PROFESSIONAL INTEGRATION:
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
(PREPARED BY: ENGR. EDWARD J. LAFORTEZA)
FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS OF TRAFFIC FLOW
Time Mean Speed – it is the arithmetic mean of the
speeds observed at some designated point along the
roadway. It is associated with a single point along
roadway over time.
Space Mean Speed – It is harmonic mean of the
speeds observed at some designated point along the
roadway. It is associated with a specified length of the
roadway.
Note: SMS is always less than the TMS
Problem 1: The following data were taken on five
vehicles travelling a 1.5km portion of the NLEX.
Determine the space mean speed and the time mean
speed.
Problem 2: The data below shows the result of the
flow of traffic at certain part of the highway by
observing the arrival times for four vehicles at two
sections A and B that are 150m apart. Compute the
space mean speed and time mean speed of the vehicles
in terms of km/hr.
SPEED, DENSITY AND FLOW RELATIONSHIP
Traffic Flow (q) – the rate at which vehicles pass a
given point in a roadway given in terms of vehicles per
unit of time. “The number of vehicles pass a fixed point
over a period of time.”
where:
N – no. of vehicles/observations (in veh)
t – period of time (in sec, min, or hr)
Traffic Density (k) – measure of the number of
vehicles occupying a length of roadway.
where:
N – no. of vehicles/observations (in veh)
L – Length/stretch of highway (in m/km)
Space Headway (hs) – the distance between
successive vehicles moving in the same lane measured
from head-to-head at any instance. It is the difference
in position of vehicles arriving in a certain point.
hs is usually in terms of km/veh
Time Headway (ht) – the time interval between the
passage of successive vehicles moving in the same lane
measured from head-to-head as they pass a point on
the road. It is the difference in time of vehicles arriving
in a certain point.
ht is usually in terms of hr/veh
Relationship Between Traffic Flow and Traffic
Density
where: v – space mean speed/velocity (SMS)
Problem 3: Six vehicles are observed in 200m section
of highway. Average time headway is 4sec.
1. Determine the density in vehicles/km.
2. Determine the traffic flow in vehicles/hr.
3. Determine the space mean speed.
Problem 4: The vehicle time headway is 2.5
sec/vehicle and the spacing of cars measured at a
point along the North Luzon Expressway from a single
lane is 60 m/vehicle over the course of an hour.
1. Compute the traffic density.
2. Determine the space mean speed in kph.
Problem 5: If 2340 vehicles passes a certain lane of
road for one hour with an average speed of 52kph,
determine the appropriate spacing of the vehicles in
meters.
Peak Hour Factor (PHF) - is the traffic volume during
the busiest 15-minutes of the peak hour with the total
volume during the peak hour.
Design Hourly Volume (DHV) - is the number of
vehicles that travel through a segment of roadway
during the design hour. The DHV is used for making
roadway structural and capacity design decisions
because traffic volume varies by hour and from day to
day throughout the year.
Problem 6: For the given data shown, determine:
1. Peak hour
2. Peak hour volume.
3. Peak hour factor.
4. Design Hourly Volume.
Additional Empirical Formulas:
Minimum Time Headway
where:
ht(min) – minimum time headway (in sec)
C – capacity of a single lane (in veh/hr)
Capacity of a single lane in vehicles per hour
Traffic Capacity (C) - ability of a roadway to
accommodate traffic volume. It is expressed as a
number of vehicles in a lane that can pass a given point
in a unit time.
where:
C – capacity of a single lane (in veh/hr)
V – average speed of vehicle (in km/hr)
S – ave. center to center spacing of cars (in m)
V – average speed of vehicle (in m/s)
t – reaction time (in sec)
L – length of one car (in m)
CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW, SPEED, DENSITY
RELATIONSHIP
→ When the traffic density is zero, the traffic flow
will also be zero since there is no vehicles on the
road.
→ When the number of vehicles gradually increases,
the density as well as the flow increases.
→ When more and more vehicles are added, it
reaches a situation where vehicles can’t move. This is
referred to as the jam density or the maximum
density. At jam density, flow will be zero because the
vehicles are not moving.
→ When the traffic density is approaching or
approximately equal to zero, the velocity or speed is
called as free flow speed.
HIGHWAY SAFETY AND ACCIDENT ANALYSIS
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) - is the average
24-hour traffic volume at a given location over a full
year.
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) - is the average 24-hour
traffic volume at a given location for a period of time
less than a year. (e.g. summer, six months, a month, a
season)
Accident rate for 100 million vehicle miles of
travel (HMVM) for a segment of a highway:
where:
A – number of accidents during period of analysis
ADT – average daily traffic
N – time period in years
L – length of segment of a highway/road in miles
Accident rate per million entering vehicles (MEV)
for an intersection:
where:
A – number of accidents during period of analysis
ADT – average daily traffic entering the intersection
from all legs
N – time period in years
Severity Ratio (SR)
Problem 8: The number of accidents for 5 years
recorded in a certain intersection of a highway is 5892.
If the average daily traffic is 476, what is the accident
rate per million entering vehicles?
Problem 9: The accident rates for 100 million vehicle
miles of travel caused by people attempting to pass a
heavily traffic 2 lane rural highway is 6.0. The length of
the road is 10 miles with an ADT of 36000. Determine
the estimated yearly reduction in total crashes if the
crash reduction factor is 0.25.
Problem 10: Data on a traffic accident recorded for
the past 5 years on a certain stretch of a two-lane
highway is tabulated as follows.
Determine the severity ratio for the given accident
record.
