Lead in Plants and the Environment

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Radionuclides and Heavy Metals in the Environment

Dharmendra K. Gupta
Soumya Chatterjee
Clemens Walther Editors

Lead in
Plants and the
Environment
Radionuclides and Heavy Metals
in the Environment
Series Editors:
Dharmendra K. Gupta
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, Jorbagh Road
Aliganj, New Delhi, India
Clemens Walther
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover
Institut für Radioökologie und Strahlenschutz (IRS)
Hannover, Germany
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16207
Dharmendra K. Gupta • Soumya Chatterjee
Clemens Walther
Editors

Lead in Plants and the

Environment
Editors
Dharmendra K. Gupta Soumya Chatterjee
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Defence Research Laboratory
Climate Change Defence Research & Development
Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, Jorbagh Road Organisation
Aliganj, New Delhi, India Tezpur, Assam, India

Clemens Walther
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität
Hannover
Institut für Radioökologie und
Strahlenschutz (IRS)
Hannover, Germany

ISSN 2524-7409     ISSN 2524-7417 (electronic)

Radionuclides and Heavy Metals in the Environment
ISBN 978-3-030-21637-5    ISBN 978-3-030-21638-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21638-2

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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Preface

Lead (Pb) is a metal utilized by humans for many thousands of years. Metallic Pb
globules manufactured in 6400 BC were discovered at Çatalhöyük (presently in
Republic of Turkey). Pb is a bluish-white lustrous metal, which is very soft, highly
malleable, and ductile, and is a relatively poor electric conductor. Metal is resistant
to corrosion but tarnishes upon exposure to air. In nature, it is typically found as
minerals, in combination with other elements.
A total of 49 isotopes of Pb were recorded till date with four stable isotopes
(204,206,207,208 Pb). Among the stable isotopes, only 204Pb is a primordial nuclide, and
not a radiogenic one. The three other stable isotopes, 206,207,208Pb, are the endpoints
of three decay chains, i.e., uranium, actinium, and thorium series, respectively. 205Pb
and 202Pb are the longest-lived radioisotopes with a half-life of approximately
15.3 million years and 53,000 years, respectively. The radiologically most relevant
radioactive nuclide 210Pb is part of the 238U series and has a half-life of 22.3 years.
210
Pb is suitable for studying the chronology of sedimentation on time scales shorter
than 100 years. Anthropogenic activities, like combustion of coal, are one of the
major sources of 210Pb in the atmosphere, but 210Pb also occurs naturally since it is a
progeny of the radioactive noble gas radon (222Rn) emanating from soil air due to the
omnipresent uranium.
Pb is a microelement with no known physiological function but found in trace
amounts in all biotic resources, e.g., in soil, water, plants, and animals. Pb is a toxic
element, pollution of which may come from various sources. In the environment,
nearly 98% of stable Pb originates from paints, petrochemicals, pipes and supply
systems, etc. Routes of Pb poisoning may be through consumption of contaminated
food and water, breathing contaminated air from cigars and automobile exhausts,
and using uncleaned adulterated hands/face where individual health and hygiene
issues are compromised. However, usually, Pb is not absorbed through skin.
Recent extensive work on 210Pb radioisotope for examining plant uptake, where,
mostly, artificial spiking of the metal in the soil and observing its consequent absorp-
tion in plant and soils. Usually, Pb forms complexes with soil particles, and a very
small amount or fractions are easily available for plants. Despite its lack of essential
function in plants, Pb is taken up mostly through the roots from soil ­solutions at

v
vi Preface

rhizosphere level, which may cause the entry of Pb into the food chain. It is also
reported that uptake of Pb by roots occurs mainly through apoplastic pathway or via
Ca2+ absorbent channels. Pb in soil and its uptake by plants depends on several fac-
tors, like soil pH, soil particle size, soil moisture, cation-exchange capacity, presence
of other (in)organic substances (including humus), root structure and rhizosphere,
root exudates, and root mycorrhizal properties. Once Pb enters into the plants
through root, initially, it is getting deposited at root cells. However, reports also sug-
gest that negatively charged root cell walls adsorb Pb. Accumulation of Pb in plants
renders phytotoxic symptoms, disturbing morphological, physiological, and bio-
chemical functions, like inhibition of ATP production, lipid peroxidation, and DNA
damage by overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, monitoring
Pb remobilization and related secondary pollution and effective, environment-­
friendly remediation measures to reduce Pb pollution is the need of the hour.
The main features of this volume are interrelated to how Pb enters into the envi-
ronment and its translocation from soil to plants and into the food chain. Chapters
1 and 2 deal with the analytical methods for determining Pb both in environmental
and in biological samples and also the effect of radioisotopic lead behavior in plants
and environment and distribution of radioactive Pb and its distribution in environ-
ment through modelling application. Chapters 3 and 4 focus on Pb exposure to
humans via agroecosystem and its consequences. Chapters 5 and 6 focus on how Pb
behaves in soil plant system and how it uptakes in plants. Chapters 7 and 8 empha-
size on how Pb reacts on physiological and biochemical changes in plants with
reference to different plant enzymes and photosynthetic apparatus. Last but not
least, Chaps. 9 and 10 present the biological strategies of lichens symbionts, under
Pb toxicity, and how Pb pollution is going to remediate via phytoremediation. The
material composed in this volume will bring in-depth holistic information on Pb
(both stable and radioactive) uptake and translocation and its toxicity in plants and
effect on human health and phytoremediation strategies.
Drs. Dharmendra K. Gupta, Soumya Chatterjee, and Prof. Clemens Walther indi-
vidually acknowledge all authors for contributing their valuable time, information,
and interest to bring this book into its current form.

New Delhi, India  Dharmendra K. Gupta

Tezpur, Assam, India   Soumya Chatterjee
Hannover, Germany   Clemens Walther
Contents

Major Analytical Methods for Determining Lead in Environmental

and Biological Samples������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Jozef Sabol
Environmental Distribution and Modelling of Radioactive
Lead (210): A Monte Carlo Simulation Application ������������������������������������   15
Fatih Külahcı
Lead Pollution and Human Exposure: Forewarned is Forearmed,
and the Question Now Becomes How to Respond to the Threat!����������������   33
Natasha, Camille Dumat, Muhammad Shahid, Sana Khalid,
and Behzad Murtaza
Impact of Lead Contamination on Agroecosystem
and Human Health������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   67
Vasudev Meena, Mohan Lal Dotaniya, Jayanta Kumar Saha,
Hiranmoy Das, and Ashok Kumar Patra
Lead Contamination and Its Dynamics in Soil–Plant System ��������������������   83
M. L. Dotaniya, C. K. Dotaniya, Praveen Solanki, V. D. Meena,
and R. K. Doutaniya
Lead Toxicity in Plants: A Review������������������������������������������������������������������   99
Anindita Mitra, Soumya Chatterjee, Anna V. Voronina,
Clemens Walther, and Dharmendra K. Gupta
Mechanisms Involved in Photosynthetic Apparatus Protection
Against Lead Toxicity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117
Krzysztof Tokarz, Barbara Piwowarczyk, and Wojciech Makowski
Physiological and Biochemical Changes in Plant Growth
and Different Plant Enzymes in Response to Lead Stress���������������������������� 129
Eda Dalyan, Elif Yüzbaşıoğlu, and Ilgın Akpınar

vii
viii Contents

Biological Strategies of Lichen Symbionts to the Toxicity

of Lead (Pb)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 149
Joana R. Expósito, Eva Barreno, and Myriam Catalá
Phytoremediation of Lead: A Review������������������������������������������������������������ 171
Bhagawatilal Jagetiya and Sandeep Kumar
Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 203
About the Editors

Dharmendra K. Gupta is Director at Ministry of Environment, Forest and

Climate Change, Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, Jorbagh Road, Aliganj, New Delhi,
India. He already published more than 90 refereed research papers/review articles in
peer-reviewed journals and in books and also edited 16 books. His field of research
includes abiotic stress caused by radionuclides/heavy metals and xenobiotics in
plants, antioxidative s­ ystem in plants, and environmental pollution (radionuclides/
heavy metals) ­remediation through plants (phytoremediation).

Soumya Chatterjee is Senior Scientist and Head of the Department of

Biodegradation Technology at Defence Research Laboratory (DRDO) at Tezpur,
Assam, India. His area of research includes microbial biodegradation, abiotic stress
in plants, bioremediation and phytoremediation, wastewater bacteriophages,
­sanitation, and metagenomics. He has already published more than 60 refereed
research papers/review articles and book chapters in peer-reviewed journals/books
(including edited books and journal special issues).

Clemens Walther is Professor of Radioecology and Radiation Protection and

Director of the Institute for Radioecology and Radiation Protection at the Leibniz
Universität Hannover, Germany. He published more than 100 papers in p­ eer-­reviewed
journals. His field of research is actinide chemistry with a focus on solution species
and formation of colloids and ultra-trace detection and speciation of radionuclides
in the environment by mass spectrometry and laser spectroscopy.

ix
Major Analytical Methods for Determining
Lead in Environmental and Biological
Samples

Jozef Sabol

Abstract Lead (Pb) is an element which is found in nature where out of its known
49 isotopes the most abundant are four: 208Pb (52%), 206Pb (24%), 207Pb (22%) and
204
Pb (less than 2%). The increased concentration of lead in the environment is
mainly due to some human activities. This includes use of petrol in transport vehi-
cles and releases from industrial and other installations and facilities. From the con-
taminated environment where soil, water, air, animals and plants always contain
certain concentration of lead, the nuclide can find a way into the human organism
by inhalation and ingestion. This results in some health effects which, in the case of
higher intake, may be extremely poisoning and dangerous. Chronic lead intoxica-
tion has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease. Lead, like many heavy elements, tends
to accumulate in bone. Therefore, analysis of the lead presence in environmental
and biological samples is an important prevention measure against harmful conse-
quences which must be minimised and in accordance with the set standards and
limits. The chapter deals with some specific methods recommended for determining
lead in various samples. Special attention is paid to the description of XRF and
PIXE methods and especially methods based on atomic spectroscopy, namely
absorption and emission spectroscopy as well as atomic fluorescence methods.
While the first two methods are essentially considered as non-destructive, the atomic
spectroscopy method falls into the category of destructive methods.

