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Information Systems
Project Management
A Process Approach
Edition 2.0
Christoph Schneider
City University of Hong Kong
Mark A. Fuller
University of Massachusetts Amherst
Joseph S. Valacich
The University of Arizona
Joey F. George
Iowa State University
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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
PART I PROJECT MANAGEMENT FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1 Introduction to Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
What Is a Project? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Unique Features of IS Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
What Is Project Management? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Skills of a Project Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Project Failures and Project Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Introduction to Project Management and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Chapter 2 The Project Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Types of Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Project Management and Systems Development or Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Project Management Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The Project Management Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Techniques and Technology to Support the Project Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
The Project Life Cycle and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Chapter 3 Managing Project Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Developing and Managing the Project Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Motivating Team Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
iii
iv • Contents
Leadership, Power, and Conflict in Project Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Managing Global Project Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Managing Project Teams and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Chapter 4 Managing Project Stakeholders and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Project Stakeholder Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Project Communications Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Enhancing Project Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Using Collaboration Technologies to Enhance Project Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Managing Project Stakeholders and Communication and the PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Part I Appendix: Agile Project Management Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Agile Project Management Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
The Agile Project Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Managing Agile Project Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Managing Communication in Agile Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
PART II STARTING, ORGANIZING, AND PREPARING THE PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Chapter 5 Managing Project Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Project Identification and Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Project Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Project Scope Planning, Verification, and Change Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Managing Project Scope and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Contents • v

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Chapter 6 Managing Project Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
The Importance and Challenges of Project Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Techniques for Managing Project Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Managing Project Scheduling and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Chapter 7 Managing Project Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
What Are Resources? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
An Overview of Managing Project Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Techniques for Managing Resources and Project Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Managing Project Resources and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Chapter 8 Managing Project Costs and Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Techniques for Managing Project Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
What Is Quality? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Quality Pioneers and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Techniques for Managing Project Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Managing Project Costs and Quality and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Chapter 9 Managing Project Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
What Is Risk? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Techniques for Managing Project Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
vi • Contents
Managing Project Risk and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Chapter 10 Managing Project Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Alternatives to Internal Systems Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Steps in the Procurement Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Managing Project Procurement and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Part II Appendix: Starting, Organizing, and Preparing Agile Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Preplanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
PART III EXECUTING, CONTROLLING, AND ENDING THE PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Chapter 11 Managing Project Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Project Plan Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Monitoring Progress and Managing Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Communication and Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Managing Project Execution and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Chapter 12 Managing Project Control and Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
The Importance and Philosophies of Project Control and Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Contents • vii
Techniques for Managing Project Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

Techniques for Managing Project Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Project Control and Closure and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Part III Appendix: Executing, Controlling, and Closing Projects in Agile Environments . . . . . . . . 472
Iterations and Increments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Reviews and Retrospectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Closing Agile Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Key Terms Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Preface
Approach
Projects involving information systems (IS) are prevalent in virtually all organizations
and are frequently a key determinant of an organization’s competitiveness. The ability to
manage these projects is thus a critical skill that can help drive organizational success.
Projects in today’s business environment are typically addressed by teams of skilled per-
sonnel whose activities are coordinated by a project manager. Further, these projects may
involve significant global components, either in terms of the resultant system’s intended
users or in terms of the team members engaged in accomplishing the project itself.
Based on decades of combined teaching experience plus extensive experience in the
high-technology and startup sectors, we seek to provide the knowledge and skills nec-
essary to successfully manage information systems projects in the modern organization.
This book takes an active learning approach to project management, with a focus on
the process of project management rather than simply on a series of topical discussions
about the components of project management. It operates on the assumption that proj-
ect management in the modern organization is a complex, team-based process, which
relies on systems that support both project management and collaboration activities.
Further, this book assumes that, in many cases, project teams may be operating in a
virtual context, where team members are at different locations—sometimes across the
world. Our approach to project management thus tries to encompass the new working
arrangements in our technology-driven global economy. Finally, the content of this
book is firmly grounded on the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK; 6th
edition), as provided by the Project Management Institute, which provides training
and certifications to project managers worldwide. Our approach to learning project
management thus emphasizes five key focal areas: process focus, team focus, technology
focus, global focus, and PMBOK focus.
What’s New in This Edition

Since our first edition was released more than a decade ago, the nature of projects,
project management approaches, and technologies have all evolved considerably. In
this extensively revised edition, we have taken care to reflect these changes, to facilitate
teaching up-to-date project management skills and techniques. In particular, we have
updated all content to be aligned with the sixth (and most recent) edition of PMBOK.
Further, given that projects increasingly use agile approaches, we have included section
appendices discussing approaches and techniques for managing projects in agile envi-
ronments. Finally, we have updated the content to reflect the ever-evolving technolog-
ical environment and its impact on project management.
Process Focus
Unlike the more common approach to learning project management that exposes you
to a variety of project management subtopics, this book employs a learning-by-doing
ix
x • Preface
approach that actively engages you in managing a real information systems project as
part of the class. After presenting foundational material in the first four chapters, we
take you step-by-step through the stages of project management, with assignments
corresponding to deliverables that typically would be required in an organization as
employees tackle real information systems projects. While still covering the essential
information associated with project management, this book also helps you actively learn
project management by applying typical project management activities—such as the
development of project charters, work breakdown structures, and project schedules—to
an ongoing class project. This contextual treatment of information systems project man-
agement topics not only solidifies your understanding of various project management
techniques but also creates an immediate understanding of why these techniques are
essential components of effective project management.
Team Focus
Project management is largely a team sport, not an individual one. This book is unique
in its focus on team-based project management. Although an individual working alone
can gain some knowledge, the reality is that few organizational projects are done this
way; thus knowledge acquired without consideration of the team is largely incomplete.
This book covers the types of teams in organizations, the types of tasks those teams
work on, the advantages gained by working in teams, and the problems (and solutions)
that teams will encounter. Topics addressed include group processes, leadership, com-
munication, team conflict, cross-cultural issues, and more.
Technology Focus
In order to successfully manage projects in today’s complex business environments,
project teams need to employ technologies such as project management software, group
support technology, and knowledge management systems that capture project knowl-
edge. The advantages of project management software are discussed, and you will be
given hands-on experience using common project management software. You will then
use this same project management software to support your course project. Group sup-
port technologies include the various communication and planning tools that project
teams can use. In addition to discussing such tools throughout the text, we pay close
attention to this topic in Chapter 4, with a focus on managing project communica-
tions. These collaborative technologies enable teams to communicate effectively across
distance and time, reduce the losses associated with working in teams, and enhance
decision-making. Likewise, knowledge management systems help project teams cap-
ture and recall knowledge accumulated from previous project teams and integrate such
knowledge with current project experiences. Finally, few technological advances have
changed society as much as mobile technologies and big data gathered from a variety
of mobile devices, sensors, and users’ online behaviors. More and more IS projects are
now related to mobile technologies and big data, and both mobile devices and big data
can help streamline project management processes.
Global Focus
This book illustrates the changing nature of projects in the modern world, particularly as
it relates to global project management. Many of the chapters in this book—for exam-
ple, those on teams, project communication, and outsourcing—focus on the changing
face of project teams. Organizations involved in IS projects may span global bound-
aries either in the focus of the project itself or in the composition of its teams. Virtual
Preface • xi
teamwork, as an example, is commonplace as organizations put together resources to

