cause to the lamentation of Irish
 1 INTRODUCTION 9

v­ ictims and the condemnation of the rebels and, by extension, all Indians.
Furthermore, closer examination reveals an inflection of Irish political
interests running through this corpus, demonstrating the way in which
India could serve as a canvas for the projection of Irish causes, signalling
on occasion calls for independence, and at other times loyalty to Britain
and its empire. Taking a slightly different approach, Pramod K. Nayar’s
chapter, “Afghanistan, the Indian ‘Mutiny’, and the Bicultural Stereotype
of John Nicholson,” examines constructions of imperial heroism sur-
rounding the figure of the Lisburn-born soldier, John Nicholson, whose
death in the siege of Delhi in 1857 was followed by widespread literary
and biographical commemoration of his valour. Arguing that such con-
structions drew upon his typecasting in subcontinental terms as much as
in Irish terms, Nayar analyses three such stereotypes attaching to
Nicholson’s posthumous reputation: that of the “redemptive character”
who has come to terms with the trauma of his earlier military involve-
ments; that of the “avenging hero” whose excesses are an appropriate
response to the horrors of the mutiny; and that of the co-opted and “cre-
olized figure” whose savage ideas of justice equate with those imputed to
the military races (Sikh and Afghan) recognised by the Raj.
Turning from literary considerations to political history, the final chap-
ter in Part III, “Violent Resistance: The Irish Revolution and India” by
Kate O’Malley, looks at the impact of the revolutionary phase in Ireland
on Indian nationalism, focusing on the Chittagong uprising of 1930 and
Subhas Chandra Bose’s revolutionary activities over the period of the
Second World War, to suggest the importance of Irish influence on these
events. Although the Indian national movement is widely remembered in
the popular imagination as a largely peaceful one thanks to Gandhi’s pow-
erfully influential aspiration for it—creating an idealised vision of the free-
dom movement that was swiftly commemorated by the newly formed
nation—the reality of Indian nationalism prior to its successful outcome
(and overlooking the violence of partition) was, in reality, a far more frag-
mented and involved process, often espousing explicitly violent means.
O’Malley’s excavation of the multilayered process by which recollections
of the 1916 Easter uprising were channelled by Surya Sen, the leader of
the Chittagong uprising, into his own revolutionary message and model
for activism, and her detailing of Bose’s Irish influences and friendships,
provide an important insight into some of the lesser-known undercurrents
that flowed between the two nationalist movements. Though separated by
nearly a century, the events surrounding the 1857 mutiny (retrospectively
10 D. S. ROBERTS AND J. J. WRIGHT

labelled by the Indian freedom fighter Vinayak Damodar Sarvakar as

India’s “first war of independence”) and the acquisition of Indian indepen-
dence in 1947 are similarly revealed through literature and political history
alike to be susceptible to revisionary impulses that colour representations
of these major occurrences, feeding into the dominant cultural versions of
national histories. Historical approaches based on the evidences of personal
correspondence and connections, as well as literary approaches based on
discursive analysis of stereotypes and representations, are both shown in
these chapters to be mutually rewarding in deconstructing and recon-
structing the complexities of political sympathy between Ireland and India.
The final part of this volume focuses on Irish “networks” of the empire,
that is, the structures of interconnectedness that enabled the trade and
movement of people and objects not only between metropolitan and
peripheral locations, but also between colonies and imperial peripheries.
Linked in many ways to the diasporic theme with which the volume opens,
the concept of imperial networks, developed in the context of the “new
imperial history,” offers us, as Barry Crosbie has suggested in his study
focused on networks between Ireland and India in the nineteenth century,
a useful methodological tool with which to approach “the range and scope
of connections” that linked the empire together and “evade the narrowly
national focus of earlier (and very limited) accounts of Ireland’s imperial
role.”16 In the first of these chapters, “The O’Rourke Family of French
Saint-Domingue (1780–1804): Irish Merchant Planters during the Age of
Revolution,” Orla Power examines the role and fate of Irish landowners
and merchants in the Caribbean in the wake of the American and French
revolutions. Focusing on the prosperous O’Rourke brothers from Co.
Wexford, Patrick and Edward, who had established themselves on the
island of French Saint-Domingue, Power traces, through family corre-
spondence, their rise to affluence in the American revolutionary period
and their loss of fortunes following the French and Haitian revolutions of
1789 and 1791, respectively. Exiled from Saint-Domingue, members of
the family sought refuge in France, Ireland, London and Baltimore
through their family connections and later experienced the rebellion of
1798 in Wexford. Power’s reading of the family correspondence through
these various revolutionary moments across the Atlantic World recreates
for us what Emma Rothschild has termed in her study of the Scottish
Johnstone family, the “Inner Life” of empire.17
Turning from the commercial world to that of medicine and medical
funding, the two concluding chapters of the volume examine the ways in
 1 INTRODUCTION 11