Keywords Lead (Pb) · Health effects · Determination · Atom absorption spectros-

copy · Atomic emission spectroscopy · Atomic fluorescence spectrometry ·
Environmental samples · Biological samples

J. Sabol (*)
Department of Crisis Management, Faculty of Security Management, PACR,
Prague, Czech Republic
e-mail: sabol@polac.cz

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

D. K. Gupta et al. (eds.), Lead in Plants and the Environment, Radionuclides
and Heavy Metals in the Environment,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21638-2_1
2 J. Sabol

1 Introduction

Lead (Pb) is a blue-gray malleable metal found in Group 14 (IV A) periodic table of
elements. Natural lead is a mixture of predominantly four stable isotopes: 208Pb,
206
Pb, 207Pb and 204Pb. Altogether, there are 49 known lead isotopes, the occurrences
of the four of them mentioned above are most abundant: 208Pb (52%), 206Pb (24%),
207
Pb (22%) and 204Pb (less than 2%). Of these four isotopes of lead, the only 204Pb
is non-radiogenic (it is not the product of radioactive decay, it originates outside the
decaying series) and its presence on Earth is on Earth is unvarying. The other three
are radiogenic final isotopes of the disintegration series: 206Pb is the final disintegra-
tion product of 238U (uranium 238U decay chain), 207Pb is the final product of 235U
(uranium 235U decay chain), and 208Pb is the ending product of 232Th (Table 1). It is
possible to distinguish with different isotopic composition whether it is a natural or
anthropogenic source. This is possible if all pollution sources are characterised by
their ratio of lead isotopes and pollutants therefore have their own specific isotopic
composition. For example, lead released during combustion processes shows a dif-
ferent isotopic composition of 206Pb/207Pb from other sources of pollution. Also, the
isotopic composition of lead emitted into the atmosphere in metallurgical processes
corresponds to the isotopic composition of the original materials.
Lead was known and used since prehistoric times. Exposure to lead has been
consequently increased mainly because the environment is more and more contami-
nated by this element. Although acute lead poisoning has become sporadic, chronic
exposure to low levels of lead is still considered to be a public health issue (Shilu
et al. 2000). Lead intake can lead to a variety of adverse health impacts All over the
word; the relevant standards for lead emissions have become increasingly stringent
because of new findings about its possible health impacts. The associated regula-
tions require monitoring the situation in order to keep the level and lead concentra-
tion below the limits and action levels set by national regulatory authorities.
Lead had previously been mainly introduced into the waters by road and vegeta-
tion flushes from the immediate vicinity of busy roads. The exhaust gas contained
lead as the decomposition products of tetra-alkyl, which was a common anti-knock
additive for gasoline. To a lesser degree lead and lead alloy plants also contribute to
contamination. It also gets into the water from the lead pipe. The tetra-alkyl com-
pounds are very volatile and easily pass into the atmosphere when aerating the water.
It accumulates in bones and other tissues with age. It interferes with red blood cell
enzymes and may cause death at higher doses, causing mental retardation. Often
enough lead (200 mg kg−1) in the grass along the highways could even kill cattle.
The nuclides produced as results of the decay of natural radionuclides with very
long half-life such as 238U (half-life 4.5 109 years), 235U (half-life 0.7 109 years) and
232
Th (half-life 14 109 years) are radioactive and continue to form more radioactive
nuclides until a non-radioactive nuclide is formed. A uranium-radium decay chain
begins with 238U and ends with the stable 206Pb after going through 18 intermediate
steps. Uranium-235 is at the beginning of the uranium-actinium decay chain leading
via 15 radionuclides to 207Pb. With ten intermediate states, the thorium decay chain
Major Analytical Methods for Determining Lead in Environmental and Biological… 3

Table 1 Three main decay chains (or families) are observed in nature, commonly called the
thorium series, the radium or uranium series, and the actinium series, representing three of these
four classes, and ending in three different, stable isotopes of lead (A, mass number corresponding
to number of protons and neutrons; Z atomic or proton number; N number of neutrons)

(continued)
4 J. Sabol

Table 1 (continued)

starting with 232Th and ending at 208Pb is the shortest. The daughter nuclides arising
from the disintegration of naturally occurring 238U, 235U and 232Th are all radioactive
and therefore disintegrate until the last one which is stable lead, namely 206Pb, 207Pb
and 208Pb, respectively.

2 Health Effects

While the use of lead has been greatly reduced in developed countries, it is still used
widely in developing countries because it has some unique useful properties suit-
able and required in a number of various applications. The continued use of lead has
caused its levels to raise worldwide, posing serious threats not only to the environ-
ment but also to the humans living in it. Lead can cause some damage in every organ
and tissue in human body, Exposure to high lead levels can severely affect the brain
and kidneys and eventually cause death. High levels of exposure can lead to miscar-
riage in pregnant women. Lead is also widely thought to be cancerogenic. Toxic
effects of lead have been observed especially on the renal, reproductive and nervous
system. Therefore, some the techniques were developed for treating lead toxicity.
Some more information about the recent progress in this area is given in the review
Major Analytical Methods for Determining Lead in Environmental and Biological… 5

Table 2 Toxicology of lead (adopted from Das and Grewal 2011)

Form Metabolism
entering Major route of Major clinical Key aspects and
body absorption Distribution effects of mechanism elimination
Inorganic Gastrointestinal, Soft tissues; CNS deficits; Inhibits Renal
lead respiratory redistributed peripheral enzymes; (major);
oxides and to skeleton neuropathy; interferes faeces and
salts (>90% of anaemia; with essential breast milk
adult body nephropathy; cations; alters (minor)
burden hypertension; membrane
reproductive structure
toxicity
Organic Skin, Soft tissues, Encephalopathy Hepatic de Urine and
(tetraethyl gastrointestinal, especially alkylation faeces
lead respiratory liver, CNS (fast) tri alky (major);
metabolites sweat
(slow) (minor)
dissociation
to Pb

(Wani et al. 2015). An overview of possible health effects caused by lead which
entered human body through various routes is given in Table 2.
In general, it has been widely accepted that lead is a probable human carcinogen.
Lead can affect every organ and system in the body. Exposure to high lead levels can
severely damage the brain and kidneys and ultimately cause death. In pregnant
women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. Internationally for
lead regulatory limits have been introduced corresponding to15 parts per billion
(ppb) in drinking water and 0.15 μg per cubic meter in air.
Since lead is an element that occurs naturally in the earth, trace amounts of lead
may occur in the foods we eat and the water we drink. Regulatory authorities in
most countries are trying to control population exposure to lead from various
sources. The main sources of lead entering human body include the following:
• Inhalation of lead dust which originates from lead-based paint and lead-­
contaminated soil.
• Touching by hands other objects contaminated with lead dust and then putting
them into mouths.
• Consuming food, candy or water contaminated by lead.
• By means of dishes or glasses that contain lead.
• From colour additives in paints and cosmetics (special case may be children
playing with toys that contain lead paint).
In addition to occupationally related exposure by some workers, the most sensi-
tive group among population represent children, which may be affected by lead due
to many different situations (Fig. 1).
6 J. Sabol

Fig. 1 The main routes of

lead entering children’s
bodies

3  verview of Basic Analytical Methods

O
for Determining Lead

There are several methods used for the monitoring and identification of the occur-
rence of lead in analysed samples. The techniques differ as to sample preparation
and treatment as well as to instrumentation used.

3.1 X-Ray Fluorescent Spectroscopy and PIXE Method

The principles of both methods are similar. In case of X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
method, an incident X-ray photon removes an orbital electron leaving a hole which
is filled by an electron from an outer shell which results in the emission of a photo-
electron and a characteristic photon with an energy inherent to the type of the atom
of a nuclide under examination. The PIXE (particle induced X-ray emission) method
is essentially the same, only instead incident X-ray photons charge particles (in
most cases protons) are used. The process is illustrated in Fig. 2.
X-ray photons or charged particles excite inner electron shells of the sample
material. The ejected electron leaves the atom of the target element as a photoelec-
tron. Other electrons fill the gap and give off large amounts of energy in the form of
characteristic X-rays, which are detected, their energy can thus identify the element,
and the intensity of X-rays identifies concentration of the element in the sample. In
general, incident photons may be produced either by an X-ray tube or a radionuclide
emitting soft gamma radiation.
As a source of primary radiation, the XRF analysers can use either an X-ray tube
(Fig. 3a) or a suitable radioactive excitation source (Fig. 3b) such as 57Co and 109Cd.
In addition to laboratory XRF analysers, usually equipped with radioactive
sources, there are several various types of portable analysers (Fig. 4) designed to
Major Analytical Methods for Determining Lead in Environmental and Biological… 7

Fig. 2 The principle of the mechanism of XRF (and PIXE) method; (a) the generation of charac-
teristic photons; (b) their energy distribution (Based on Motohiro et al. 2015)

Fig. 3 Basic arrangement of an XRF analyser using (a) an X-ray tube and (b) a radioactive source

monitor the detection of heavy metals (including Pb) in soil, paint, toys, and so on.
These handheld XRF analysers can also be used for specific material identification
and hazardous material analysis, and for metal alloy identification, consumer goods
screening, compliance screening and many other analysis needs. These analysers
serve also for checking compliance with the standards and limits introduced by the
relevant regulatory authorities,
An X-ray spectrographic technique known as the PIXE method, can be used to
analyse solid, liquid or aerosol filter samples in a non-destructive, simultaneous
elemental way. The X-ray photons are initiated when energetic protons excite target
atoms in the inner shell of electrons. When these inner shell electrons are subse-
quently expelled, they produce X-rays whose energies are emitted when the result-
ing vacancies are again filled. These vacancies are unique to the sample elements
being analysed, with the number of X-rays emitted being proportional to the mass
of the corresponding sample element.
8 J. Sabol

Fig. 4 Some examples of portable XRF analysers, (a) Oxford X-MET5000 Handheld XRF
Analyzer (Oxford 2019) and (b) Thermo scientific XRF analyser (Thermo 2019)

The PIXE method for the most part uses protons to generate X-rays in a sample,
the probability of which depends on the proton energy (in MeV) as well as on the
total number of incident protons. This number can be expressed as proton current
(in mA): the greater the proton current, the greater the probability for X-ray
­production. As the proton energy changes, the probability for X-ray production also
changes. Both of these factors must be accurately known in order to perform a cor-
rect quantitative analysis. When protons interact to produce X-rays, each collision
in turn transfers kinetic energy from the mobile proton to the immobile target atom.
While each collision produces a small amount of energy, as the collisions and result-
ing energy increase, they eventually reduce the proton’s energy as well as its ability
to generate X-rays, and in the end the proton becomes immobile. The instrument
calibration is carried out at specific proton energy, Data on proton energy loss is
necessary to calibrate instruments for performing accurate quantitative analysis.
Since instrument calibration is carried out at specific proton energy, information of
the proton energy loss is indispensable for quantitative analysis. The PIXE tech-
nique has been used in the monitoring of lead and other metals. The range of Pb
concentrations in human rib bone was found to be in the range of 1.4–11.5 μg g-1 for
the trabecular surface by PIXE (Deibel et al. 1995).