deliver IS projects. Outsourcing beyond one’s home country is also commonplace. This
book attempts to address these issues throughout its various chapters.
In addition to the inherent difficulties of working in teams, workers in today’s
organizations may no longer work in the same office, building, or even country as other
project team members. The global virtual project team is a common organizational
entity, and managing teams in this type of environment is even more complex. We
address the unique advantages of virtual teams, the difficulties they encounter, and
solutions to those difficulties. Project management is global in another sense as well:
we live in a global economy, and outputs created by project teams may be intended for
a global audience. As a result, project teams need to be sensitive to cultural differences
when developing information systems applications.
Project Management Body of Knowledge Focus

One critical purpose of this textbook is to provide you with a high level of competency
in all key areas of project management. As noted previously, the Project Management
Institute (PMI)—a professional organization focused on meeting the needs of project
managers—has encapsulated the key knowledge areas of project management into its
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). This text prepares you to master these
knowledge areas and provides information consistent with PMI’s professional project
management certification exam. To further facilitate your use of this book as a study
guide, the end of each chapter provides a table identifying the elements of PMBOK that
each chapter has covered. By the conclusion of the textbook, you will have been exposed
in detail to all the knowledge areas identified by PMBOK (6th edition). In addition to
our alignment with PMBOK, we also provide other practical guidance gleaned from
practicing project managers. Included in this book you’ll find elements such as “Tips
from the Pros,” “Ethical Dilemmas,” “Common Problems,” and “Global Implications.”
These elements contain useful information that can be applied to future projects.
Audience
While project management is a general term and can be applied in many fields, this
text is written specifically to focus on information systems projects. This textbook is
targeted primarily at upper-division undergraduate students pursuing a management
information systems or related degree. The treatment of project management material
is also detailed enough for this book to be useful for graduate courses as well. Finally,
this text, because of its close ties to PMBOK, can also serve as a useful study guide in
preparation for PMI certification.
Common Chapter Elements

Each chapter has learning objectives and an opening case. Following this, an intro-
duction provides an overview of what the current chapter covers. The main chapter
contents are then presented, followed by an illustration of which PMBOK topics were
covered, a running case illustrating the conversations and activities a typical project
team might have during the relevant project management phase, a chapter summary,
key terms, review questions, chapter exercises, an ongoing real business case (focused on
the Sedona Management Group and the Seattle Seahawks) appropriate to the relevant
chapter, and an ongoing information systems project that allows student teams to rein-
force newly acquired project management techniques. This latter project is intended to
give you hands-on experience managing all phases of the project life cycle.
xii • Preface
Key Features
In addition to the standard elements, each chapter includes several pedagogical ele-
ments. The composition of each element reflects the current chapter content and helps
you prepare for the intricacies of managing information systems projects.
Tips from the Pros

“Tips from the Pros” contain tips or information used by real project managers that
describe what they do to make their projects successful and the pitfalls that experience
has taught them to avoid.
Ethical Dilemmas
“Ethical Dilemmas” discuss some of the ethical questions faced by project managers or
members of project teams as they try to achieve their goals.
Common Problems
“Common Problems” discuss barriers that project team members will frequently face
and how to overcome them.
Global Implications
“Global Implications” address how project characteristics and management techniques
vary as project teams cope with global outsourcing, offshoring, and international project
teams.
Supplements
The following support materials are available at the Instructor Resources page at http://
www.prospectpressvt.com/titles/fuller-project-management/instructor-resources:
• Instructor’s Manual. The Instructor’s Manual features not only answers to review,
discussion, and case study questions, but also lecture outlines, teaching objectives,
key terms, and teaching suggestions.
• Test Item File. The Test Item File is a collection of true-false, multiple-choice, and
short essay questions.
• PowerPoint Slides. These slides build on key concepts in the text.
Organization
This book is divided into three major sections. Part I, “Project Management Founda-
tions,” includes chapters introducing the discipline of project management, the project
life cycle, the management of project teams, and, finally, how to manage project commu-
nications with all project stakeholders. Part II, “Starting, Organizing, and Preparing the
Project,” includes chapters on managing various critical project activities, such as proj-
ect scope, activity scheduling, resource assignment and project duration implications,
project costs, project quality, project risk, and project procurement. Part III, “Executing,
Controlling, and Ending the Project,” includes chapters on managing project execution,
as well as on managing project control and closure processes.
Preface • xiii
Part I: Project Management Foundations

The purpose of Part I is to help you understand the foundations of information systems
project management.
In Chapter 1, “Introduction to Project Management,” we discuss the defining char-
acteristics of projects. Next, we explain what differentiates IS projects from non-IS
projects and describe the history of modern project management, the rise of agile meth-
odologies, as well as some of the key terminology, techniques, and tools used in project
management today. We then discuss the significance and meaning of project failure, and
we detail what helps make projects a success. Finally, we discuss how this book applies a
multifaceted approach to the topic of information systems project management through
its consideration of process, team, technology, global, and PMBOK perspectives to man-
aging such projects.
In Chapter 2, “The Project Life Cycle,” we define the project life cycle and compare
it with the IS development life cycle. We also explore the business context in which
project management occurs. We then introduce Gantt charts and project network dia-
grams and discuss the various types of project management software that can benefit
project managers. Finally, we discuss project management processes and describe the
various activities that occur in each.
In Chapter 3, “Managing Project Teams,” we discuss the distinctive nature of team-
based project management. Topics such as motivation, leadership, power, and conflict
management in project teams are all explored. Finally, we discuss the concept of global
project teams, the unique characteristics of such teams, and how to manage them.
Chapter 4, “Managing Project Stakeholders and Communication,” discusses the
role of project stakeholders in a project and describes the various types of project com-
munications. In addition, we discuss various methods for enhancing team communica-
tion and explain how to run effective meetings, deliver effective presentations, become
a better listener, utilize communication templates, and make walk-through presenta-
tions. We then describe the various collaboration technologies that can enhance team
communications. Finally, we discuss how to effectively engage not only project team
members but also a project’s stakeholders. The four chapters in Part I explain the key
foundational knowledge areas necessary to better manage information systems projects
in team environments. All subsequent chapters in this book rely heavily on this material.
Part II: Starting, Organizing, and Preparing the Project