which imperial structures could enable professional advancement and

could be used for gender outreach as well. Jennifer McLaren’s chapter,
“An Irish Surgeon in Barbados and Demerara: Vexation, Misery and
Opportunity,” considers how John Crawford, a Co. Antrim doctor, nego-
tiated his career, working on East India Company ships, moving to
Barbados for several years, working in Essequibo and Demerara and finally
settling in Baltimore in North America. His example of working across
British and Dutch colonies in the Caribbean shows not only how imperial
networks could enable and mobilise medical careers, but also how the
physical boundaries of the empire could be porous, allowing for transfer-
ences between European imperial powers. Finally, Sarah Hunter’s chapter,
“‘Colouring the Map Red’: Lady Hariot Dufferin and the Imperial
Networks of the Dufferin Fund,” examines the records of “The National
Association for Supplying Female Medical Aid to the Women of India,”
better known as the Dufferin Fund, to examine how Lady Dufferin used
imperial networks to establish her Fund on a national footing, breaking
with social conventions and extending philanthropism into the inner
spaces of female domesticity in India, particularly into the hitherto
unreachable zenana. Returning to issues of gender raised in the earlier
chapter by Lawrenson, Hunter’s essay shows how women, despite their
marginality in the empire, could not only imagine and write about but also
participate in, reshape and extend the parameters of the empire.
As has already been noted, this collection does not seek to offer a sim-
plified or unitary version of Ireland’s engagement with the empire. Its
varied contributions do, however, reflect major thematic preoccupations
and suggest modes of understanding that may be applied to Ireland’s
imperial experience. During the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, Britain’s empire was, for the Irish, a political and geographical
environment to be lived in, moved within, written about and imagined; it
was a reality that could be supported or resisted, or that could be utilised
and negotiated, using the varied networks that existed within it. Wars and
revolutions; the legislative frameworks of trade and commerce; the forma-
tion of new colonies, urban centres and travel routes; and the philosophi-
cal ideas of the Enlightenment: all played their part in the growth of
empire, and all were entangled inextricably in the experiences and think-
ing of Irish people whose responses to empire were multifarious.
Consequently, attention both to individual circumstances and historical
context is necessary in order to fully understand the variegated nature of
Ireland’s imperial experience; neither on its own will suffice. Though the
12 D. S. ROBERTS AND J. J. WRIGHT

chapters in this book are separated into parts that display obvious thematic
similarities, readers are invited to consider these chapters as interacting
with each other in ways that could appeal to other interconnected and
cross-fertilising critical and historical interests. Issues of race, gender, class,
religious belief, political ideology, intellectual and historical understand-
ing, chronology and geography run through the volume, allowing for
many such correlations. Furthermore, these chapters offer a wide range of
exemplary case studies, discursive analyses and historical, literary and his-
toriographical reflections on Ireland and the empire. Taken together, they
serve as a salutary reminder of Ireland’s shared political experience and
development under the aegis of the British Empire at a time when rela-
tions between North and South are fraught with fears of a renewed rift in
the form of a “hard border” between the regions.

Notes
1. C.E.B. Brett, Buildings of Belfast, 1700–1914, rev. ed. (Belfast: Friar’s
Bush, 1985), 67. See also Richard Davenport-Hines, “Blackwood,
Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple, First Marquess of Dufferin and
Ava (1806–1902),” last modified 3 January 2008, in Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography. https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/31914.
2. The Case of Ireland, Being Bound by Acts of Parliament in England, Stated,
rev. ed. (London: J. Almon, 1770), 111.
3. For an authoritative overview of the political developments of the late
eighteenth century, see S.J. Connolly, Divided Kingdom: Ireland, 1630–
1800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 384–484.
4. Alvin Jackson, “Ireland, the Union, and the Empire, 1800–1960,” in
Ireland and the British Empire, ed. Kevin Kenny (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2004), 124–25. See also David Fitzpatrick, “Ireland and
the Empire,” in The Oxford History of the British Empire, Vol. 3: The
Nineteenth Century, ed. Andrew N. Porter (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1999), 494–97.
5. Alvin Jackson, Ireland, 1798–1988: War, Peace, and Beyond (Malden, MA:
Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), provides a nuanced narrative of politics in
nineteenth-­century Ireland.
6. Kevin Kenny, “The Irish in the Empire,” in Ireland and the British Empire,
ed. Kevin Kenny (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 92.
7. Hiram Morgan, “Empire-Building: An Uncomfortable Irish Heritage,”
Linen Hall Review 10 (1993): 8–11.
8. Stephen Howe, Ireland and Empire: Colonial Legacies in Irish History and
Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 4. In addition to Howe’s
 1 INTRODUCTION 13

work, other recent interventions include Clare Carroll and Patricia King,
Ireland and Postcolonial Theory (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre
Dame Press, 2003); Kenny, ed., Ireland and the British Empire; Joseph
Lennon, Irish Orientalism: A Literary and Intellectual History (Syracuse,
NY: Syracuse University Press, 2004); Terrence McDonough, ed., Was
Ireland a Colony? Economics, Politics and Culture in Nineteenth-Century
Ireland (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2005); Julia Wright, Ireland, India
and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Literature (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2007); Kate O’Malley, Ireland, India and
Empire: Indo-­Irish Radical Connections, 1919–64 (Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 2008); Michael Silvestri, Ireland and India: Nationalism,
Empire and Memory (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); Jennifer
Regan-Lefebvre, Cosmopolitan Nationalism in the Victorian Empire:
Ireland, India and the Politics of Alfred Webb (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2009); Keith Jeffery and Robert J. Blyth, eds., The British
Empire and its Contested Pasts, Historical Studies XXVI (Irish Academic
Press, 2009); Barry Crosbie, Irish Imperial Networks: Migration, Social
Communication and Exchange in Nineteenth-Century India (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2012); David Dickson, Justyna Pyz and
Christopher Shepard, eds., Irish Classrooms and British Empire: Imperial
Contexts in the Origins of Modern Education (Dublin: Four Courts Press,
2012); Kevin O’Sullivan, Ireland, Africa and the End of Empire
(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013); Timothy G. McMahon,
Michael de Nie and Paul Townend, eds., Ireland in an Imperial World:
Citizenship, Opportunity and Subversion (London: Palgrave Macmillan,
2017).
9. See, especially, Kenny, “Ireland and the British Empire: An Introduction,”
in Ireland and the British Empire, ed. Kenny, 2–4, and Jackson, “Ireland,
the Union and the Empire,” 123–25 and 136.
10. It is worth noting that the phrase was earlier used of Ireland by William
Molyneux. Arguing that Poyning’s Law was not to be applied to the detri-
ment of Ireland, Molyneux insisted, “his Majesty will be very loth to have
such a precious Jewel of his Crown handled so roughly.” See The Case of
Ireland, 127.
11. See Kenny, “The Irish in the Empire,” 98–101, and R.F. Foster, Modern
Ireland, 1600–1972 (London: Penguin Books, 1988), 345. For a recent
overview of famine-era migration, see also William J. Smyth, “Exodus
from Ireland—Patterns of Emigration,” in Atlas of the Great Irish Famine,
1845–52, eds. John Crowley, William J. Smyth and Mike Murphy (Cork:
Cork University Press, 2012), 494–503.
14 D. S. ROBERTS AND J. J. WRIGHT