3.2 Atomic Spectroscopy

In general, atomic spectroscopy (spectrometry) represents the determination of ele-

mental composition based on the evaluation of electromagnetic radiation absorbed
and emitted. The analysis of the electromagnetic spectrum of elements, called
Major Analytical Methods for Determining Lead in Environmental and Biological… 9

Fig. 5 The illustration of all three techniques of atomic spectroscopy based on atomic emission,
atomic absorption and atomic fluorescence

optical atomic spectroscopy, includes three techniques: atomic absorption, atomic

emission and atomic fluorescence versions (Fig. 5). The excitation and decay to the
ground state is involved in all three fields of atomic spectroscopy. Either the energy
absorbed in the excitation process, or the energy emitted in the decay process is
measured and used for analytical purposes.
Atomic absorption measures the amount of light of a certain (resonant) wave-
length which is absorbed as it penetrates through a cloud of atoms; the greater the
number of atoms the greater the amount of light absorbed. This measurement can
give a quantitative determination of the amount of analysed element in the sample.
The specific light source emitting photons of suitable wavelength can determine
quantitatively individual elements among other elements. This technique is fast and
accurate, making atomic absorption a popular method for determining the amount
of lead as well as other metals in any given substance.
Atomic emission spectrometry is a technique in which a high energy, thermal
environment such as an electrical arc, a flame, or even plasma is applied to a sample
in order to produce excited atoms which can emit light. The resulting emission
spectrum consists of the discrete wavelengths (emission lines) which can also be
used for qualitatively identifying an element.
The third field of atomic spectroscopy is atomic fluorescence. This method incor-
porates aspects of both atomic absorption and atomic emission modality. Like
atomic absorption, ground state atoms created in a flame are excited by focusing a
beam of light into the atomic vapor. Instead of looking at the amount of light
absorbed in the process, however, the emission resulting from the decay of the
atoms excited by the source light is measured.
Atomic fluorescence spectrometry takes characteristics from atomic absorption
as well as atomic emission. Like atomic absorption, a beam of light is shone into
atomic vapour, exciting ground state atoms created in a flame. Unlike it, however,
the emission from the decay of the atoms excited is measured.
10 J. Sabol

3.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (spectrometry), AAS, is a spectrometric analytical

method used to determine both trace and significant concentrations of individual
elements in an environmental or biological sample. The method can analyse over 60
elements of the periodic table with sensitivity from about 0.01–100 ppm. The great-
est boom was recorded in the 1960s and 1980s, when it was one of the most sensi-
tive and widely used instrumental analytical techniques. In forensic chemistry, it is
mainly used to detect heavy metals and ammunition residues.
The analytical sample solution is fogged, and the resulting aerosol is introduced into
a flame or graphite atomiser, where the solution is immediately evaporated and the
chemical bonds in the molecules of the present compounds are broken. At the same time,
the atomisation conditions are chosen so that the largest possible population of measured
atoms remains in the neutral state and does not ionise to form charged particles.
A beam of light passes through a flame from a special discharge lamp whose
photons are absorbed when they meet the atoms of the analysed element and the
atom of the element passes into the relevant excited state. This leads to a decrease
in the intensity of the transmitted light, and the loss is given by the Lambert–Beer
law in the following form

−( k . n . l )
I = I0e

where I0 is the intensity of the exciting radiation, I is the intensity of the radiation
after passing through the absorbing environment (flame), k is the atomic absorption
coefficient for the specified absorption line, n is the number of atoms of the analysed
element in the volume unit and l is the length of the absorption layer.
In practice, the logarithm of the attenuation of light energy called absorbance (A)
is used as the measure corresponding to the concentration of the nuclide monitored.
The absorbance is expressed by the relation

I0
A = log = 2.303 ( k.n.l )
I

A very simple linear dependence on the atomic concentration of the measured ele-
ment is then valid for absorbance. Therefore, all AAS spectrometers indicate the mea-
sured results in terms of absorbance units reflecting the actual measured light transmittance.
Individual parts of a common atomic absorption spectrometer are shown in Fig. 6.
The atomic emission spectrometry is suitable for the assessment of lead concen-
tration in various waters. Results of some measurements in Iran are presented in
Table 3 (Dadfarnia et al. 2001). Another table (Table 4) illustrates the use of atomic
absorption spectrometry in determining lead concentration in tea leaves, mixed
Polish herbs and oriental tobacco leaves (Chwastowska et al. 2008). The same
authors (Chwastowska et al. 2008) measured also lead concentration in soil, street
dust and grass with the results of 67.6, 21.3 and 2.0 μg g−1, respectively.
Major Analytical Methods for Determining Lead in Environmental and Biological… 11

Fig. 6 Block diagram of a

typical atomic absorption
spectrometer (Based on
Alshana 2007)

Table 3 Determination of Concentration

lead in natural waters; sample Samples (μg L−1)
volume: 1000 mL (pH = 3);
Tap water 2.4 ± 0.1
eluent: 5 mL of HNO3 (4 M)
River water 2.8 ± 0.1
Well water 2.0 ± 0.1
Spring water 3.2 ± 0.1

Table 4 Results of analysis of the concentration of lead together with Cu and Cd determined in
three different samples
Sample Pb (μg g−1) Cu (μg g−1) Cd (μg g−1)
Tea leaves 1.78 ± 0.24 20.4 ± 1.5 0.030 ± 0.004
Mixed Polish herbs 2.16 ± 0.23 7.77 ± 0.53 0.199 ± 0.015
Oriental tobacco leaves 4.91 ± 0.80 14.1 ± 0.50 1.12 ± 0.12

3.2.2 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy

Atomic emission spectroscopy relies on the principle that when light or heat is
applied to a molecule, it gets excited and moves to a higher energy level, making it
unstable. The excited molecule then jumps to a lower energy level, thereby emitting
photons of characteristic energy. The emitted wavelengths are then recorded in the
emission spectrometer.
Similarly, to atomic absorption spectroscopy, the sample should be transformed into
free atoms. This is normally achieved using a high-temperature excitation source.
Liquid samples are dispersed and led in the excitation source by a flowing gas. Solid
samples can be introduced into the source by slurry or by laser ablation of the solid
sample in a gas stream. Solids can also be directly vaporised and excited by a spark
between electrodes or by a laser pulse. The excitation source must desolvate, atomise,
and excite the analyte atoms. The excitation sources include flame, inductively coupled
plasma, laser-induced plasma, direct-current plasma, microwave-­induced plasma and
spark or arc. The basic scheme of a standard atomic emission spectrometer is in Fig. 7.
12 J. Sabol

Fig. 7 Principal
arrangement of an atomic
emission spectrometer

3.2.3 Atomic Fluorescent Spectroscopy

An X-ray region in the electromagnetic spectrum is that which lies between the wave-
lengths of 0.01 and 10 nm. X-rays are produced, for example, in elementary reactions
particles, in the decay of radioactive elements and other processes. Secondary X-rays
are also produced by exposing the sample with appropriate (primary) X-rays. This
phenomenon is called X-ray fluorescence and is the basis for qualitative and quantita-
tive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF—X-ray fluorescence) analytical tech-
niques. Upon absorption of the primary photon by the electron in the inner shell of
the atom, the release of this electron (photo effect) and the formation of an electron
hole occur. This hole is filled with an electron jumping from higher energy level. In
doing so, the secondary (fluorescent) X-rays are released, the spectrum of which is of
a line character and characteristic of the element being analysed.
As a source of the fluorescent radiation, usually an X-ray tube or suitable radio-
active sources are used. The X-ray source consists of an evacuated tube, tungsten
fibre cathode, water-cooled target anode (Ca, Rh, Pd, Ag, W), supplied voltage
source (5–80 kV) and a beryllium window. A radioactive source is an appropriate
radionuclide emitting gamma radiation which is usually of lower intensity com-
pared to X-ray tube. These sources are especially useful in smaller and portable
spectrometers. Characteristic parameters of some suitable radionuclides used in
XRF spectrometers are presented in Table 5.

4 Conclusion

Lead is clearly among the toxic elements. Historically, overuse of lead is one of the
factors that have contributed to the extinction of the Roman Empire. The main con-
tribution to the excessive intake of lead was due to the use of lead acetate as a sweet-
ener. At present, lead is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant due to the use of
lead in drinking water installations, in the production of paints, as an additive in
gasoline and its other industrial applications. Lead penetrates into the body mainly
in the bone, and a certain amount is found in the blood. Even traces of lead in the
environment and food can lead to subsequent severe illnesses, as lead is accumulated
in the body. Therefore, the instrumentation for the measurement and monitoring of
Major Analytical Methods for Determining Lead in Environmental and Biological… 13

Table 5 Radionuclides suitable for the use in XRF spectrometry

Radionuclide Half-life Photon energy (keV) Elements excited
Fe-55 2.7 years 5.9 Na up to V
Cd-109 453 days 22, 88 Cu up to Mo (K)
Sn up to U (K)
Am-241 433 years 59.5 Sn up to Tm (K)
Co-57 272 days 122 Ta up to U (K)

lead concentration in specific environmental and biological samples is so important.

For the time being, there are some gaps in controlling lead and in adoption of con-
sistent regulations and standards where the situation must be improved.