The purpose of Part II is to help you understand how project managers initiate projects,
schedule projects, and manage project resources while paying attention to risk and
quality issues.
In Chapter 5, “Managing Project Scope,” we discuss organizational processes for
identifying and selecting new projects. The process of project selection does not focus
on one specific project but, rather, on choosing from a variety of project opportunities
available to the organization. We discuss how to identify, rank, and select information
systems projects. We then discuss the project initiation process and introduce the con-
cept of the project charter and the role that the project charter serves in an organization.
Next, we explain project scope planning, which includes information on how to develop
the project management plan, the project management information system, and the
project scope statement. We end with a discussion of scope definition and verification
and introduce the concept of change control.
In Chapter 6, “Managing Project Scheduling,” we discuss the project management
processes related to scheduling project activities. Project scheduling is one of the project
xiv • Preface
manager’s most important activities. The project schedule enables project managers to
determine how long each task will take, the critical path for the project, and conse-
quently, how much time the entire project will require. In this chapter, we discuss the
fundamentals, characteristics, and challenges related to project scheduling. We also
identify the various phases of project schedule development, as well as the various
techniques and tools used to develop project schedules.
In Chapter 7, “Managing Project Resources,” we discuss the various techniques
that project managers use to assign and manage resources, and the implications of
such resource assignments on project schedules and overall project duration. We define
the concept of project resources, discuss the various major types of project resources,
and give examples of resources used during actual projects. In addition, we discuss
why project resource management is critical for establishing project duration. Finally,
we discuss the various techniques and tools that project managers can use to manage
project resources.
In Chapter 8, “Managing Project Costs and Quality,” we discuss the tools and tech-
niques that project teams use to manage project costs as well as project quality across
the entire project management life cycle. We define project quality, explain why it is
important, and recount its history. We also discuss various quality management certi-
fications and standards, and the implications of poor quality management. Finally, we
discuss the tools and techniques that allow project managers to manage project quality.
In Chapter 9, “Managing Project Risk,” we discuss how project managers deal with
the issue of project risk, something organizations deal with every day. Choices about
which products to develop, which investments to make, which employees to hire, and
which projects to undertake are all examples of organizational activities that involve
risk. We discuss what risk is, how it can affect projects, and the techniques and tools
project managers can use to address it.
In Chapter 10, “Managing Project Procurement,” we discuss many choices currently
available for systems development, including the use of information technology services
firms, packaged software providers, vendors of enterprise-wide solution software, Soft-
ware-as-a-Service providers, and open source software. We then detail the procurement
process itself and the various steps it comprises.
The six chapters in Part II explain the key techniques that project managers need
to know to choose projects, plan projects, and manage project issues such as sched-
uling, resources, costs, quality, risk, and procurement. These six chapters are the heart
of the book.
Part III: Executing, Controlling, and Ending the Project

The purpose of Part III is to help you understand how project managers execute, control,
and close projects after the extensive planning that was covered in Part II.
In Chapter 11, “Managing Project Execution,” we discuss the processes that orga-
nizations follow for executing projects after their extensive planning. We present the
different project management processes that make up project execution in PMBOK.
The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of project execution are all discussed,
including a discussion on managing project knowledge. We then cover the project
manager’s key duties during execution—namely, monitoring progress and managing
change (covered more thoroughly in Chapter 12). We discuss tools such as the kickoff
meeting, as well as problems that are common to the execution of IS projects. We also
cover two areas central to successful project execution: managing communication and
documentation.
Preface • xv
In Chapter 12, “Managing Project Control and Closure,” we discuss possibly the
most important issue for ensuring project management success: project control. How
successful can your project be if after the planning is finished, you simply sit back and
wait for the tasks to get completed? What happens if a critical task takes two weeks
longer to complete than planned? How do you know if costs are running unexpectedly
high? Could issues arise that affect the quality of your product or the project’s risks?
Are you even aware of these potential problems? Project control allows managers to
identify and deal with inevitable problems and promotes flexibility within the plan to
allow for them. We discuss tools for controlling projects across the major project man-
agement core areas already covered in Part II. We end this chapter by discussing another
important, but often overlooked, aspect of project management: project closure. We
cover the appropriate techniques for handing off projects, as well as the critical process
for documenting project outcomes so that future project teams will have a better idea
of what to expect. The two chapters in Part III explain the key knowledge necessary
to help project managers control projects for successful outcomes and then close out
those projects in a way that benefits the clients and the project team. These final two
chapters are where it all comes together. The techniques they cover are extremely useful
in managing projects.
Part Appendices: Agile Project Management

Each major part of the book is concluded with an appendix that discusses the implica-
tions of agile methodologies on project management. Part I of this book is concluded
with an appendix discussing foundational concepts of agile project management, includ-
ing the agile project life cycle, managing agile project teams, and special considerations
for managing communication in agile projects. Part II is concluded with an appendix
discussing planning considerations in agile projects, with special consideration of the
iterative nature of agile project life cycles. Finally, Part III of the book is concluded with
execution and control issues in agile projects.
Online Appendix: Microsoft Project Professional Tutorial

You may download the tutorial at the Student Resources website: http://www
.prospectpressvt.com/titles/fuller-project-management/student-resources-2e/.
Summary
Our approach is to teach project management by having you work on a project, cre-
ating not only the project itself but also the various project management deliverables
associated with the typical stages of a project. We have stressed a team-based approach,
paying attention to today’s global project environment and the current body of knowl-
edge associated with modern project management. We hope you find this book both
interesting and useful.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all of those who made this book possible. First and foremost, we
would like to thank Beth and Andy Golub from Prospect Press for their help in making
this edition possible. We would also like to thank Tom Anderson-Monterosso for his
editorial support, and Rachel Paul for her work on the design and layout of this book.
In addition, we would like to thank Christopher Scott, Veena Parboteeah, and other
former PhD students at Washington State University for their contributions to earlier
xvi • Preface
versions of this book. We would also like to thank the following colleagues for providing
valuable feedback on drafts of this edition:
• Danny J. Albert, Tulane University