12. Though this term has been criticised for political incorrectness in the wake
of Indian-nationalist and postcolonial critiques, we retain its use (though
mindful of imperialist implications) as it remains the most convenient and
frequently cited shorthand phrase covering the events of 1857.
13. Sir Patrick Cadell, “Irish Soldiers in India,” Irish Sword 1, no. 2 (1950–
1951): 79.
14. The Public Records Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), for instance,
possesses a significant archive of papers from the middle-class Ulster
Graham family, several of whom served in India during the mutiny; see
A.T. Harrison, ed., The Graham Indian Mutiny Papers (Belfast: PRONI,
1980).
15. Michael Silvestri’s book, Ireland and India, earlier cited, includes signifi-
cant discussions of the mutiny and its commemoration in Ireland.
16. Crosbie, Irish Imperial Networks, 17.
17. Emma Rothschild, The Inner Life of Empires: An Eighteenth-Century
History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011).
Another random document with
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 Fig. 20.—Various forms of Heliozoa. In 3, a is the entire animal and b the
flagellula; c.vac, contractile vacuole; g, gelatinous investment; nu, nucleus;
psd, pseudopodia; sk, siliceous skeleton; sp, spicules. (From Parker and
Haswell, after other authors.)

Each of these divides, and the two sister cells then conjugate after
the same fashion as in Actinophrys, but the nuclear divisions to form
the coupling nucleus are two in number, i.e. the nucleus divides into
two, one of which goes to the surface as the first polar body, and the
sister of this again divides to form a second polar body (which also
passes to the surface) and a pairing nucleus.[84] The two cells then
fuse completely, and surround themselves with a second gelatinous
cyst wall, separated from the outer one by a layer of siliceous
spicules. The nucleus appears to divide at least twice before the
young creep out, to divide immediately into as many Actinophrys-like
cells as there were nuclei; then each of these multiplies its nuclei, to
become apocytial like the adult form.
 Fig. 21.—Diagram illustrating the conjugation of Actinosphaerium. 1, Original
cell; 2, nucleus divides to form two, N2N2; 3, each nucleus again divides to
form two, N3 and n3, the latter passing out with a little cytoplasm as an
abortive cell; 4, repetition of the same process as in 3; 5, the two nuclei N4
have fused in syngamy to form the zygote nucleus Nz.

Schaudinn admits 24 genera (and 7 doubtful) and 41 species (and

18 doubtful). None are known fossil. Their geographical distribution
is cosmopolitan, as is the case with most of the minute fresh-water
Protista; 8 genera are exclusively marine, and Orbulinella has only
been found in a salt-pond; Actinophrys sol is both fresh-water and
marine, and Actinolophus has 1 species fresh-water, the other
marine. One of the 14 species of Acanthocystis is marine; the
remaining genera and species are all inhabitants of fresh water.[85]

4. Radiolaria
Sarcodina with the protoplasm divided by a perforated chitinous
central capsule into a central mass surrounding the nucleus, and an
outer layer; the pseudopodia radiate, never anastomosing enough to
form a marked network; skeleton either siliceous, of spicules, or
perforated; or of definitely arranged spicules of proteid matter
(acanthin), sometimes also coalescing into a latticed shell;
reproduction by fission and by zoospores formed in the central
capsule. Habitat marine, suspended at the surface (plankton), at
varying depths (zonarial), or near the bottom (abyssal).

Fig. 22.—Collozoum inerme. A, B, C, three forms of colony; D, small colony with

central capsules (c.caps), containing nuclei, and alveoli (vac) in ectoplasm;
 E, isospores, with crystals (c); F, anisospores; nu, nucleus. (From Parker
and Haswell.)

The following is Haeckel's classification of the Radiolaria:—

I. Porulosa (Holotrypasta).—Homaxonic, or nearly so. Central capsule
spherical in the first instance; pores numerous, minute, scattered; mostly
pelagic.
A. Spumellaria (Peripylaea).—Pores evenly scattered; skeleton of solid
siliceous spicules, or continuous, and reticulate or latticed, rarely absent;
nucleus dividing late, as an antecedent to reproduction.

B. Acantharia (Actipylaea).—Pores aggregated into distinct areas;

skeleton of usually 20 centrogenous, regularly radiating spines of acanthin,
whose branches may coalesce into a latticed shell; nucleus dividing early.