References

Alshana U (2007) Atomic absorption and emission spectrometry. Online: https://slideplayer.com/

slide/8889467/. Accessed 5 Jan 2019
Chwastowska J, Skwara W, Sterliñska E, Dudek J, Dabrowska M, Pszonicki L (2008) GF AAS
determination of cadmium, lead and copper in environmental materials and food products after
separation on dithizone sorbent. Chem Anal 53:887–894
Dadfarnia S, Haji Shabani AM, Dehgan Shirie H (2001) Determination of lead in different sam-
ples by atomic absorption spectrometry after preconcentration with dithizone immobilized on
surfactant-coated alumina. Bull Korean Chem Soc 23:545–548
Das SK, Grewal AS (2011) A brief review: heavy metal and their analysis. Int J Pharm Sci Rev
Res 11:13–18
Deibel MA, Savage JM, Robertson JD, Ehmann WD, Markesbery WR (1995) Lead determinations
in human bone by particle induced X-ray emission (PIXE) and graphite furnace atomic absorp-
tion spectrometry (GFAAS). J Radioanal Nucl Chem 195:83–89
Motohiro U, Wada T, Sugiyama T (2015) Applications of X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) to
dental and medical specimens. Jap Dent Sci Rev 51:2–9
Oxford (2019) Oxford X-MET5000 Handheld XRF Analyzer. Online: https://www.metalsana-
lyzer.com/oxford-instruments.html. Accessed 30 Jan 2019
Shilu T, von Schirnding YE, Prapamontol T (2000) Environmental lead exposure: a public health
problem of global dimensions. Bull World Health Organ 78:1068–1077
Thermo (2019) Thermo Scientific Niton XL3t GOLDD XRF Analyzer. Online: https://www.azom.
com/equipment-details.aspx?EquipID=443. Accessed 30 Jan 2019
Wani AL, Ara A, Usmani JA (2015) Lead toxicity: a review. Interdiscip Toxicol 8:55–64
Environmental Distribution and Modelling
of Radioactive Lead (210): A Monte Carlo
Simulation Application

Fatih Külahcı

Abstract The abundance of lead element with an atomic number 82 is 1.03 × 10−8
% in the Solar System, 14 mg kg−1 in the Earth’s surface and 3 × 10−5 mg L−1 in the
oceans. The most dangerous radioisotope of lead is the 210Pb, which has a half-life
of 22.26 years and gamma energy of 46.5 keV. Modelling is one of the most effec-
tive ways of appreciation about the distribution effects and transport of the elements
to the earth. It has a wide range of content from pure differential equations to spatial
analysis calculations. In this section, the modelling with Monte Carlo Simulation
method of the environmental distribution of the lead can be found. The Monte Carlo
Simulation method on 210Pb data lead to concentrations for future times. In addition,
models of auto regressive integrated average (ARIMA), generalized autoregressive
conditional heteroscedastic (GARCH) and autoregressive conditional heteroscedas-
tic (ARCH) are obtained to determine the environmental distribution characteristics
of the lead. The proposed simulation methodologies can also be used successfully
for other variables other than lead.

Keywords Lead 210 · Monte Carlo simulation · ARIMA · Modelling · Probability

distribution · GARCH · Forecasting

1 Introduction

Lead (Pb) is one of the most important pollutants and its mining, production and
recovery are possible in the environment its use in technology, and especially, in
shielding, battery and toy industry. Pb is available in a high proportion within the

F. Külahcı (*)
Science Faculty, Physics Department, Nuclear Physics Division, Firat University,
Elazig, Turkey
e-mail: fatihkulahci@firat.edu.tr

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 15

D. K. Gupta et al. (eds.), Lead in Plants and the Environment, Radionuclides
and Heavy Metals in the Environment,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21638-2_2
16 F. Külahcı

Table 1 Physical and Atomic symbol: Pb

chemical properties of lead
(adopted from Kaye 1995;
Lide and Frederikse 1995)
Atomic number: 82
Atomic weight: 207.2 a.m.u
Density: 11.342 g/cm3 (×1000 for kg/m3)
State: solid
Ionizing potential: 7.417 eV
Melting point: 327.46 °C
Boiling point: 1749 °C
Specific heat: 0.129 J/g.K (×1000 for J/g.K)
Heat of fusion: 4.799 kJ mol−1
Heat of vaporization: 177.7 kJ mol−1
Element abundance
Solar system: 1.03×10−8%
Earth’s surface: 14 mg kg−1
Earths ocean: 3×10−5 mg l−1

earth’s crust (Table 1) and is spread to the atmosphere and environment by dust
storms, volcanic movements and water passing through the rocks.
In this section the focus is on the radioactive 210Pb, which is difficult to study
chemically and physically, depending on the relatively low radioactive energy. Pb
has 49 radioisotopes of which only three are stable (Table 2).

2 Radioactive Lead

Naturally occurring radioactive lead nuclei have 214Pb (t1/2 = 26.8 min) from 238U,
210
Pb (t1/2 = 22.3 years) from 238U, 211Pb (t1/2 = 36.1 min) from 235U, and 212Pb
(t1/2 = 10.64 h) from 232Th. Due to its relatively long half-life, 210Pb is the most
remarkable among other radioisotopes. Although the half-lives of other radionu-
clides are relatively small in the geological time scale, they are continuously repro-
duced, because they are members of the U and Th disintegration series and degraded
by these core nuclei. Different fractions of radioactive lead are found in significant
amounts in nature (Valkovic 2000). When 210Pb breaks down to decay product 210Bi
(t1/2 = 5.013 days), high energy Bremsstrahlung causes beta radiation, which is a
major problem for detector systems. High-energy beta radiation increases back-
ground radiation, so it is necessary to take care when using lead shields in detectors.
If the detection systems are protected from external background radiation then they
can produce strong Bremsstrahlung radiation, which causes the spectroscopic sys-
tems to take incorrect measurements.
Environmental Distribution and Modelling of Radioactive Lead (210): A Monte Carlo… 17

Table 2 List of lead nuclides (adopted from Kaye 1995; Lide and Frederikse 1995)
Nuclide Half-Life Abundance
Pb-181 45 ms
Pb-182 55 ms
Pb-183 300 ms
Pb-184 0.55 s
Pb-185 4.1 s
Pb-186 4.83 s
Pb-187 18.3 s
Pb-188 24 s
Pb-189 51 s
Pb-190 1.2 m
Pb-191 1.33 m
Pb-192 3.5 m
Pb-193 ~2 m
Pb-194 12.0 m
Pb-195 ~15 m
Pb-196 37 m
Pb-197 8m
Pb-198 2.40 h
Pb-199 90 m
Pb-200 21.5 h
Pb-201 9.33 h
Pb-202 5.25E4 years
Pb-203 51.873 h
Pb-204 >1.4E17 years 1.400%
Pb-205 1.53E+7 years
Pb-206 Stable 24.100%
Pb-207 Stable 22.100%
Pb-208 Stable 52.400%
Pb-209 3.253 h
Pb-210 22.3 years
Pb-211 36.1 m
Pb-212 10.64 h
Pb-213 10.2 m
Pb-214 26.8 m
Pb-215 36 s
Pb-187m 15.2 s
Pb-191m 2.18 m
Pb-193m 5.8 m
Pb-195m 15.0 m
Pb-197m 43 m
Pb-199m 12.2 m
Pb-201m 61 s
(continued)
18 F. Külahcı

Table 2 (continued)
Nuclide Half-Life Abundance
Pb-202m 3.53 h
Pb-203m 6.3 s
Pb-204m 67.2 m
Pb-205m 5.54 ms
Pb-207m 0.805 s
Pb-193m2 5.8 m
Pb-203m2 0.48 s

Pb emits 16.96 keV of 84% intensity and 63.50 keV of beta radiation with
210

intensity of 16%. When detecting 210Pb, high-purity Ge detectors detect 46.54 keV
gamma emission energies at the intensity of 4.25%.

3 Modelling of 210Pb

Spatial and spatiotemporal modelling techniques were developed in order to clearly

determine the distribution of 210Pb, which is the most effective environmental ele-
ment of Pb in terms of radioactivity (Külahcı and Şen 2009). The determination of
the risk of the activity after determining the coordinates of the sampling points is
important for the environmental distribution of the studied variable. In one opera-
tional example, 210Pb embodiment the probability distribution function (PDF) for 44
stations in the Hazar Lake in Turkey as in Fig. 1a and the spatial distribution in
Fig. 1b. In this study, the Spatiotemporal Point Cumulative Semivariogram
(STPCSV) method proposed by Külahcı and Şen (2009) models are employed for
the aquatic distribution of 210Pb both spatially and temporally.
Equation 1 is the basis of the STPCSV method.

1 n  2
γ ( di ) = ∑ ( CVt ) j − ( CVt ) j −1  (1)
2 j =1  

where γ(di) is the semivariogram value at distance d; Cj corresponds to the concen-

tration in station j; V is the speed of surface water and finally t is the desired time for
the 210Pb exchange in future. This simple equation does what many mixed equations
cannot do. With the help of the STPCSV graphs (Külahcı and Şen 2009), the effect
radius (range) of each station for 210Pb can be calculated and they can be adapted to
all micro and macro systems. Figure 2 indicates the temporal change of 210Pb
depending on the radius of action (Külahcı and Şen 2009).
A Monte Carlo Simulation for 44 stations is applied with each 44 lead concentra-
tion values, which were taken from the surface water. Since, the standard errors in
the concentration variation are statistically acceptable, an approximation can be
made by assuming that the data have relatively homogeneous change. Prior to the
Environmental Distribution and Modelling of Radioactive Lead (210): A Monte Carlo… 19

Fig. 1 (a) Logarithmic normal PDF model for 210

Pb data, (b) Pb concentration map (Bq l−1)
210

(Adopted from Külahcı and Şen 2009)

Fig. 2 Simulation curves calculated with STPCSV for Hazar Lake, Turkey. (a) Radius of influ-
ence for 1 km at 1 h; (b) radius of influence for 1 km at 3 h; (c) radius of influence for 1 km at 5 h;
(d) radius of influence for 3 km at 5 h; (e) radius of influence for 3 km at 1 h; (f) radius of influence
for 3 km at 3 h
20 F. Külahcı

Fig. 3 210
Pb histogram plot

simulation analysis, performance of some statistical calculations in a gradual man-

ner helps to evaluate and interpret the results. Figure 3 exposes the statistical distri-
bution in the form of 210Pb histogram that shows the corresponding environmental
distribution and this histogram indicates the mathematical expression of the normal
PDF is given as, PDF (Feller 1968; Patel and Read 1996).