• Alfred (Nigel) Basta, California Intercontinental University
• Carol Clark, Middle Tennessee State University
• Barbara Cullis, University of Delaware
• Karen Druffel, Framingham State University
• Mary M. Dunaway, University of Virginia
• Mingfeng Lin, University of Arizona
• Nancy Lea Martin, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale
• Kenneth Nidiffer, George Mason University
• Vince Painter, Bellevue University
• Veena Parboteeah, Eastern New Mexico University
• Jennifer Pitts, Columbus State University
• Michael Raisinghani, Texas Women’s University
• Carl M. Rebman Jr., University of San Diego
• Toru Sakaguchi, Northern Kentucky University
• Xiaojun (Gene) Shan, University of Houston Clear Lake
• Diane Sykes, Allied American University
• Jason Xiong, Appalachian State University
Finally, we would like to thank our families for their support. We could not have
completed this book without you.
P A R T I
Project Management Foundations
Information Systems Project Management,

Edition 2.0
C H A P T E R 1
Introduction to Project
Management
Figure 1.1 Chapter 1 learning objectives
Opening Case: Business Requirements Driving Big Data Projects at Citibank

Big data—characterized by high volume, variety, organizations fail to consider business needs when
and velocity (see Figure 1.2)—can offer tremendous launching big data projects, and stories of big data
insights and can enable companies to achieve projects that do not contribute to the companies’
a competitive advantage by better identifying bottom line abound. At the global financial services
customers’ needs, optimizing business processes, provider Citigroup, any use cases for big data projects
or reacting to changing customer tastes or are carefully assessed regarding their business
business conditions. Driven by media hype or outside value. As a result, Citibank has implemented many
consultants, small and large organizations are trying very successful projects related to big data, ranging
to jump on the big data bandwagon. However, many from systems that utilize big data to better target

Edition 2.0
Introduction • 3
Figure 1.2 Good project management, careful planning, and an early focus on business outcomes help
Citibank increase its chances of success in big data projects.
promotional spending or analyze transactional use case and find other ways of solving the business
records for anomalies, to systems that use big data problem. Clearly, good project management, careful
to predict errors or fraudulent behaviors. planning, and an early focus on business outcomes
At the same time, Citibank’s organizational unit help Citibank increase its chances of success in its
responsible for big data projects has realized that big data projects.
big data may not be the silver bullet for a particular
Based on: Marr (2016).
Introduction
Every day, you encounter countless examples of projects organizations undertake, rang-
ing from Amazon upgrading its data center infrastructure to Citibank implementing
big data projects to companies revising their privacy policies to comply with new regu-
lations, such as the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation. All these projects require
a decision regarding their priority versus other potential projects; they all require a plan,
the execution of that plan, and on completion, an assessment of how well the team or
person doing the project followed the plan—and they all eventually come to an end.
Projects can be simple endeavors requiring the attention of only one individual, or
they can be extensive undertakings combining the resources of thousands of people.
They can last anywhere from several days to many years. Most of us do not follow a
specific methodology to do all the things that might be classified as projects in our
everyday lives; yet as projects grow in importance, complexity, and length, it becomes
increasingly important for organizations to have systematic processes for managing them

Edition 2.0
4 • Chapter 1 / Introduction to Project Management
Figure 1.3 As projects grow in importance, complexity, and length, systematic project management processes
become increasingly important.
(see Figure 1.3). This book is about how organizations and the people within them can
effectively manage information systems (IS) projects.
In this chapter, you will learn what projects are and, conversely, what they are not.
You will also learn about the specific nature of information systems projects, how all
types of projects share many common elements but also how they all present unique
challenges. We will then describe project management and its history, and introduce
agile methodologies. You will also learn how technology can be used to help manage
projects and how technology can be classified. You will then learn why the study of proj-
ect management is important by examining some statistics regarding project failures,
some specific examples of project failures, and finally, some possible causes of project
failures. You will also gain a basic understanding of what can be done to help ensure
project success.
What Is a Project?
Depending upon the source, the definition of the term project may vary. As an example,
Project Management
Institute the New Oxford American Dictionary defines a project as “an individual or collabo-
An association rative enterprise that is carefully planned and designed to achieve a particular aim.”
designed to bring
together project Each project has a goal or specific purpose, a duration, and resource requirements such
management profes- as money, people, infrastructure, and technology. The Project Management Institute
sionals to enhance
organizational success (PMI), an association designed to bring together project management professionals
by maturing the to enhance organizational success by maturing the project management profession,
project management
profession. describes projects as temporary endeavors designed to achieve a unique result, product,
Project
or service. For the purpose of this book, we have chosen a definition that incorporates
A planned undertaking dimensions of all of these descriptions, defining a project as “a planned undertaking of
of related activities
to achieve a unique
related activities to achieve a unique outcome that has a specified duration.” In organi-
outcome that has a zations, individual projects are grouped as programs, which help harness synergies. For
specified duration.
example, a company might develop a mobile app for its salespeople as part of a mobile
Program enterprise program. A portfolio may include a variety of projects or programs—which
Related projects
coordinated to harness may or may not be directly related (e.g., in the case of setting up a new business unit or
synergies. launching new product lines)—to reach strategic objectives (see Figure 1.4).

Edition 2.0
What Is a Project? • 5
Figure 1.4 Projects, programs, and portfolios
Portfolio Projects, programs, and portfolios are executed to meet a specific need for a stake-
A group of projects or holder or group of stakeholders. Stakeholders are those entities that are actively
programs (which may
not be directly related) involved in the project, who have a vested interest in its success, or who have a positive
pursued to reach or negative influence over the project and its results.
strategic objectives.
Projects are also temporary in that they begin and end on specific predetermined
Stakeholder dates. Project teams are often formed at the beginning of a project and then disbanded
An individual, group,
or organization that is at its completion, with team members being reassigned to new projects. As a result,
actively involved in the project team dynamics are often different from the dynamics of other, more permanent
project or has a vested
interest in its success teams such as those used in a production environment. Finally, projects need support
and/or has a positive from senior-level executives. A project sponsor is a member of the organization who
or negative influence
over the project and its
is responsible for the high-level support of the project. The project sponsor has the
results responsibility of making sure the project is given the resources necessary for its suc-
Project sponsor
cessful completion. Resources can include personnel and facilities, as well as any other
A member of the needs the project personnel may have.
organization who is Business projects frequently have an assigned project manager. In information sys-
responsible for the
high-level support of tems projects, the project manager needs a diverse set of skills—general management,
the project. leadership, technical, conflict management, and customer relationship management.
Project manager The project manager is responsible for managing a project as it goes through its indi-
A person with a diverse vidual phases from concept to completion; given that project management is largely
set of skills—general
management, leader- a team sport, a project manager’s role often focuses more on facilitating, rather than
ship, technical, conflict on monitoring and controlling. A project manager’s environment is one of continual
management, and
customer relationship change and problem solving. Typically, the project manager is a very experienced sys-
management—who is tems analyst; in other organizations, junior and senior analysts work together to manage
responsible for manag-
ing a project as it goes
parts of a project, with the more junior member supporting and learning from a more
through its individual senior colleague. Understanding the project management process is a critical skill for
phases from concept your future success. A project manager is often referred to as a juggler keeping many
to completion.
balls in the air that reflect the various aspects of a project’s development. Balancing
Project success the three key aspects time, costs, and scope, the project manager is instrumental to the
The degree to which
project objectives have successful completion of any project (see Figure 1.5). In fact, project success is often
been achieved on time, defined as the degree to which project objectives have been achieved on time, within
within budget, and
with the agreed upon budget, and with the agreed upon quality and scope.
quality and scope. Information systems projects are undertaken for two primary reasons: to take
advantage of business opportunities and to solve business problems (Figure 1.6). Taking
advantage of an opportunity might mean providing an innovative service to customers
through the creation of a new system. For example, a sports apparel brand may want
to create a new tennis shoe that pairs with a mobile app to allow customers to analyze
their running performance. Solving a business problem could involve modifying how an
existing system processes data to provide users more accurate or timely information. For
example, in order to reduce the number of telephone calls received by their sales staff,
this same brand may want to provide ways for the potential customers to see exactly
which products suit their individual needs and fitness levels.