II. Osculosa (Monotrypasta).—Monaxonic; pores of central capsule limited

to the basal area (osculum), sometimes accompanied by two (or more)
smaller oscula at apical pole, mostly zonarial or abyssal.
C. Nassellaria (Monopylaea).—Central capsule ovoid, of a single layer;
pores numerous on the operculum or basal field; skeleton siliceous, usually
with a principal tripod or calthrop-shaped spicule passing, by branching,
into a complex ring or a latticed bell-shaped shell; nucleus eccentric, near
apical pole.

D. Phaeodaria (Cannopylaea, Haeck.; Tripylaea, Hertw.).—Central

capsule spheroidal, of two layers, in its outer layer an operculum, with
radiate ribs and a single aperture, beyond which protrudes the outer layer;
osculum basal, a dependent tube (proboscis); accessory oscula, when
present, simpler, usually two placed symmetrically about the apical pole;
skeleton siliceous, with a combination of organic matter, often of hollow
spicules; nucleus sphaeroidal, eccentric; extracapsular protoplasm
containing an accumulation of dusky pigment granules ("phaeodium").
 Fig. 23.—Actinomma asteracanthion. A, the shell with portions of the two outer
spheres broken away; B, section showing the relations of the skeleton to
the animal, cent.caps, Central capsule; ex.caps.pr, extra-capsular
protoplasm: nu, nucleus; sk.1, outer, sk.2, middle, sk.3, inner sphere of
skeleton. (From Parker and Haswell, after Haeckel and Hertwig.)

A. Spumellaria.

Sublegion (1). Collodaria.[86]—Skeleton absent or of detached spicules;

colonial or simple.
Order i. Colloidea.—Skeleton absent. (Families 1, 2.) Thalassicolla Huxl.;
Thalassophysa Haeck.; Collozoum Haeck.; Collosphaera J. Müll.; Actissa
Haeck.

Order ii. Beloidea.—Skeleton spicular. (Families 3, 4.)

Sublegion (2). Sphaerellaria.—Skeleton continuous, latticed or spongy,

reticulate.
Order iii. Sphaeroidea.—Skeleton of one or several concentric spherical
shells; sometimes colonial. (Families 5-10.) Haliomma Ehrb.; Actinomma
Haeck. (Fig. 23).

Order iv. Prunoidea.—Skeleton a prolate sphaeroid or cylinder, sometimes

constricted towards the middle, single or concentric. (Families 11-17.)

Order v. Discoidea.—Shell flattened, of circular plan, simple or concentric,

rarely spiral. (Families 18-23.)

Order vi. Larcoidea.—Shell ellipsoidal, with all three axes unequal or

irregular, sometimes becoming spiral. (Families 24-32.)[87]
 Fig. 24.—Xiphacantha (Acantharia). From the surface. The skeleton only, × 100,
(From Wyville Thomson.)

B. Acantharia.

Order vii. Actinelida.—Radial spines numerous, more than 20, usually

grouped irregularly. (Families 33-35.) Xiphacantha Haeck.

Order viii. Acanthonida.—Radial spines equal. (Families 36-38.)

Order ix. Sphaerophracta.—Radial spines 20, with a latticed spherical

shell, independent of, or formed from the reticulations of the spines.
(Families 39-41.) Dorataspis Haeck. (Fig. 25, A).

Order x. Prunophracta.—Radial spines 20, unequal; latticed shell,

ellipsoidal, lenticular, or doubly conical. (Families 42-44.)

C. Nassellaria.

Order xi. Nassoidea.—Skeleton absent. (Family 45.)

Order xii. Plectoidea.—Skeleton of a single branching spicule, the

branches sometimes reticulate, but never forming a latticed shell or a
sagittal ring. (Families 46-47.)

Order xiii. Stephoidea.—Skeleton with a sagittal ring continuous with the

branched spicule, and sometimes other rings or branches. (Families 48-
 51.) Lithocercus Théel (Fig. 26, A).

Order xiv. Spyroidea.—Skeleton with a latticed shell developed around the

sagittal ring (cephalis), and constricted in the sagittal plane, with a lower
chamber (thorax) sometimes added. (Families 52-55.)

Order xv. Botryoidea.—As in Spyroidea, but with the cephalis 3-4 lobed;
lower chambers, one or several successively formed. (Families 56-58.)

Order xvi. Cyrtoidea.—Shell as in the preceding orders, but without lobing

or constrictions. (Families 59-70.) Theoconus Haeck. (Fig. 25, B).

D. Phaeodaria.

Order xvii. Phaeocystina.—Skeleton 0 or of distinct spicules; capsule

centric. (Families 71-73.) Aulactinium Haeck. (Fig. 26, B).

Order xviii. Phaeosphaeria.—Skeleton a simple or latticed sphere, with no

oral opening (pylome); capsule central. (Families 74-77.)

Order xix. Phaeogromia.—Skeleton a simple latticed shell with a pylome

at one end of the principal axis; capsule excentric, sub-apical. (Families 78-
82.) Pharyngella Haeck.; Tuscarora Murr.; Haeckeliana Murr. (Fig. 28).

Order xx. Phaeoconchia.—Shell of two valves, opening in the plane

("frontal") of the three openings of the capsule. (Families 83-85.)

We exclude Haeckel's Dictyochida, with a skeleton recalling that of

the Stephoidea, but of the impure hollow substance of the
Phaeodaria (p. 84). They rank now as Silicoflagellates (p. 114).