−( x − µ )
2

1
y = f ( x µ ,σ ) = e 2σ 2
(2)
σ 2π

The corresponding cumulative probability distribution (CDF) (Papoulis and

Pillai 2002) of 210Pb, is presented in Fig. 4.
The graph in Fig. 4 corresponds to the cumulative probability change and it
shows the cumulative probability (Feller 2008) in the desired range with the param-
eters of the distribution given in Table 3. The necessary inferences and useful inter-
pretations can be obtained from Fig. 4 with reflections in Table 4.
In this table X indicates the entries of the vector in at X = field; F(X) is the cor-
responding values of the CDF at the entries of X; LB (UB) is the lower (upper)
bounds for the confidence interval.
Figure 5 shows a PDF that matches the histogram for Pb data. The main window
displays data sets using a probability histogram, in which the height of each rect-
angle is the fraction of data points that lie in the bin divided by the width of the bin
(MathWorks 2019). The sum of the fields of rectangles is 1.
Another random document with
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large party of Miaki’s men, all armed, and watching as outposts.
Some were for shooting us, but others hesitated. Every musket was,
however, raised and levelled at me. Faimungo poised his great spear
and said, “No, you shall not kill Missi to-day. He is with me.” Having
made this flourish, he strode off after his own men, and my
Aneityumese followed, leaving me face to face with a ring of levelled
muskets. Sirawia, who was in command of this party, and who once
like Nowar had been my friend, said to me, Judas like, “My love to
you, Missi.” But he also shouted after Faimungo, “Your conduct is
bad in taking the Missi away; leave him to us to be killed!”
I then turned upon him, saying, “Sirawia, I love you all. You must
know that I sought only your good. I gave you medicine and food
when you and your people were sick and dying under measles; I gave
you the very clothing you wear. Am I not your friend? Have we not
often drunk tea and eaten together in my house? Can you stand there
and see your friend shot? If you do, my God will punish you
severely.”
He then whispered something to his company which I did not
hear; and, though their muskets were still raised, I saw in their eyes
that he had restrained them. I therefore began gradually to move
backwards, still keeping my eyes fixed on them, till the bush hid
them from my view, whereon I turned and ran after my party, and
God kept the enemy from following. I would like to think that
Sirawia only uttered the cruel words which I heard as a blind to save
his own life; for at this time he was joined to Miaki’s party, his own
people having risen against him, and had to dissemble his friendly
feelings towards me. Poor Sirawia! Well I knew that Miaki would
only use him as a tool for selfish interests, and sacrifice him at last.
All this showed how dangers grew around our path. Still we trusted
in Jehovah Jesus, and pressed on in flight. A second hostile party
encountered us, and with great difficulty we also got away from
them. Soon thereafter a friendly company crossed our path. We
learned from them that the enemies had slaughtered other two of
Manuman’s men, and burned several villages with fire. Another
party of the enemy encountered us, and were eager for our lives. But
this time Faimungo withstood them firmly, his men encircled us, and
he said, “I am not afraid now, Missi; I am feeling stronger near my
own land!”
 Hurrying still onwards, we came to that village on their high
ground called Aneai, i.e., Heaven. The sun was oppressively hot, the
path almost unshaded, and our whole party very exhausted,
especially Faimungo, carrying his load of stolen goods. So here he sat
down on the village dancing ground for a smoke, saying,—
“Missi, I am near my own land now. We can rest with safety.”
In a few minutes, however, he started up, he and his men, in wild
excitement. Over a mountain, behind the village and above it, there
came the shoutings, and anon the tramp, tramp of a multitude
making rapidly towards us. Faimungo got up and planted his back
against a tree. I stood beside him, and the Aneityumese woman and
the two men stood near me, while his men seemed prepared to flee.
At full speed a large body of the tallest and most powerful men that I
had seen on Tanna came rushing on and filled the dancing ground.
They were all armed, and flushed with their success in war. A
messenger had informed them of our escape, probably from Miaki,
and they had crossed the country to intercept us. Faimungo was
much afraid, and said,—
“Missi, go on in that path, you and your Aneityumese; and I will
follow when I have had a smoke and a talk with these men.”
I replied, “No, I will stand by your side till you go; and if I am
killed, it will be by your side. I will not leave you.”
He implored us to go on, but that I knew would be certain death.
They began urging one another to kill us, but I looked round them as
calmly as possible, saying, “My Jehovah God will punish you here
and hereafter, if you kill me or any of His servants.”
A killing-stone, thrown by one of the savages, grazed poor old
Abraham’s cheek, and the dear soul gave such a look at me, and then
upwards, as if to say, “Missi, I was nearly away to Jesus.” A club was
also raised to follow the blow of the killing-stone, but God baffled the
aim. They encircled us in a deadly ring, and one kept urging another
to strike the first blow or fire the first shot. My heart rose up to the
Lord Jesus; I saw Him watching all the scene. My peace came back to
me like a wave from God. I realized that I was immortal till my
Master’s work with me was done. The assurance came to me, as if a
voice out of Heaven had spoken, that not a musket would be fired to
wound us, not a club prevail to strike us, not a spear leave the hand
in which it was held vibrating to be thrown, not an arrow leave the
bow, or a killing-stone the fingers, without the permission of Jesus
Christ, whose is all power in Heaven and on Earth. He rules all
Nature, animate and inanimate, and restrains even the savage of the
South Seas. In that awful hour I saw His own words, as if carved in
letters of fire upon the clouds of Heaven: “Seek, and ye shall find.
Whatsoever ye shall ask in My name, that will I do, that the Father
may be glorified in the Son.” I could understand how Stephen and
John saw the glorified Saviour as they gazed up through suffering
and persecution to the Heavenly Throne! Yet I never could say that
on such occasions I was entirely without fear. Nay, I have felt my
reason reeling, my sight coming and going, and my knees smiting
together when thus brought close to a violent death, but mostly
under the solemn thought of being ushered into Eternity and
appearing before God. Still, I was never left without hearing that
promise in all its consoling and supporting power coming up through
the darkness and the anguish, “Lo, I am with you alway.” And with
Paul I could say, even in this dread moment and crisis of being, “I am
persuaded that neither death nor life ... nor any other creature, shall
be able to separate us from the love of God which is in Christ Jesus
our Lord.”
Faimungo and others now urged us to go on in the path. I said,
“Faimungo, why are we to leave you? My God heard your promise
not to betray me. He knows now what is in your heart and in mine. I
will not leave you; and if I am to die, I will die by your side.”
He replied, “Now, I go on before; Missi, keep close to me.”
His men had gone, and I persuaded my Aneityumese to follow
them. At last, with a bound, Faimungo started after them. I followed,
keeping as near him as I could, pleading with Jesus to protect me or
to take me home to Glory. The host of armed men also ran along on
each side with their weapons ready; but leaving everything to Jesus, I
ran on as if they were my escort, or as if I saw them not. If any reader
wonders how they were restrained, much more would I, unless I
believed that the same Hand that restrained the lions from touching
Daniel held back these savages from hurting me! We came to a
stream crossing our path. With a bound all my party cleared it, ran
up the bank opposite, and disappeared in the bush. “Faint yet
pursuing,” I also tried the leap, but I struck the bank and slid back on
my hands and knees towards the stream. At this moment I heard a
crash above my head amongst the branches of an overhanging tree,
and I knew that a killing-stone had been thrown, and that that
branch had saved me. Praising my God, I scrambled up on the other
side, and followed the track of my party into the bush. The savages
gazed after me for a little in silence, but no one crossed the stream;
and I saw them separate into two, one portion returning to the
village and another pressing inland. With what gratitude did I
recognise the Invisible One who brought their counsels to confusion!
I found my party resting in the bush, and amazed to see me
escaped alive from men who were thirsting for my blood. Faimungo
and his men received me with demonstrations of joy, perhaps feeling
a little ashamed of their own cowardice. He now ascended the
mountain and kept away from the common path to avoid other
Native bands. At every village enemies to the Worship were ready to
shoot us. But I kept close to our guide, knowing that the fear of
shooting him would prevent their shooting at me, as he was the most
influential Chief in all that section of the island.
One party said, “Miaki and Karewick said that Missi made the
sickness and the hurricanes, and we ought to kill him.”
Faimungo replied, “They lie about Missi! It is our own bad conduct
that makes us sick.”
They answered, “We don’t know who makes the sickness; but our
fathers have taught us to kill all foreign men.”
Faimungo, clutching club and spear, exclaimed, standing betwixt
them and us, “You won’t kill Missi to-day!”
In the flight we passed springs and streamlets, but though parched
with sickening thirst, not one of us durst stoop down to drink, as we
should have been almost certainly killed in the act. Faimungo now
sent his own men home by a near path, and guided us himself till we
were close upon the shore. There, sitting down he said,—
“Missi, I have now fulfilled my promise. I am so tired, I am so
afraid, I dare not go farther. My love to you all. Now go on quickly!
Three of my men will go with you to the next rocks. Go quickly!
Farewell.”
These men went on a little, and then said, “Missi, we dare not go!
Faimungo is at war with the people of the next land. You must keep
straight along this path.”
So they turned and ran back to their own village.
To us this district was especially perilous. Many years ago the
Aneityumese had joined in a war against the Tannese of this tribe,
and the thirst for revenge yet existed in their hearts, handed down
from sire to son. Besides, Miaki had incited the people here to
murder the Teachers and me if we attempted to escape this way.
Most providentially the men were absent on a war expedition, and
we saw only three lads and a great number of women and children,
who ran off to the bush in terror. In the evening the enraged savages
of another district assaulted the people of the shore villages for
allowing us to pass, and, though sparing their lives, broke in pieces
their weapons of war—a very grievous penalty. In the next district, as
we hasted along the shore, two young men came running after us,
poising their quivering spears. I took the useless revolver out of my
little native basket, and raising it cried,—
“Beware! Lay down your spears at once on the sand, and carry my
basket to the next landing at the black rocks.”
They threw their spears on the sand, lifted the bag, and ran on
before us to the rocks which formed the march betwixt them and
their enemies. Laying it down, they said appealingly, “Missi, let us
return to our home!” And how they did run, fearing the pursuit of
their foes.
In the next land we saw none. After that we saw crowds all along,
some friendly, others unfriendly, but they let us pass on, and with the
blessing of Almighty God we drew near to Mr. Mathieson’s Station in
safety. Here a man gave me a cocoa-nut for each of our party, which
we greatly required, having tasted nothing all that day, and very little
for several days before. We were so weak that only the struggle for
life enabled us to keep our feet; yet my poor Aneityumese never
complained and never halted, not even the woman. The danger and
excitement kept us up in the race for life, and by the blessing of God
we were now approaching the Mission House, praising God for His
wonderful deliverances.
Hearing of our coming, Mr. Mathieson came running to meet me.
They had heard of my leaving my own Station, and they thought I
was dead! They were themselves both very weak; their only child had
just been laid in the grave, and they were in great grief and in greater
peril. We praised the Lord for permitting us to meet; we prayed for
support, guidance, and protection; and resolved now, in all events, to
stand by each other till the last.
Before I left the Harbour I wrote and left with Nowar letters to be
given to the Captains of any vessels which called, for the first, and the
next, and the next, telling them of our great danger, that Mr.
Mathieson was almost without food, and that I would reward them
handsomely if they would call at the Station and remove any of us
who might be spared thence to Aneityum. Two or three vessels
called, and, as I afterwards learned, got my letters; but, while buying
my stolen property from the Natives for tobacco, powder, and balls,
they took no further notice of my appeals, and sailed past Mr.
Mathieson’s straight on to Aneityum. “The tender mercies of the
wicked are cruel!”
Let me now cull the leading events from my Journal, that
intervened betwixt this date and the final break-up of the Mission on
Tanna—at least for a season—though, blessed be God! I have lived to
see the light rekindled by my dear friends Mr. and Mrs. Watt, and
shining more brightly and hopefully than ever. The candle was
quenched, but the candle-stick was not removed!
On Wednesday, 22nd January, 1862, we heard that other three of
Manuman’s people had been killed and a district burned with fire.
Though this poor man was one of Nowar’s chief friends, yet I heard
him say before my flight, “When so many children are being killed,
why do they not send one for food to me and my family? They are as
tender and good as the young fowls!” A remark like this lets you see
deep into the heart of a Cannibal, and he a sort of half-converted one,
if I may use such an expression; certainly not one of the worst type
by any means.
On the 23rd January, Mr. Mathieson sent for Taura, Kati, and
Kapuku, his three principal Chiefs, to induce them to promise
protection till a vessel called to take us away. They appeared friendly,
and promised to do their best. Alas! the promises of the Tannese
Chiefs had too often proved to be vain.
On Friday, 24th January, report reached our Station that Miaki
and his party, hearing that a friendly Chief had concealed two of
Manuman’s young men, compelled him to produce them and club
them to death before their eyes. Also, that they surrounded
Manuman’s party on a mountain, and hemmed them in there, dying
of starvation and trying to survive on the carcases of the dead and on
bark and roots. Also, that Miaki had united all the Chiefs, friends and
foes alike, in a bond of blood, to kill every one pertaining to the
whole Mission on Tanna. Jesus rules.