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Figure 1.5 Balancing the three key aspects time, costs, and scope, the project manager is instrumental to the
successful completion of any project.
Figure 1.6 Information systems projects are undertaken to take advantage of business opportunities and to
solve business problems.
Once a potential project has been identified, a feasibility study may need to be
conducted. This involves determining the resources and time required for the project’s
completion. To determine which resources are necessary, the scope of the project is
analyzed and the probability of successful completion is determined. The organization
can then use this information to decide whether the project is feasible, given time and
resource constraints. If so, the team conducts a more in-depth analysis. As you will
see, a primary skill of a project manager is to determine a project’s scope, time, and
resource requirements. These and other skills and related techniques will be covered in
subsequent chapters.
Global Implications: U.S. Business Firms Look Overseas for IT Help

With information systems being pervasive throughout most likely has the longest history of providing an
our lives, many companies are struggling to find the offshore workforce, given the government’s early
talent needed to develop and program their various focus on information technology education. For
apps and devices. Consequently, companies as well example, the famous Indian Institute of Technology
as information technology (IT) service providers are was founded in the 1960s and has a high reputation
increasingly drawing on an offshore workforce to for not only teaching and research but also industrial
meet their needs. Over the years, countries such as consulting.
China, the Philippines, or Russia have built up a large Yet just as the demand for skilled programmers
base of highly skilled workers who can program in a outstrips the supply in the United States, so does
variety of programming languages. However, India demand outstrip supply in India, with India’s National

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Unique Features of IS Projects • 7
Association of Software and Services Companies More than two decades ago, companies were
(NASSCOM) predicting that India’s IT industry will looking for inexpensive workers to support their own
grow by less than 10 percent but the demand for (domestic) workforce. Today’s increasingly complex
skilled IT workers will double by 2020. Given this IT environments make searching for the right mix
demand, as the labor costs in India continue to rise, of talents at the right costs ever more important. In
fact, a recent study by Stratistics Market Research
many companies have already started to look else-
Consulting has estimated that in 2015 companies
where when thinking about offshoring their work.
spent US$314.9 billion for global outsourcing of soft-
Whereas many U.S.-based IT service providers
ware and services, a number that was expected to
(ranging from Accenture to IBM Global Technology reach US$481.4 billion in 2022. Yet global outsourc-
Services) rely on overseas talent, overseas IT ser- ing projects are not without challenges; working with
vices providers (such as Infosys or Wipro) now have an external provider adds complexity and distance in
international offices in various countries to be closer time and space, and language barriers often hinder
to their clients. productivity.
Based on: NASSCOM (2014); Trent (2016); Valacich and Schneider (2018).
Unique Features of IS Projects

This book is focused on IS project management. Thus it is important for us to answer
the question: What characteristics of IS projects make them different from non-IS
projects? There are many unique aspects, but here are just a few (see Figure 1.7).
Figure 1.7 IS project complexities

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First, the technological context in which companies operate today is in constant

flux. As new technologies are introduced, firms must quickly decide whether to invest in
them or risk losing a potential competitive advantage, or simply whether to match the
capabilities of competitors who already have adopted a new technology. For example,
Barnes and Noble, a well-known book retailer, was forced to establish a web presence
in order to offset the competitive advantage gained by Amazon.com’s online sales. The
number of new technologies also means that firms may find themselves juggling the
resources required to manage not just one but many projects focused on technological
innovations. These factors create an exciting, yet stressful, environment both for the
businesses involved and the project teams that do the work.
A second unique aspect of IS projects is the difficulty of hiring and retaining expe-
rienced IS project employees. In other words, not only may technologies change during
projects, but a project team may also experience turnover as valued employees seek new
opportunities. This is made even more challenging by the fact that the demand for
employees with good IS project experience may be particularly high; thus companies
may need to design lucrative compensation packages to prevent other organizations
from recruiting these employees. This, of course, assumes that the company can recruit
personnel with IS project experience to begin with.
A third unique aspect of IS projects is the need to manage the extensive user
involvement necessary in information technology projects. Unlike many other types of
projects, an information system might be replicated across different parts of an orga-
nization—possibly in different parts of the world. As a result, project teams need to
focus particular attention on each subset of potential users as the system is built and be
aware that an information system is likely to be used by people with very different levels
of technical proficiency. As a result, many different types of users need to be involved
in the development process to ensure system success. Systems designers charged with
the development of an information system must ensure that the system’s end users
are involved throughout the project—not only during planning but also during both
implementation and maintenance.
A fourth unique aspect of IS projects is the need to understand established sys-
tems development methodologies and how these can be integrated into a project man-
Project management agement framework. Each project uses a project management methodology, which
methodology
The process used for defines how the project management plan is executed in terms of which processes
executing the project are applied, how workflows are organized, and who is responsible for what. A project
management plan.
management methodology establishes clear guidelines and methods to ensure that
PRINCE2 projects are being conducted in a consistent manner, such that quality is promoted
(PRojects IN Controlled
Environments) A struc- and the project deliverables are delivered on time and within budget. Commonly used
tured process-based methodologies include PRINCE2, waterfall, or agile methodologies.
project manage-
ment methodology
Information systems development methodologies are normally based on a systems
providing processes, development life cycle (SDLC). Literally dozens of published methodologies for
templates, and steps. developing and maintaining information systems are available to organizations and
Systems development project teams. Understanding how these methodologies relate to the standard project
life cycle
A structured
management techniques is a unique aspect of managing IS-related development efforts.
approach to systems A fifth unique aspect differentiating IS projects from many other types of projects
development. is that the attempted solutions may have never been tried before. Whereas building a
new house is certainly a project, it is a project that is likely very similar to past projects
your general contractor has attempted. An IS project, however, may focus on building
a system that has entirely new functionality, for example based on Internet of Things
sensors or big data. In such a case, the project team may have few guidelines or lessons
learned from past projects to rely on.