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR HORIZONTAL
SURFACES
Reaction Distance (d1):
Breaking Distance (d2):
Stopping Sight Distance (S):
where:
v – velocity (in m/s)
t – perception-reaction time (in sec)
𝑓 – coefficient of friction between tires and
pavements
G – average grade of the roadway
g – acceleration due to gravity (in m/s2)
Note: Usually 2.5 seconds is used as Brake Reaction
Time or Perception-Reaction Time.
Problem 11: A car travelling at 70kph requires 48m
to stop after the brakes have been applied. What
average coefficient of friction was developed between
the tires and the pavement. Note: use 2.5 seconds as
perception-reaction time.
Additional Formulas:
Braking Time:
Brake Efficiency:
Problem 12: While descending a -7% grade at a speed
of 90km/hr, Turai notices a large object in the roadway
ahead of him. Without thinking about any alternatives,
Turai stabs his brakes and begins to slow down.
Assuming that Turai is so paralyzed with fear that
won’t engage in an avoidance maneuver, calculate the
minimum distance at which Turai must have seen the
object in order to avoid colliding with it. You can
assume that the roadway surface is wet (f = 0.29). You
can also assume that Turai has a brake reaction time
of 0.9 seconds because he is always alert on this
stretch of the road.
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE ON A LEVEL ROAD
SURFACE
d1 - distance traversed during perception and reaction
time and during the initial acceleration to the point of
encroachment of the left lane.
d2 - distance traveled while the passing vehicle
occupies left lane.
d3 - distance between the passing vehicle at the end of
its maneuver and the opposing vehicle. Usually given.
d4 - distance traversed by opposing vehicle for two-
thirds of the time the passing vehicle occupies the left
lane or sometimes taken as 2/3 d2.
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (PSD):
MINIMUM PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (MPSD):
Problem 12: Given the following data:
Speed of the passing vehicle = 26.67 m/s
Speed of the overtaken vehicle = 24.44 m/s
Time of initial maneuver = 4.3 s
Average acceleration = 1.473 mph/sec
Time of passing vehicle occupies the left lane = 10.4 s
Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its
maneuver and the opposing vehicle = 76 m
1. Compute the passing sight distance.
2. Compute the minimum passing sight distance.
RAILROAD ENGINEERING
Frog – permit wheel flanges to cross opposing rails in
the turnout.
Turnout – simplest combination of points and
crossing which enables a track to take off from the
main track. These points and crossing are special
arrangement which are used to move trains from one
track to another.
Frog Number (FN) – the ratio of Heel Length to the
Heel Spread.
Problem 13: A turnout has a frog with the following
data:
Ɵ = 5°43’29’’
Heel Spread = 311mm
Toe Length = 1820mm
1. Compute for the frog number.
2. What is the length of the heel?
3. What is the total length of the turnout?
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Ports – a harbor with the necessary terminal
facilities to expedite the moving of cargo and
passenger at any stage of the journey aside from its
wharves, pier and cargo handling machinery.
2. Harbor – any body of water with sufficient depth
for ships to enter and find shelter in storm and other
natural phenomena.
3. Natural Harbor – a harbor which is protected by
storms and waves by the natural land contours, rocky
outcrops or islands. The entrance to such harbor
permits navigation.
4. Artificial Harbor – a harbor protected by means of
engineering works on all sides.
5. Commercial Harbor – a harbor in which terminal
facilities are provided.
6. Refuge Harbor – a harbor which is used as a haven
in a storm.
7. Wharf – a landing place or the platform built out
into or onto the water parallel to the shore for the
berthing of vessels.
8. Jetty – A solid structure which projects into the sea
perpendicular to the shore to berth vessels.
9. Pier – A platform extending from a shore over
water and supported by piles, used to secure, protect,
and provide access to ships or boats.
10. Lighthouse – they are tall tower structures with a
marine beacon-light camera lantern on top. They are
usually erected on points along the shore to guide
ships to a nearby port as well as on reefs, shoals or
other points of danger to shipping.
11. Breakwater – a structure constructed around
harbor in order to protect the interior water area
from the effect of stormy waves.
12. Revetment – structures used for protecting
riverbanks against erosion.
13. Levee – an embankment built along the side of
the rivers to prevent the overflow of banks and thus
to protect the adjoining land from flood waters.
14. Dikes or Training Wall – these are employed to
direct the flow of current in rivers with a view to the
establishment of the more favorable and fixed
channel and often also to prevent scour and erosion
and the carrying away of river banks.
15. Quaywall or Bulkhead – protection walls for
quay and wharves for retaining and protecting
embankments or retaining fill.
16. Mooring – a structure where a ship is tied when it
is anchored to enable cargo to be handled in the
absence of wharves.
17. Apron – a space provided in large ports in front of
berth to facilitate loading and unloading of cargo.
18. Ocean Port – ports of call for large ships or ocean
liners.
19. Entry Port – isolated area of ports where foreign
goods are cleared through customs.
20. Free Port – an isolated and enclosed area within
which goods maybe landed, stored, mixed, repacked,
manufactured and reshipped without payment of
duties and without intervention of custom officials.
21. Inland Port – ports which are located at the
entrance of a river.
22. Approach Channel – the path or channel in
which ship proceeds from the sea to the harbor.
23. Outer Channel – the portion of the channel
beyond harbor entrance in the open sea.
24. Inner Channel – the portion lying between the
entrance and harbor basin.
25. Turning Basin – water space which is required
for maneuvering the ships after they enter the harbor
for going to or leaving a berth.