SPRINGING FORWARD HE
CAUGHT THE CLUB.

On Sunday, the 26th January, thirty persons came to worship at

the Mission House. Thereafter, at great risk, we had Worship at three
of the nearest and most friendly villages. Amidst all our perils and
trials, we preached the Gospel to about one hundred and sixteen
persons. It was verily a sowing time of tears; but, despite all that
followed, who shall say that it was vain! Twenty years have passed,
and now when I am writing this, there is a Church of God singing the
praises of Jesus in that very district of Tanna. On leaving the second
village, a young lad affectionately took my hand to lead me to the
next village; but a sulky, down-browed savage, carrying a ponderous
club, also insisted upon accompanying us. I led the way, guided by
the lad. Mr. Mathieson got the man to go before him, while he
himself followed, constantly watching. Coming to a place where
another path branched off from ours, I asked which path we took,
and, on turning to the left as instructed by the lad, the savage getting
close behind me, swung his huge club over his shoulder to strike me
on the head. Mr. Mathieson, springing forward, caught the club from
behind with a great cry to me; and I, wheeling instantly, had hold of
the club also, and betwixt us we wrested it out of his hands. The poor
creature, craven at heart however blood-thirsty, implored us not to
kill him. I raised the club threateningly, and caused him to march in
front of us till we reached the next village fence. In terror lest these
Villagers should kill him, he gladly received back his club, as well as
the boy his bow and arrows, and they were lost in the bush in a
moment. At the village from which this man and boy had come, one
savage brought his musket while we were conducting worship, and
sat sullen and scowling at us all the time. Mocking questions were
also shouted at us, such as—“Who made the rains, winds, and
hurricanes? Who caused all the disease? Who killed Mr. Mathieson’s
child?” They sneered and scoffed at our answers, and in this Taura
the Chief joined the rest. They retorted that trading vessels had
called at the Harbour, and that all my clothes and property had been
sold for muskets, powder, caps, and balls, so that Miaki and his men
had plenty of ammunition for fighting purposes now! After this,
feeling that no one could be trusted, we ceased visiting these villages,
and refrained from exposing ourselves at any distance from the
Mission House.
On the 27th, at daylight, a vessel was seen in the offing, as if to
tantalize us. The Captain had been at the Harbour, and had received
my letter from Nowar. I hoisted a flag to induce him to send or come
on shore, but he sailed off for Aneityum, bearing the plunder of my
poor Mission House, purchased for ammunition and tobacco from
the Natives. He left the news at Aneityum that I had been driven
from my Station some time ago, and was believed to have been
murdered.
On the 29th January, the young Chief Kapuku came and handed to
Mr. Mathieson his own and his father’s war-gods and household
idols. They consisted chiefly of a basket of small and peculiar stones,
much worn and shining with use. He said,—
“While many are trying to kill you and drive the worship of
Jehovah from this island, I give up my gods, and will send away all
Heathen idols from my land.”
 On the 31st, we learned that a party of Miaki’s men were going
about Mr. Mathieson’s district inciting the people to kill us.
Faimungo also came to inform us that Miaki was exerting all his
artifice to get us and the Worship destroyed. Manuman even sent,
from inland, Raki, his adopted son, to tell me of the fearful sufferings
that he and his people were now passing through, and that some
were killed almost every day. Raki’s wife was a Chief’s daughter, who,
when the war began, returned to her father’s care. The savages of
Miaki went to her own father’s house and compelled him to give her
up as an enemy. She was clubbed and feasted on.
On Sabbath, 2nd February, thirty-two people attended the
morning service. I addressed them on the Deluge, its causes and
lessons. I showed them a doll, explaining that such carved and
painted images could not hear our prayers or help us in our need,
that the living Jehovah God only could hear and help. They were
much interested, and after Worship carefully examined the doll. Mr.
Mathieson and I, committing ourselves to Jesus, went inland and
conducted worship at seven villages, listened to by in all about one
hundred people. Nearly all appeared friendly. The people of one
village had been incited to kill us on our return; but God guided us to
return by another way, and so we escaped.
During the day, on 3rd February, a company of Miaki’s men came
to the Mission House, and forced Mrs. Mathieson to show them
through the premises. Providentially, I had bolted myself that
morning into a closet room, and was engrossed with writing. They
went through every room in the house and did not see me,
concluding I had gone inland. They discharged a musket into our
Teacher’s house, but afterwards left quietly, greatly disappointed at
not finding me. My heart still rose in praise to God for another such
deliverance, neither by man nor of man’s planning!
Worn out with long watching and many fatigues, I lay down that
night early, and fell into a deep sleep. About ten o’clock the savages
again surrounded the Mission House. My faithful dog Clutha,
clinging still to me amid the wreck of all else on Earth, sprang quietly
upon me, pulled at my clothes, and awoke me, showing danger in her
eye glancing on me through the shadows. I silently awoke Mr. and
Mrs. Mathieson, who had also fallen asleep. We committed ourselves
in hushed prayer to God and watched them, knowing that they could
not see us. Immediately a glare of light fell into the room! Men
passed with flaming torches; and first they set fire to the Church all
round, and then to a reed fence connecting the Church and the
dwelling-house. In a few minutes the house, too, would be in flames,
and armed savages waiting to kill us on attempting an escape! Taking
my harmless revolver in the left hand and a little American
tomahawk in the right, I pled with Mr. Mathieson to let me out and
instantly again to lock the door on himself and wife. He very
reluctantly did so, holding me back and saying,—
“Stop here and let us die together! You will never return!”
I said, “Be quick! Leave that to God. In a few minutes our house
will be in flames, and then nothing can save us.”
He did let me out, and locked the door again quickly from the
inside; and, while his wife and he prayed and watched for me from
within, I ran to the burning reed fence, cut it from top to bottom, and
tore it up and threw it back into the flames, so that the fire could not
by it be carried to our dwelling-house. I saw on the ground shadows,
as if something were falling around me, and started back. Seven or
eight savages had surrounded me, and raised their great clubs in air.
I heard a shout—“Kill him! kill him!” One savage tried to seize hold
of me, but, leaping from his clutch, I drew the revolver from my
pocket and levelled it as for use, my heart going up in prayer to my
God. I said,—
“Dare to strike me, and my Jehovah God will punish you! He
protects us, and will punish you for burning His Church, for hatred
to His Worship and people, and for all your bad conduct. We love
you all; and for doing you good only you want to kill us. But our God
is here now to protect us and to punish you.”
They yelled in rage, and urged each other to strike the first blow,
but the Invisible One restrained them. I stood invulnerable beneath
His invisible shield, and succeeded in rolling back the tide of flame
from our dwelling-house.
At this dread moment occurred an incident, which my readers may
explain as they like, but which I trace directly to the interposition of
my God. A rushing and roaring sound came from the South, like the
noise of a mighty engine or of muttering thunder. Every head was
instinctively turned in that direction, and they knew, from previous
hard experience, that it was one of their awful tornadoes of wind and
rain. Now, mark, the wind bore the flames away from our dwelling-
house, and had it come in the opposite direction, no power on Earth
could have saved us from being all consumed! It made the work of
destroying the Church only that of a few minutes; but it brought with
it a heavy and murky cloud, which poured out a perfect torrent of
tropical rain. Now, mark again, the flames of the burning Church
were thereby cut off from extending to and seizing upon the reeds
and the bush; and, besides, it had become almost impossible now to
set fire to our dwelling-house. The stars in their courses were
fighting against Sisera! The mighty roaring of the wind, the black
cloud pouring down unceasing torrents, and the whole surroundings,
awed those savages into silence. Some began to withdraw from the
scene, all lowered their weapons of war, and several, terror-struck,
exclaimed,—
“That is Jehovah’s rain! Truly their Jehovah God is fighting for
them and helping them. Let us away!”
A panic seized upon them; they threw away their remaining
torches; in a few moments they had all disappeared in the bush; and
I was left alone, praising God for His marvellous works. “O taste and
see that God is good! Blessed is the man that trusteth in Him!”
Returning to the door of the Mission House, I cried,—
“Open and let me in. I am now all alone.”
Mr. Mathieson let me in, and exclaimed,—
“If ever, in time of need, God sent help and protection to His
servants in answer to prayer, He has done so to-night! Blessed be His
holy name!”
In fear and in joy we united our praises. Truly our Jesus has all
power, not less in the elements of Nature than in the savage hearts of
the Tannese. Precious Jesus! Does He not chide us, saying,
—“Hitherto ye have asked nothing in My Name. Ask and ye shall
receive, that your joy may be full!”? How much help, blessing, and
joy we lose every day, because we do not take all to Jesus as we
ought! Often since have I wept over His love and mercy in that
deliverance, and prayed that every moment of my remaining life may
be consecrated to the service of my precious Friend and Saviour!
 All through the remainder of that night I lay wide awake keeping
watch, my noble little dog lying near me with ears alert. Early in the
morning friends came weeping around us. Our enemies were loudly
rejoicing. It had been finally resolved to kill us at once, to plunder
our house and then to burn it. The noise of the shouting was
distinctly heard as they neared the Mission premises, and our
weeping, friendly Natives looked terror-struck, and seemed anxious
to flee for the bush. But just when the excitement rose to the highest
pitch, we heard, or dreamed that we heard, a cry higher still, “Sail
O!” We were by this time beginning to distrust almost our very
senses; but again and again that cry came rolling up from the shore,
and was repeated from crowd to crowd all along the beach, “Sail O!
Sail O!” The shouts of those approaching us gradually ceased, and
the whole multitude seemed to have melted away from our view. I
feared some cruel deception, and at first peered out very cautiously
to spy the land. But yonder in very truth a vessel had sailed into the
bay. It was the Blue Bell, Captain Hastings. I set fire to the reeds on
the side of the hill to attract his attention. I put a black shawl as a flag
on one end of the Mission House and a white sheet on the other.
This was one of the vessels that had been to Port Resolution, and
had sailed past to Aneityum some time ago. I afterwards saw the
mate and some of the men wearing my shirts, which they had bought
from the Tannese on their former visit. At the earnest request of
Doctors Geddie and Inglis, Mr. Underwood, the owner, had sent
Captain Hastings to Tanna to rescue us if yet alive. For this purpose
he had brought twenty armed men from Aneityum, who came on
shore in two boats in charge of the mate, the notorious Ross Lewin.
He returned to the ship with a boat-load of Mr. Mathieson’s things,
leaving ten of the Natives to help us to pack more and carry them
down to the beach, especially what the Missionary thought most
valuable.
The two boats were now loaded and ready to start. It was about
two o’clock in the afternoon, when a strange and painful trial befell
us. Poor dear Mr. Mathieson, apparently unhinged, locked himself
all alone into what had been his study, telling Mrs. Mathieson and
me to go, for he had resolved to remain and die on Tanna. We tried
to show him the inconsistency of praying to God to protect us or
grant us means of escape, and then refuse to accept a rescue sent to
us in our last extremity. We argued that it was surely better to live
and work for Jesus than to die as a self-made martyr, who, in God’s
sight, was guilty of self-murder. His wife wept aloud and pled with
him, but all in vain! He refused to leave or to unlock his door. I then
said,—
“It is now getting dark. Your wife must go with the vessel, but I will
not leave you alone. I shall send a note explaining why I am forced to
remain; and as it is certain that we shall be murdered whenever the
vessel leaves, I tell you God will charge you with the guilt of our
murder.”
At this he relented, unlocked the door, and accompanied us to the
boats, in which we all immediately left.
Meantime, having lost several hours, the vessel had drifted
leeward; darkness suddenly settled upon us, and when we were out
at sea we lost sight of her and she of us. After drifting about for some
hours in a heavy sea and unable to find her, those in charge of the
boats came near for consultation, and, if possible, to save the lives of
all. We advised that they should steer for Port Resolution by the
flame of the Volcano—a never-failing light-house, seen fifty miles
away—and there await the vessel. The boats were to keep within
hearing of each other by constant calling; but this was soon lost to
the ear, though on arriving in the bay we found they had got to
anchor before us. There we sat in the boats and waited for the
coming day. As the light appeared, we anchored as far out as
possible, beyond the reach of musket shots; and there without water