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Unique Features of IS Projects • 9
A sixth unique aspect of IS projects that creates a level of complexity beyond non-IS
projects is related to managing project scope. Project scope, which involves the planned
definition and size of a project, is likely to change in many projects; however, progres-
sive, uncontrolled increases in project scope (see the discussion of scope creep in Chap-
ter 5) and unclear requirements are commonplace in IS projects. In many instances, this
again might relate to the fact that the end product has never been developed before. In
such a situation, users may be less certain about what characteristics they want in the
final project output. In addition, users may naïvely believe that software projects are
easily modified even after they have begun—after all, it’s just changing a few lines of
code. It is up to the project team to manage these perceptions.
A seventh unique feature of IS projects is that the technologies involved in projects
may change during the course of the project, presenting a moving target for the project
team. As an example, a company may be involved in the deployment of an enterprise
system, such as SAP S4/HANA, for the purpose of connecting various functional
areas of the business, such as production, sales, and accounting. In the middle of such a
project, a new version of the system may be released, and the company may find itself
facing a decision of whether to continue with the original product or adopt the new
technology. Such changes in technology are commonplace, adding to the complexity of
managing projects of this nature. In some cases, the technology might become obsolete
before the project is even finished.
In contrast to other projects, such as building a bridge, IS projects are associated
with a host of other challenges. For example, while the complexity of constructing
bridges has remained relatively stable over time, the required functionality of software
is constantly increasing, leading to exponential increases in code base and complexity.
Likewise, it is estimated that in large IS development projects, an average of a thousand
decisions have to be made for each US$1 million in labor costs. Consequently, it is now
nearly impossible to test each logical path within the software’s source code—even
using automated tools—and almost no software can ever be free of errors or defects.
While many latent defects may only surface under very specific circumstances, they
can pose critical vulnerabilities. The likelihood and impact of attacks is increasing, as a
malicious cracker only needs to discover a single hole and the tools for this are becom-
ing increasingly sophisticated.
Further, software, in and of itself, is unique in a sense that it is invisible (i.e., the
user only interacts with the system image) and there are no physical laws that guide or
determine the results of a certain operation or change to the code. Complicating matters
further, there are few “laws” in software development, and the field is constantly evolv-
ing, with new methods and new approaches (such as agile); for many new methodolo-
gies, developers follow a trial and error approach, as just too little is known about why
things work or don’t work, or about the circumstances under which they can be used.
Another issue is associated with project planning and execution: while, for example, the
size and complexity of construction projects can be estimated using well-established
tools and techniques, few such tools exist for IS project; likewise, especially for large
and complex systems, only limited tools are available to support development. Finally,
information systems do not operate in a vacuum, and many (if not most of ) today’s
systems are interlinked; consequently, the project manager and developers must extend
their focus beyond the system they are developing and also consider its interactions
with other systems.
Although projects may take many forms, one common factor most often leads to
project success—project management.

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Ethical Dilemma: Solving Dilemmas in Project Management

Do no harm. Tell the truth. Respect others’ rights. first step, the project manager might weigh the short-
These and other moral imperatives guide our term and long-term consequences of the options
decisions. At times, however, we have to make and try to find the option that both minimizes harms
decisions where some options involve breaking and maximizes benefits. The second step involves
moral imperatives. In some situations, all options evaluating which actions are least problematic (with-
involve breaking our moral imperatives, so finding out consideration of the consequences). Typically,
the best option is far from easy, and there may not these steps would involve identifying and ranking the
even be a definite solution. Such ethical dilemmas values and principles involved, so as to arrive at an
(sometimes called moral dilemmas) are an action plan that is least problematic from an ethical
unavoidable aspect of many business and personal standpoint. Further, you should carefully consider the
decisions, and as project manager, you are likely to
consequences for the various stakeholders involved.
face such dilemmas as well.
Ethical decision-making has a wide range of con-
For example, a project manager may realize that
sequences. In a study of 1,121 managers and execu-
a component is behind schedule, and not completing
tives, the American Management Association found
the component on time may threaten the release of
that protecting a business’ reputation, maintaining
further funding. At the same time, the project man-
ager knows that a new programmer is being hired, customer trust and loyalty, and maintaining investor
and that the delay will be made up shortly. Should confidence are among the top five reasons for con-
the project manager report the delay, threatening the ducting business ethically. Yet the respondents also
entire project, or should she provide an overly opti- indicated that the efforts of running an ethical busi-
mistic assessment of the situation, knowing that it ness are often thwarted by factors such as pressure
does not represent the true status of the project? to meet unrealistic business objectives or deadlines,
How would you approach a situation where you people’s desire to further their career, or employ-
face an ethical dilemma? One approach to mak- ees’ desire to protect their livelihoods. Further, glo-
ing the decision involves not only considering the balization and operating in different cultures, laws,
actions themselves, but also the consequences of and regulations, makes running an ethical business
the actions, following a two-step approach. In the increasingly difficult.
Discussion Questions
1. What was the most challenging ethical dilemma you have ever faced?
2. How did you resolve the dilemma?
Based on: American Management Association (2006); Valacich and Schneider (2018).
What Is Project Management?

The Project Management Institute (PMI) defines project management as “the application
Project Management
Body of Knowledge of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities in order to meet project
(PMBOK) requirements.” Based on identified best practices, PMI maintains the Project Manage-
A repository of
project management ment Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), which includes project management practices
practices that are that are generally recognized as good practices for successfully managing projects. These
generally recognized
as good practices.
practices are periodically published in the PMBOK Guide, now in its sixth edition,
which forms the basis of this book.
Project management
process groups PMBOK outlines various project management processes that bring about a par-
Groups of processes ticular result, end, or condition. Based on the specific purpose of the processes, they
performed to initiate,
plan, execute, monitor
are grouped together into project management process groups—namely, initiating,
and control, and close planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing processes (see Figure 1.8).
a project.
The individual processes within the process groups are conducted during the individual
Project life cycle phases of the project life cycle—the phases a project goes through from concept to
The phases a project
goes through from
completion). (Note that while the processes are performed during the different phases
concept to completion. of a project, they do not equal the phases.) While the project phases, process groups,