The Radiolarian is distinguished from all other Protozoa by the

chitinous central capsule, so that its cytoplasm is separated into an
outer layer, the extracapsular protoplasm (ectoplasm), and a central
mass, the intracapsular, containing the nucleus.[88]
The extracapsular layer forms in its substance a gelatinous mass, of
variable reaction, through which the plasma itself ramifies as a
network of threads ("sarcodictyum"), uniting at the surface to
constitute the foundation for the pseudopodia. This gelatinous matter
constitutes the "calymma." It is largely vacuolated, the vacuoles
("alveoli"), of exceptional size, lying in the nodes of the plasmic
network, and containing a liquid probably of lower specific gravity
than seawater; and they are especially abundant towards the
surface, where they touch and become polygonal. On mechanical
irritation they disappear, to be formed anew after an interval, a fact
that may explain the sinking from the surface in disturbed water. This
layer may contain minute pigment granules, but the droplets of oil
and of albuminous matter frequent in the central layer are rare here.
The "yellow cells" of a symbiotic Flagellate or Alga, Zooxanthella, are
embedded in the jelly of all except Phaeodaria, and the whole
ectosarc has the average consistency of a firm jelly.

The pseudopodia are long and radiating, with a granular external

layer, whose streaming movements are continuous with those of the
inner network. In the Acantharia they contain a firm axial filament,
like that of the Heliozoa, which is traceable to the central capsule;
and occasionally a bundle of pseudopodia may coalesce to form a
stout process like a flagellum ("sarcoflagellum"). Here, too, each
spine, at its exit from the jelly, is surrounded by a little cone of
contractile filaments, the myophrisks, whose action seems to be to
pull up the jelly and increase the volume of the spherical body so as
to diminish its density.

Fig. 25.—Skeletons of Radiolaria. A, Dorataspis; B, Theoconus. (After Haeckel.)

The intracapsular protoplasm is free from Zooxanthella except in the
Acantharia. It is less abundantly vacuolated, and is finely granular. In
the Porulosa it shows a radial arrangement, with pyramidal stretches
of hyaline plasma separated by intervals rich in granules. Besides
the alveoli with watery contents, others are present with albuminoid
matter in solution. Oil-drops, often brilliantly coloured, occur either in
the plasma or floating in either kind of vacuole; and they are often
luminous at night. Added to these, the intracapsular plasm contains
pigment-granules, most frequently red or orange, passing into yellow
or brown, though violet, blue, and green also occur. The
"phaeodium,"[89] however, that gives its name to the Phaeodaria, is
an aggregate of dark grey, green, or brown granules which are
probably formed in the endoplasm, but accumulate in the
extracapsular plasm of the oral side of the central capsule. Inorganic
concretions and crystals are also found in the contents of the central
capsule, as well as aggregates of unknown composition, resembling
starch-grains in structure.

In the Monopylaea, or Nassellaria (Figs. 25, B, 26, A), the

endoplasm is differentiated above the perforated area of the central
capsule into a cone of radiating filaments termed the "porocone,"
which may be channels for the communication between the
exoplasm and the endoplasm, or perhaps serve, as Haeckel
suggests, to raise, by their contraction, the perforated area: he
compares them to the myophane striae of Infusoria. In the
Phaeodaria (Fig. 26, B), a radiating laminated cone is seen in the
outermost layer of the endoplasm above the principal opening
("astropyle"), and a fibrillar one around the two accessory ones
("parapyles"); and in some cases, continuous with these, the whole
outer layer of the endoplasm shows a meridional striation.

The nucleus is contained in the endoplasm, and is always at first

single, though it may divide again and again. The nuclear wall is a
firm membrane, sometimes finely porous. If there are concentric
shells it at first occupies the innermost, which it may actually come to
enclose, protruding lobes which grow through the several
perforations of the lattice-work, finally coalescing outside completely,
so as to show no signs of the joins. In the Nassellaria a similar
process usually results in the formation of a lobed nucleus,
contained in an equally lobed central capsule. The chromatin of the
nucleus may be concentrated into a central mass, or distributed into
several "nucleoli," or it may assume the form of a twisted, gut-like
filament, or, again, the nuclear plasm may be reticulated, with the
chromatin deposited at the nodes of the network.

Fig. 26.—A, Lithocercus annularis, with sagittal ring (from Parker and Haswell).
B, Aulactinium actinastrum. C, calymma; cent.caps., km, central capsule;
Ext.caps.pr., Extracapsular, and Int.caps.pr., intracapsular protoplasm; n,
nu, nucleus; op, operculum; ph, phaeodium; psd, pseudopodium; Skel.,
skeleton; z, Zooxanthella. (From Lang's Comparative Anatomy, after
Haeckel.)

The skeleton of this group varies, as shown in our conspectus, in the

several divisions.[90] The Acantharia (Figs. 24, 25, A) have a
skeleton of radiating spines meeting in the centre of figure of the
endoplasm, and forcing the nucleus to one side. The spines are
typically 20 in number, and emerge from the surface of the regular
spherical forms (from which the others may be readily derived)
radially, in five sets of four in the regions corresponding to the
equator and the tropics and polar circles of our world. The four rays
of adjacent circles alternate, so that the "polar" and "equatorial" rays
are on one set of meridians 90° apart, and the "tropical" spines are
on the intermediate meridians, as shown in the figures. By tangential
branching, and the meeting or coalescence of the branches,
reticulate (Figs. 23, 24, 25) and latticed shells are formed in some
families, with circles of openings or pylomes round the bases of the
spines. In the Sphaerocapsidae the spines are absent, but their
original sites are inferred from the 20 circles of pylomes.

In the Spumellaria the simplest form of the (siliceous) skeleton is that

of detached spicules, simple or complex, or passing into a latticed
shell, often with one or more larger openings (pylomes). Radiating
spines often traverse the whole of the cavity, becoming continuous
with its latticed wall, and bind firmly the successive zones when
present (Fig. 23).