or food we sat under a tropical sun till mid-day came, and still there
was no sign of the vessel. The mate at last put all the passengers and
the poorest seamen into one boat and left her to swing at anchor;
while, with a strong crew in the other, he started off in search of the
vessel.
In the afternoon, Nowar and Miaki came off in a canoe to visit us.
Nowar had on a shirt, but Miaki was naked and frowning. He urged
me to go and see the Mission House, but as we had seen a body of
men near it I refused to go. Miaki declared that everything remained
as I had left it, but we knew that he lied. Old Abraham and a party
had slipped on shore in a canoe, and had found the windows
smashed and everything gone except my books, which were scattered
about and torn in pieces. The armed men there wanted to kill the
Aneityumese, but others said, “Not till we get Missi killed too!” They
learned that Miaki had sold everything that he could sell to the
Traders. The mate and men of the Blue Bell had on my very clothes.
They boasted that they had bought them for a few figs of tobacco and
for powder, caps, and balls. But they would not return a single shirt
to me, though I was without a change! We had all been without food
in the boat since the morning before, so Nowar brought us off a
cocoa-nut each, and two very small roasted yams for the ladies.
Those, however, only seemed to make our thirst the more severe, and
we spent a trying day in that boat under a burning sun. Miaki said,—
“As our fathers did not destroy Missi Turner’s house, we will not
destroy yours.”
But after a time, failing to persuade me to accompany him and fall
into a trap, he muttered,—
“We have taken everything your house contained, and would take
you too if we could; for we hate the Worship, it causes all our
diseases and deaths; it goes against our customs, and it condemns
the things we delight in.”
Nowar informed me that only a few nights before this, Miaki and
his followers went inland to a village where last year they had killed
ten men. Having secretly placed a savage at the door of every house,
at a given signal they yelled, and when the terrified inmates tried to
escape they killed almost every man, woman, and child. Some fled
into the bush, others rushed to the shore. A number of men got into a
canoe to escape, but hearing women and children crying after them
they returned, and taking those they could with them they killed the
rest lest they should fall alive into Miaki’s hands. These are surely
“they who through fear of death are all their lifetime subject to
bondage.” The Chief and nearly his whole village were cut off in one
night! Not an uncommon thing in those Islands, where war becomes
chronic, and the thirst for blood becomes insatiable. The dark places
of the Earth are “full of the habitations of horrid cruelty.” To have
actually lived amongst the Heathen and seen their life gives a man a
new appreciation of the power and blessings of the Gospel, even
where its influence is only very imperfectly allowed to guide and
restrain the passions of men. Oh, what will it be when all men in all
nations love and serve the glorious Redeemer!
 This Miaki and his followers were a scourge and terror to the
whole island of Tanna. They intensely hated Nowar, because he
would not join in their cruelties. Yet he and Manuman and Sirawia
and Faimungo continued to survive long after war and death had
swept all the others away. The first three lived to be very old men,
and to the last they made a profession of being Christians, though
their knowledge was very limited and their inconsistencies very grave
and very numerous. Happy is it for us that we are not the judges, for
souls either of the white or the dark skin, as to how many and
grievous things may be forgiven, and whether there be or be not that
spark of love, that grain of faith which the Lord the Pitiful will
graciously accept and increase![1]
1. See Appendix A. “The Prayer of the Tannese,” etc.
About five o’clock in the evening the vessel hove in sight. Before
dark we were all safely on board, and were sailing for Aneityum.
Though both Mr. and Mrs. Mathieson had become very weak, they
stood the voyage wonderfully. Next day we were all safely landed. We
had offered Captain Hastings £20 to take us to Aneityum, but he
declined any fare. However, we divided it amongst the mate and
crew, for they had every one shown great kindness to us on the
voyage. After arriving on Aneityum, Mrs. Mathieson gradually sank
under consumption, and fell asleep in Jesus on 11th March, 1862, in
the full assurance of a glorious resurrection, and was interred there.
Mr. Mathieson, becoming more and more depressed after her death,
went over to Mr. Creagh’s Station, on Maré, and there died on 14th
June, 1862, still trusting in Jesus, and assured that he would soon be
with Him in Glory. Never more earnest or more faithful souls
entered the Mission field, but they both suffered from weakness and
ill-health during all their time on Tanna, and had frequently to seek
change by removal for a short period from the island. Their memory
is very fragrant to me as fellow-labourers in the Gospel of Jesus.
After their death, I was the only one left alive in all the New
Hebrides Mission north of Aneityum to tell the story of those pioneer
years, during which were sown the seeds of what is now fast
becoming a glorious harvest. Twenty-five years ago, all these dear
brethren and sisters who were associated with me in the work of the
Mission were called home to Glory, to cast their crowns at the feet of
Jesus and enjoy the bliss of the redeemed, while I am privileged still
to toil and pray for the salvation of the poor Islanders, and plead the
cause of the Mission both in the Colonies and at home, in which work
the Lord has graciously given me undreamt-of success. My constant
desire and prayer are that I may be spared to see at least one
Missionary on every island of the group, to unfold the riches of
redeeming love and to lead the poor Islanders to Jesus for salvation.
What could be taken in three boats was saved out of the wreck of
Mr. Mathieson’s property; but my earthly all perished, except the
Bible and the translations into Tannese. Along with the goods
pertaining to the Mission, the property which I had to leave behind
would be undervalued at £600, besides the value of the Mission
House, etc. Often since have I thought that the Lord stripped me thus
bare of all these interests, that I might with undistracted mind
devote my entire energy to the special work soon to be carved out for
me, and of which at this moment neither I nor any one had ever
dreamed. At any rate, the loss of my little earthly all, though
doubtless costing me several pangs, was not an abiding sorrow like
that which sprang from the thought that the Lord’s work was broken
up at both Stations, and that the Gospel was for the time driven from
Tanna.
In the darkest moment, I never doubted that ultimately the victory
there, as elsewhere, would be on the side of Jesus, believing that the
whole Earth would yet be filled with the glory of the Lord. But I
sometimes sorely feared that I might never live to see or hear of that
happy day! By the goodness of the Ever-merciful One I have lived to
see and hear of a Gospel Church on Tanna, and to read about my
dear fellow-Missionaries, Mr. and Mrs. Watt, celebrating the Holy
Supper to a Native Congregation of Tannese, amid the very scenes
and people where the seeds of faith and hope were planted not only
in tears, but tears of blood,—“in deaths oft.”
My own intention was to remain on Aneityum, go on with my work
of translating the Gospels, and watch the earliest opportunity, as God
opened up my way, to return to Tanna. I had, however, got very weak
and thin; my health was undoubtedly much shaken by the continued
trials and dangers through which we had passed; and therefore, as
Dr. and Mrs. Inglis were at home carrying the New Testament
through the press in the language of Aneityum, and as Tanna was
closed for a season, Dr. Geddie, the Rev. Joseph Copeland, and Mr.
Mathieson all urged me to go to Australia by a vessel then in the
Harbour and leaving in a few days. My commission was to awaken an
interest among the Presbyterian Churches of our Colonies in this
New Hebrides Mission which lay at their doors, up till this time
sustained by Scotland and Nova Scotia alone. And further, and very
specially, to raise money there, if possible, to purchase a new Mission
Ship for the work of God in the New Hebrides,—a clamant necessity,
which would save all future Missionaries some of the more terrible of
the privations and risks of which a few examples have in these pages
already been recorded.
After much prayerful deliberation with my brethren and with my
own heart before God, I somewhat reluctantly felt constrained to
undertake the task. If my story was to be the means of providing
more Missionaries for the Islands, and of providing a commodious
Ship for the service of the Mission alone, to keep open their
communications with the outer world and with Christian influences,
not to speak of carrying their provisions at fixed periods, or rescuing
them when in troubles and perils from the jaws of death, I was not
unwilling to tell it again and again, if the Lord would open up my
path. God knows my heart, and any one who really knows me will
easily admit, that no selfish or egotistical motive has influenced me
in reciting through all the Australasian Colonies, New Zealand,
Scotland, and latterly in many parts of England and Ireland, the
incidents of my career and experience, first of all on Tanna, and
thereafter for nearly twenty years—as the Second Part of my
biography will relate—on the neighbouring island of Aniwa; an island
entirely given to me by the Lord, the whole population of which
became Christian; and they and their race will be my crown of joy
and rejoicing in the day of the Lord Jesus.
With regrets, and yet with unquenchable hope for these Islands, I
embarked for Australia, having received the solemn promise of my
brethren, that in entering upon this great effort I was to be left
absolutely free of all control, and empowered to carry out the work as
God might seem to guide me, and open up my way. I had only
spoken to one man in Sydney; all the doors to influence had
therefore to be unlocked, and I had no helper, no leader, but the
Spirit of my Lord. The Second Part of this Autobiography, should
God spare me to write it, will record His marvellous goodness in
using my humble voice and pen and the story of my life for
interesting thousands and tens of thousands in the work of Missions,
and especially for binding together the children of the Sabbath
Schools of Australasia in a Holy League of help to the New Hebrides,
which has already borne precious fruit to His glory, and will continue
to do so for ages to come.
Oftentimes, while passing through the perils and defeats of my
first years in the Mission field on Tanna, I wondered, and perhaps
the reader hereof has wondered, why God permitted such things. But
on looking back now, I already clearly perceive, and the reader of my
future pages will, I think, perceive, that the Lord was thereby
preparing me for doing, and providing me materials wherewith to
accomplish the best work of all my life—the kindling of the heart of
Australian Presbyterianism with a living affection for these Islanders
of their own Southern Seas—the binding of all their children into a
happy league of shareholders, first in one Mission Ship, and finally in
a larger and more commodious Steam-Auxiliary, and, last of all, in
being the instrument under God of sending out Missionary after
Missionary to the New Hebrides, to claim another island and still
another for Jesus. That work, and all that may spring from it in time
and Eternity, never could have been accomplished by me, but for
first the sufferings and then the story of my Tanna enterprise!
Some unsophisticated souls who read these pages will be
astonished to learn, but others who know more of the heartless
selfishness of human creatures, will be quite prepared to hear, that
my leaving Tanna was not a little criticized, and a great deal of
nonsense was written, even in Church Magazines, about the breaking
up of the Mission. All such criticism came, of course, from men who
were themselves destitute of sympathy, and who, probably, never
endured one pang for Jesus in all their comfortable lives. Conscious
that I had, to the last inch of life, tried to do my duty, I left all results
in the hands of my only Lord, and all criticisms to His unerring
judgment. Hard things also were occasionally spoken to my face. One
dear friend, for instance, said,—
“You should not have left. You should have stood at the post of
duty till you fell. It would have been to your honour, and better for
the cause of the Mission, had you been killed at the post of duty like
the Gordons and others.”
 I replied,—“I regard it as a greater honour to live and to work for
Jesus, than to be a self-made martyr. God knows that I did not refuse
to die; for I stood at the post of duty, amid difficulty and danger, till
all hope had fled, till everything I had was lost, and till God, in
answer to prayer, sent a means of escape. I left with a clear
conscience, knowing that in doing so I was following God’s leading,
and serving the Mission too. To have remained longer would have
been to incur the guilt of self-murder in the sight of God.”
Never for one moment have I had occasion to regret the step then
taken. The Lord has so used me, during the five-and-twenty years
that have passed over me since my farewell to Tanna, as to stamp the
event with His own most gracious approval. Oh, to see a Missionary,
and Christian Teachers, planted on every island of the New
Hebrides! For this I labour, and wait, and pray. To help on the
fulfilment thereof is the sacred work of my life, under God. When I
see it accomplished, or in a fair way of being so, through the
organization that will provide the money and call forth the men, I
can lay down my head as peacefully and gratefully as ever warrior
did, with the shout of victory in his ears,—“Lord, now lettest Thou
Thy servant depart in peace!”