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What Is Project Management? • 11
Figure 1.8 Project management process groups. Based on: PMBOK (2017).
their subprocesses, and project life cycles will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 2,
it will be useful to discuss the major process groups briefly here.
Before a project even begins, organizations must identify potential projects and
evaluate their importance to the organization. The need for IS projects can be discov-
ered in many ways, including recognition by managers and end users. Once these needs
have been identified, key management can evaluate the potential projects’ alignment
with company strategies and goals.
The processes in the initiating process group include authorizing the continuation
of an existing project or the start of a new project, developing the project charter, as
well as developing the project management plan. The processes in the planning process
group are conducted to plan crucial aspects of the project, such as scope, time, costs, and
Microsoft Project risks. Processes in this project group use project management tools (such as Microsoft
Software designed
by Microsoft to help Project) to create work breakdown structures (WBS; see Figure 1.9), Gantt charts,
people manage and network diagrams (see Figure 1.10), all of which will be discussed in later chapters.
projects.
The processes in the executing process group are concerned with completing the
Work breakdown actual project deliverables. The processes in the monitoring and controlling process
structure
A listing of the group are used to measure performance and progress and compare these against planned
activities necessary
for the completion of a
performance and progress. If problem areas are found, steps are taken to correct them.
project. Finally, the closing process group encompass processes such as finalizing all paperwork
Gantt chart and having all responsible parties sign off on the phase or project.
A bar chart showing The processes of the different process groups are further categorized as belonging
the start and end
dates for the activities to one of ten knowledge areas, such as scope management, cost management, or risk
of a project. management. These ten core knowledge areas, along with their associated processes, are
Network diagram listed in Table 1.1 (Note that throughout the book, process names corresponding to
A schematic display
that illustrates the
PMBOK are Capitalized and Italicized). When looking at these knowledge areas, their
various tasks in a ties to each of the project process groups of initiation, planning, execution, control, and
project, as well as their
sequential relationship.
closeout are evident. We will revisit this association throughout this book.
An important aspect to note is that while the PMBOK Guide describes good prac-
tices, it does not serve as a methodology per se, as it does not provide specific guidance
on which processes should be applied, how workflows should be organized, or who
should be responsible for what.

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Figure 1.9 Sample work breakdown structure (WBS) in Microsoft Project 2016
Figure 1.10 Sample network diagram in Microsoft Project 2016

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What Is Project Management? • 13
Table 1.1 Project Management Core Areas of Knowledge
Project Integration Project Scope Project Schedule Project Cost Management

Management Management Management • Plan Cost Management
• Develop Project Charter • Plan Scope Management • Plan Schedule • Estimate Costs
• Develop Project • Collect Requirements Management • Determine Budget
Management Plan • Define Scope • Define Activities • Control Costs
• Direct and Manage Project • Create WBS • Sequence Activities
Work • Validate Scope • Estimate Activity
• Monitor and Control • Control Scope Durations
Project Work • Develop Schedule
• Perform Integrated • Control Schedule
Change Control
• Close Project or Phase
Project Quality Project Resource Project Communications Project Risk Management
Management Management Management • Plan Risk Management
• Plan Quality Management • Plan Resource • Plan Communications • Identify Risks
• Manage Quality Management Management • Perform Qualitative Risk
• Control Quality • Estimate Activity • Manage Communications Analysis
Resources • Monitor Communications • Perform Quantitative Risk
• Acquire Resources Analysis
• Develop Team • Plan Risk Responses
• Manage Team • Implement Risk
• Control Resources Responses
• Monitor Risks
Project Procurement Project Stakeholder

Management Management
• Plan Procurement • Identify Stakeholders
Management • Plan Stakeholder
• Conduct Procurements Engagement
• Control Procurements • Manage Stakeholder
Engagement
• Monitor Stakeholder
Engagement
Tips from the Pros: Project Management Institute

In any business profession, developing a strong net- managers and offers certification as a project man-
work can help people advance their careers, stay agement professional (PMP) for those with exten-
abreast of current developments, and receive help, sive project management experience. Due to the
advice, or mentorship from peers or senior members complexity of information systems projects, earning
of the profession. Just as there are various organiza- PMI’s Project Management Professional certification
tions and societies for accountants, marketers, or IT can help a project manager increase the success rate
professionals, there are different societies for project of IS projects. Additionally, PMI publishes three peri-
managers—most notably, the Project Management odicals: PM Network, the Project Management Journal,
Institute (PMI). Established in 1969, the PMI is an and PMI Today. Why should a project manager be a
international society that focuses on the needs of PMI member? The reasons include (www.pmi.org)
project professionals around the world. It includes • Education and training. Through seminars, PMI
over 470,000 members from 207 countries; they members can improve their knowledge and skills
come from various industries, such as aerospace, in project management.
automotive, business management, construction, • Knowledge acquisition. Members have access to
engineering, financial services, health care, informa- research results so that they can stay up-to-date
tion technology, pharmaceuticals, and telecommuni- with any changes or developments in the project
cations. PMI delivers educational services to project management field.