Calcaromma calcarea was described by Wyville Thomson as having

a shell of apposed calcareous discs, and Myxobrachia, by Haeckel,
as having collections of the calcareous Coccoliths and
Coccospheres. In both cases we have to do with a Radiolarian not
possessing a skeleton, but retaining the undigested shells of its food,
in the former case (Actissa) in a continuous layer, in the latter
(Thalassicolla) in accumulations that, by their weight, droop and pull
out the lower hemisphere into distinct arms.

The (siliceous) skeleton of the Nassellaria is absent only in the

Nassoidea, and is never represented by distinct spicules. Its simplest
form is a "tripod" with the legs downward, and the central capsule
resting on its apex. The addition of a fourth limb converts the tripod
into a "calthrop," the central capsule in this case resting between the
upturned leg and two of the lower three regarded as the
"anterolateral"; the odd lower leg, like the upturned one, being
"posterior." Again, the skeleton may present a "sagittal ring," often
branched and spiny (Fig. 26, A), or combined with the tripod or
calthrop, or complicated by the addition of one or more horizontal
rings. Another type is presented by the "latticed chamber"
surrounding the central capsule, with a wide mouth ("pylome") below.
This is termed the "cephalis"; it may be combined in various ways
with the sagittal ring and the tripod or calthrop; and, again, it may be
prolonged by the addition of one, two, or three chambers below, the
last one opening by a pylome (Fig. 25, B). These are termed
"thorax," "abdomen," and "post-abdomen" respectively.

In the Phaeodaria the skeleton may be absent, spicular (of loose or

connected spicules) or latticed, continuous or bivalve. It is composed
of silica combined with organic matter, so that it chars when heated,
is more readily dissolved, and is not preserved in fossilisation. The
spicules or lattice-work are hollow, often with a central filament
running in the centre of the gelatinous contents. The latticed
structure of the shell of the Challengeridae (Fig. 28) is so fine as to
recall that of the Diatomaceae. In the Phaeoconchida the shell is in
two halves, parted along the "frontal" plane of the three apertures of
the capsule.

Fig. 27.—Scheme of various possible skeletal forms deposited in the meshes of

an alveolar system, most of which are realised in the Radiolaria. (From
Verworn, after Dreyer.)

The central capsule (rarely inconspicuous and difficult, if not

impossible to demonstrate) is of a substance which resembles chitin,
though its chemical reactions have not been fully studied hitherto,
and indeed vary from species to species. It is composed of a single
layer, except in Phaeodaria, where it is double. The operculum in this
group, i.e. the area around the aperture, is composed of an outer
layer, which is radially thickened, and a thin inner layer; the former is
produced into the projecting tube ("proboscis").

Reproduction in the Radiolaria may be simple fission due to the

binary fission of the nucleus, the capsule, and the ectoplasm in
succession. If this last feature is omitted we have a colonial
organism, composed of the common ectoplasm containing
numerous central capsules; and the genera in which this occurs, all
belonging to the Peripylaea, were formerly separated (as
Polycyttaria) from the remaining Radiolaria (Monocyttaria). They may
either lack a skeleton (Collozoidae, Fig. 22), or have a skeleton of
detached spicules (Sphaerozoidae), or possess latticed shells
(Collosphaeridae) one for each capsule, and would seem therefore
to belong, as only differentiated by their colonial habit, to the several
groups having these respective characters. Fission has been well
studied in Aulacantha (a Phaeodarian) by Borgert.[91] He finds that in
this case the skeleton is divided between the daughter-cells, and the
missing part is regenerated. In cases where this is impossible one of
the daughter-cells retains the old skeleton, and the other escapes as
a bud to form a new skeleton.

Fig. 28.—Shells of Challengeridae: A, Tuscarora; B, Pharyngella; C,

Haeckeliana. (From Wyville Thomson.)

Two modes of reproduction by flagellate zoospores have been

described (Fig. 22). In the one mode all the zoospores are alike—
isospores—and frequently contain a crystal of proteid nature as well
as oil-globules. In the Polycyttaria alone has the second mode of
spore-formation been seen, and that in the same species in which
the formation of isospores occurs. Here "anisospores" are formed,
namely, large "mega-," and small "micro-zoospores." They probably
conjugate as male and female respectively; but neither has the
process been observed, nor has any product of such conjugation
(zygote) been recognised. In every case the formation of the
zoospores only involves the endoplasm: the nucleus first undergoes
brood division, and the plasma within the capsule becomes
concentrated about its offspring, and segregates into the spores; the
extracapsular plasm disintegrates.[92]

The Yellow Cells (Zooxanthella), so frequently found in the

Radiolaria were long thought to be constituents of their body.
Cienkowsky found that when the host died from being kept in
unchanged water, the yellow cells survived and multiplied freely,
often escaping from the gelatinised cell-wall as biflagellate
zoospores. The cell-wall is of cellulose. The cell contains two
chloroplastids, or plates coloured with the vegetal pigment
"diatomin." Besides ordinary transverse fission in the ordinary
encysted state in the ectoplasm of the host, when free they may
pass into what is known as a "Palmella-state," the cell-walls
gelatinising; in this condition they multiply freely, and constitute a
jelly in which the individual cells are seen as rounded bodies. They
contain starch in two forms—large hollow granules, not doubly
refractive, and small solid granules which polarise light. We may
regard them as Chrysomonadaceae (p. 113). Similar organisms
occur in many Anthozoa (see pp. 261, 339, 373 f., 396).
Diatomaceae (yellow Algae with silicified cell-walls) sometimes live
in the jelly of certain Collosphaera. Both these forms live in the state
known as "symbiosis" with their host; i.e. they are in mutually helpful
association, the Radiolarian absorbing salts from the water for the
nutrition of both, and the Alga or Flagellate taking up the CO2 due to
the respiration of the host, and building up organic material, the
surplus of which is doubtless utilised, at least in part, for the nutrition
of the host. A similar union between a Fungus and a coloured
vegetal ("holophytic") organism is known as a Lichen.