For the present, my pen is here laid aside. I shall wait to see what
use the Lord makes of Part First of my autobiography, before I
prosecute the theme. If the Christian public seems not to find in it
the help and quickening that some friends think it likely to bestow on
those who read, the remainder need not be written. Part Second, if
called for, will contain a record, in many respects, an utter contrast
to all that has gone before, and yet directly springing therefrom, as
will be seen by all who look beneath the surface. I am penning these
words in 1887, and five-and-twenty years lie betwixt this date and
my farewell to Tanna. These years, if ever published, will tell the
story of my visiting all the Colonial Churches, and collecting the
purchase money of our white-winged Mission Ship, the Dayspring;
my return to Scotland, visiting all the home congregations in 1864,
and securing several new Missionaries to follow me to the New
Hebrides; my second marriage, and settlement on Aniwa, with her
whom the good Lord still spares to me, the mother of our happy
family, and my God-given helpmeet in all the work of the Gospel; the
conversion of that whole island of Aniwa from idolatry, and the
planting there of a Church and Congregation of Christ, from which
have since gone forth many Native Evangelists and Teachers. Then
there will fall to be recorded my call from the Islands in recent years
to revisit all the Colonial Presbyterian Congregations once again,
telling them the story of the Conversion of Aniwa—the sinking of the
well, and other incidents, which turned an entire people from idols
and from cannibalism to the service of the living and true God—
whereby the Churches, and especially the children, were led more
and more to make the New Hebrides their own very harvest field in
the Heathen world. And finally, I will have to tell how I was again
sent home to Scotland in 1884 to raise money for the purchase or
building of a steam-auxiliary Mission Ship, now urgently required in
the interests of the Mission, both because of the great increase in the
number of the Missionaries and the necessities of so many families;
and also and chiefly to avert the dreadful disappointments and loss
of time, and thereby sometimes of life itself, caused by the frequent
becalming of our little Dayspring in these thickly-islanded seas. That
part of the story will show the fruits of the education and perils and
experiences of a lifetime, in the marvellous impression produced by
the simple and unadorned recital of the story of Tanna and Aniwa,
amongst the Christian people of Scotland, Ireland, and England.
Multitudes were blessed in almost every town where a meeting was
granted me. Three Missionaries devoted themselves to the New
Hebrides, and are already labouring there; while others consecrated
themselves to several of the great seats of Foreign Mission enterprise
in Africa and Asia. I returned to my own Church of Victoria with a
sum of nearly £9,000, of which £6,000 was for the new Missionary
Steam-Auxiliary, and the remainder for the outfit and support of
more Missionaries for the Islands; and that money I handed over to
the Australian Church, where it awaits, at interest in the bank, the
arrangements being made by all the Colonies to take each their due
share in the future up-keep of the Ship. For this—for everything—for
all, praise be to the Lord! I never asked one subscription, except in
prayer and in my public appeals. The Lord sent in all freely to me
through the hands of His people; to Him be all the glory. I went back
to Aniwa, and found the work of the Lord going forward there as if in
a regularly settled Congregation at home, fostered and guided by an
occasional visit of my ever dear and genuine friends, Mr. and Mrs.