The Suctorian Infusorian Amoebophrya is parasitic in the ectoplasm

of certain Acantharia, and in the peculiar genus Sticholonche which
appears to be intermediate between this group and Heliozoa.

The Silicoflagellate family Dictyochidae are found temporarily

embedded in the ectoplasm of some of the Phaeocystina, and have
a skeleton of similar nature. Their true nature was shown by Borgert.

The Amphipod crustacean Hyperia[93] may enter the jelly of the

colonial forms, and feed there at will on the host.[94]

Haeckel, in his Monograph of the Radiolaria of the Challenger

enumerated 739 genera, comprising 4318 species; and Dreyer has
added 6 new genera, comprising 39 species, besides 7 belonging to
known genera. Possibly, as we shall see, many of the species may
be mere states of growth, for it is impossible to study the life-
histories of this group; on the other hand, it is pretty certain that new
forms are likely to be discovered and described. The Radiolaria are
found living at all depths in the sea, by the superficial or deep tow-
net; and some appear to live near the bottom, where the durable
forms of the whole range also settle and accumulate. They thus form
what is known as Radiolarian ooze, which is distinguished from other
shallower deposits chiefly through the disappearance by solution of
all calcareous skeletons, as they slowly fell through the waters
whereon they originally floated at the same time with the siliceous
remains of the Radiolaria. The greatest wealth of forms is found in
tropical seas, though in some places in cold regions large numbers
of individuals of a limited range of species have been found.

Radiolaria of the groups with a pure siliceous skeleton can alone be

fossilised, even the impure siliceous skeleton of the Phaeodaria
readily dissolving in the depths at which they live: they have been
generally described by Ehrenberg's name Polycystineae. Tripolis
(Kieselguhr) of Tertiary ages have been found in many parts of the
globe, consisting largely or mainly of Radiolaria, and representing a
Radiolarian ooze. That of the Miocene of Barbados contains at least
400 species; that of Gruppe at least 130. In Secondary and
Palaeozoic rocks such oozes pass into Radiolarian quartzites (some
as recent as the Jurassic). They occur also in fossilised excrement
(coprolites), and in flint or chert concretions, as far down as the
lowest fossiliferous rocks, the Cambrian. The older forms are simple
Sphaerellaria and Nassellaria. From a synopsis of the history of the
order in Haeckel's Monograph (pp. clxxxvi.-clxxxviii.) we learn that
while a large number of skeletal forms had been described by
Ehrenberg, Huxley in 1851 published the first account of the living
animal. Since then our knowledge has been extended by the labours
of Haeckel, Cienkowsky, R. Hertwig, Karl Brandt, and A. Borgert.

5. Proteomyxa
Sarcodina without a clear ectoplasm, whose active forms are
amoeboid or flagellate, or pass from the latter form to the former;
multiplying chiefly, if not exclusively, by brood-formation in a cyst. No
complete cell-pairing (syngamy) known, though the cytoplasms may
unite into plasmodia; pseudopodia of the amoeboid forms usually
radiate or filose, but without axial filaments. Saprophytic or parasitic
in living animals or plants.

This group is a sort of lumber-room for forms which it is hard to place

under Rhizopoda or Flagellata, and which produce simple cysts for
reproduction, not fructifications like the Mycetozoa. The cyst may be
formed for protection under drought ("hypnocyst"), or as a
preliminary to spore-formation ("sporocyst"). The latter may have a
simple wall (simple sporocyst), or else two or three formed in
succession ("resting cyst"), so as to enable it to resist prolonged
desiccation, etc.: both differing from the hypnocyst in that their
contents undergo brood formation. On encystment any indigestible
food materials are extruded into the cyst, and in the "resting cysts,"
which are usually of at least two layers, this faecal mass lies in the
space between them. The brood-cells escape, either as flagellate-
cells, resembling the simpler Protomastigina, called "flagellulae," and
which often become amoeboid (Fig. 29); or already furnished with
pseudopodia, and called "amoebulae," though they usually recall
Actinophrys rather than Amoeba. In Vampyrella and some others the
amoebulae fuse, and so attain a greater size, which is most probably
advantageous for feeding purposes. But usually it is as a uninucleate
cell that the being encysts. They may feed either by ingestion by the
pseudopodia, by the whole surface contained in a living host-cell, or
by passing a pseudopodium into a host-cell (Fig. 29 5). They may be
divided as follows:—

A. Myxoidea.—Flagella 1-3; zoospores separating at once.

1. Zoosporeae.—Brood-cells escaping as flagellulae, even if they become
amoeboid later. Ciliophrys Cienk.; Pseudospora Cienk. (Fig. 29).

2. Azoosporeae.—Cells never flagellate. Protomyxa Haeckel;

Plasmodiophora Woronin; Vampyrella Cienk.; Serumsporidium L. Pfeiffer.

B. Catallacta.—Brood-cells of cyst on liberation adhering at the centre to

form a spherical colony, multiflagellate; afterwards separating, and becoming
amoeboid. Magosphaera Haeckel (marine).[95]

Fig. 29.—Pseudospora lindstedtii. 1, 2, Flagellate zoospores; 3, young

amoebula, with two contractile vacuoles, one being reconstituted by three
minute formative vacuoles; 4, 5, an amoebula migrating to a fungus hypha
through the wall of which it has sent a long pseudopodium; 6, amoebula full-
grown; 7, 8, mature cells rounded off, protruding a flagellum, before
encysting; 9, young sporocyst; 10, the nucleus has divided into a brood of
eight; 11-14, stages of formation of zoospores. cv, Contractile vacuole; e,
mass of faecal granules; fl, flagellum; n, nucleus, × about 750⁄1.

Plasmodiophora infests the roots of Crucifers, causing the disease

known as "Hanburies," or "fingers and toes," in turnips, etc.
Serumsporidium dwells in the body cavity of small Crustacea. Many
of this group were described by Cienkowsky under the name of
"Monadineae" (in Arch. Mikr. Anat. i. 1865, p. 203). Zopf has added
more than anyone else since then to our knowledge. He
monographed them under Cienkowsky's name, as a subordinate
group of the Myxomycetes, "Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze," in
Schenk's Handb. d. Bot. vol. iii. pt. ii. (1887). To Lankester (Encycl.
Brit., reprint 1891) we owe the name here adopted. Zopf has
successfully pursued their study in recent papers in his Beitr. Nied.
Org. The Chytridieae, usually ascribed to Fungi, are so closely allied
to this group that Zopf proposes to include at least the Synchytrieae
herein.

This group is very closely allied to Sporozoa; for the absence of

cytogamy, and of sickle-germs,[96] and of the complex spores and
cysts of the Neosporidia, are the only absolute distinctions.

6. Mycetozoa (Myxomycetes, Myxogastres)

Sarcodina moving and feeding by pseudopodia, with no skeleton,
aggregating more or less completely into complex "fructifications"
before forming 1-nucleate resting spores; these may in the first
instance liberate flagellate zoospores, which afterwards become
amoeboid, or may be amoeboid from the first; zoospores capable of
forming hypnocysts from which the contents escape in the original
form.

1. Aggregation taking place without

plastogamy, zoospores amoeboid, with a
clear ectosarc Acrasieae.
Copromyxa Zopf; Dictyostelium Brefeld.
2. Aggregation remaining lax, with merely
thread-like connexions, except when
encystment is to take place; cytoplasm
finely granular throughout; complete
fusion of the cytoplasm doubtful Filoplasmodieae
Labyrinthula Cienk.; Chlamydomyxa Archer; Leydenia (?)
Schaud.
3. Plasmodium formation complete, Myxomycetes.
 eventuating in the formation of a complex
fructification often traversed by elastic,
hygroscopic threads, which by their
contraction scatter the spores; zoospores
usually flagellate at first
Fuligo Hall.; Chondrioderma Rostaf.; Didymium Schrad. (Fig.
30).

I. The Acrasieae are a small group of saprophytes, often in the most

literal sense, though in some cases it has been proved that the
actual food is the bacteria of putrefaction. In them, since no cell-
division takes place in the fructification, it is certain that the
multiplication of the species must be due to the fissions of the
amoeboid zoospores, which often have the habit of Amoeba limax
(Fig. 1, p. 5).

II. Filoplasmodieae.—Chlamydomyxa[97] is a not uncommon

inhabitant of the cells of bog-mosses and bog-pools, and its nutrition
may be holophytic, as it contains chromoplasts; but it can also feed
amoeba-fashion. Labyrinthula is marine, and in its fructification each
of the component cells forms four spores. Leydenia has been found
in the fluid of ascitic dropsy, associated with malignant tumour.

III. Myxomycetes.—The fructification in this group is not formed by

the mere aggregation of the zoospores, but these fuse by their
cytoplasm to form a multinucleate body, the "plasmodium," which,
after moving and growing (with nuclear division) for some time like a
great multinucleate Reticularian, passes into rest, and develops a
fructification by the formation of a complex outer wall; within this the
contents, after multiplication of the nuclei, resolve themselves into
uninucleate spores, each with its own cyst-wall. The fructifications of
this group are often conspicuous, and resemble those of the
Gasteromycetous fungi (e.g., the Puffballs), whence they were at
first called Myxogastres. De Bary first discovered their true nature in
1859, and ever since they have been claimed by botanist and
zoologist alike.

The spore on germination liberates its contents as a minute

flagellate, with a single anterior lash and a contractile vacuole (Fig.
30, C). It soon loses the lash, becomes amoeboid, and feeds on
bacteria, etc. (Fig. 30, D, E). In this state it can pass into hypnocysts,
from which, as from the spores, it emerges as a flagellula. After a
time the amoeboids, which may multiply by fission, fuse on meeting,
so as to form the plasmodium (Fig. 30, F). This contains numerous
nuclei, which multiply as it grows, and numerous contractile
vacuoles. When it attains full size it becomes negatively hydrotactic,
crawls to a dry place, and resolves itself into the fructification. The
external wall, and sometimes a basal support to the fruit, are
differentiated from the outer layer of protoplasm; while the nuclei
within, after undergoing a final bipartition, concentrate each around
an independent portion of plasma, which again is surrounded as a
spore by a cyst-wall. Often the maturing plasmodium within the wall
of the fruit is traversed by a network of anastomosing tubes filled
with liquid, the walls of which become differentiated into membrane
like the fruit-wall, and are continuous therewith. As the fruit ripens
the liquid dries, and the tubes now form a network of hollow threads,
the "capillitium," often with external spiral ridges (Fig. 30, A, B).
These are very hygroscopic, and by their expansion and contraction
determine the rupture of the fruit-wall and the scattering of the
spores.