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
For which reason, we, who have come from the days of those
early Americans, strong in the knowledge that we are citizens and
not “subjects,” are now satisfied that none of these modern
“constitutional thinkers” can disturb our certain knowledge. It is a
matter of no concern to us that some of them, because they did not
have our knowledge, failed to win their litigations for their clients. It
is, however, a matter of great concern to us that supporters of the
Eighteenth Amendment should be found maintaining, as if it was an
axiom needing no proof, that we are “subjects” of the governments
they represented.
We need spend very little further time in the briefs of those who so
maintain. We have no patience with their Tory concept of the relation
of men to governments. We know that Tory concept never has been
American law since the Statute of ’76. But it would not be proper to
leave their briefs without one glance at some of their heresies, which
are flatly contradicted by everything we have learned in our
education. As a matter of fact, not one of these heresies can stand
accurate and simple statement without exposing its own absurdity.
Some of us are familiar with the book known as “The Comic
Blackstone.” We have thought of it often as we read the briefs of
those for validity of the new Amendment—the government
constitution of government power to interfere with the individual
freedom of American citizens. There is, however, a vital difference
between the book and those briefs. The book was a conscious effort
to be humorous. Unconscious humor has never failed to surpass
conscious and intended humor.
We recall our search to know “when” and “how,” between 1907
and 1917, we became subjects. We remember the first glance at the
briefs of 1920. We remember the tribute of one to the simple truth
that “the people do not become a legislature.... As well confound the
creator and the creature—the principal and the agent through which
he acts.” We wonder why the author of this tribute did not challenge
the monumental error of the concept that the Fifth Article (when it
mentions the “conventions” of the American citizens, the greatest
principal in America, and also mentions the state governments, each
as the attorney in fact of another and distinct principal, the citizens of
its own state) is a grant from the great principal to itself and these
mentioned attorneys in fact of others. But we now know why the
author of the tribute made no such challenge. He is Hughes, who
rests his entire argument on the monumental error. We remember,
as we glance at the briefs, that another one challenged the doctrine
on which Sheppard proposed that the Eighteenth Amendment be
sent to governments of state citizens, that such governments might
interfere with the freedom of American citizens. We remember the
Sheppard doctrine as the Calhoun heresy that the states, political
entities, made the Constitution which we, the citizens of America,
actually made in our “conventions.” We remember how refreshed we
were to find, in our first glance at the briefs, this statement: “The
Constitution is not a compact between states. It proceeds directly
from the people. As was stated by Mr. Chief Justice Marshall in
M’Culloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, &c.” We remember our
thought, when we had just come from those “conventions,” to find
this statement in that brief. We remember how we anticipated this
briefer telling the Court why the states or their governments, who
could not make the First Article, were incompetent to make the only
other supposed grant of power to interfere with our liberty, the
Eighteenth Amendment. Now that we have finished with the briefs of
1920, we recognize how absurd was our expectation. The statement
that the states, which are mere political entities, did not make the
Constitution, the quotation from Marshall, supporting this truth and
showing that the states did not make it because the states and their
governments cannot make national Articles, are both from the brief
of this same Hughes, the champion of his government clients and
their claimed ability to make national Articles.
We find some considerable amusement in comparing the speech
of Sheppard, proposer of the Eighteenth Amendment, and the brief
of Hughes, champion of the Eighteenth Amendment. If government
was to carry through a successful revolution against free men and
acquire the omnipotence denied to the British Parliament, it would
have been well for the proposers of the Revolution and the
champions of it to have agreed at least upon one fact, whether the
states, political entities, or the citizens of America, in their
“conventions,” made the Constitution—which was to secure the
American citizen against all usurpation of power by governments.
But, once we sense the certainty that this revolution of government
against free citizens cannot be successful, once we realize the
certain decision of the Supreme Court when the real challenge is
made to the disguised revolution, we can forget the attempted
tragedy of human liberty. Then we shall know that the entire story of
the last five years is an inexhaustible mine of humor. And, among the
briefs of those who championed this revolution of government
against human being, we shall find no mean rival (in unconscious
humor) to any other part of that story.
We recall, at our first introduction to all the briefs, the epitome of
all the knowledge we had just brought from the early conventions:
“There is only one great muniment of our liberty which can never be
amended, revoked or withdrawn—the Declaration of Independence.
In this regard, it ranks with the Magna Charta.” We recall how
pleased we were to know that the Court must hear another
champion of individual liberty, who also must have come from the
“conventions” in which we had sat. We recall how, in his brief, this
truthful tribute to the Statute of ’76 was immediately followed by the
quotation from that Statute, which includes these words: “That to
secure these Rights, [the Rights of men granted by their Creator]
governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers
from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of
Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the
People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government,
laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in
such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety
and Happiness.”
In our eager anticipation to hear his argument and see his brief,
how were we, fresh from the “conventions” in which sat some of the
men who had written that Statute eleven years earlier, to know that
the briefer understood their language to read as follows: “That to
secure these rights of human beings, granted by their Creator,
governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers
from the consent of the state governments. That whenever any Form
of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of
the state governments to alter or abolish it, and to institute new
government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing
its powers in such form as to the state governments shall seem most
likely to effect the welfare of those who control the state
governments.”
That this is the meaning of that Statute to this briefer, we may
realize when we know that the tribute to the Statute and the
quotation from the Statute are in the brief of Wheeler, counsel for the
political organization which managed the new revolution of
government against people and dictated the proposal that
governments should constitute new government of men in America.
Now we grasp why this briefer said that, in the fact that the
Declaration of Independence could “never be amended, revoked or
withdrawn,” the Statute of ’76 “ranks with the Magna Charta.” To this
briefer, the Statute of ’76, like the Great Charter of old, is the ruler
government dispensing privileges to its subjects, the people. That is
why this briefer, with his Tory concept of the relation of government
to human beings, does not know that the Statute of ’76 is the
revocation of the principle on which Magna Charta rested, the
doctrine that the government is the State and the people are its
assets.
This briefer, like all his associates, does not know the great
change which the American people made in the picture of American
government. We are all familiar with the picture, “His Master’s
Voice.” When those Americans were born, from whose “conventions”
we have come, the listener in that picture was “the people” of the
Preamble and the Tenth Amendment in our Constitution. The voice
of the master was the voice of government. When those Americans
died, they had changed the picture. The listener had become the
governments in America, the voice of the master had become “the
people” of America, its citizens. The new painting of the picture was
on July 4, 1776. That the listener might never deface the truth of the
new picture, the Constitution of 1787 was proposed at Philadelphia
and later made by the master in the picture. The proposal of Wheeler
and his associates and the action of governments on that proposal
are the unlawful attempt to change the picture back to what it had
been before the Statute of ’76.
If time permitted, our sense of humor would keep us long with the
briefs of Wheeler and his associates. It was their thought that the
doctrine of Christ could be made a better Christianity by a
substitution of the prohibition of Mohammed for the temperance of
Christ. This natural modesty on their part made certain that we would
find, in the Wheeler brief, this tribute to the good intentions of the
Americans of those early “conventions,” accompanied by an humble
tribute to the much greater wisdom of the briefers. “The people,
under this form of government may, of course, do unwise things.
This is the alleged danger of a republican or democratic form of
government. If the electorates are not intelligent, moral and patriotic,
our government will fail. Our forefathers took that chance in choosing
a form of government that was controlled entirely by the people.
History proves that they builded more wisely than they knew. The
people have kept step with advancing civilization under the same
construction of our Constitution. This last advance in the prohibition
of the beverage liquor traffic, which is one of the greatest evils that
ever cursed humanity, is additional evidence of the wisdom of our
forebears. It is generally recognized as the greatest piece of
constructive legislation that was ever adopted by a self-governing
people.” The finest passage in the “Comic Blackstone” does not
approach this in its excellence as unconscious humor.
Educated with “our forefathers” who “took that chance in choosing
a form of government that was controlled entirely by the people,” we
call the attention of Wheeler to one of his many mistakes by rewriting
his next sentence, as he should have written it: “History proves that
they builded more wisely than Wheeler or his associates knew or are
able to understand.”
Our forefathers knew that, wherever men are citizens, neither
state governments nor any governments are “the people” or can
surrender rights of “the people” or can constitute new governments
of “the people” interfering with their individual freedom and,
therefore, when those “conventions” of old did choose and establish
a form of government “that was controlled entirely by the people,”
they were not stupid enough to think that the American government
would be that kind of a government if it could be controlled entirely
by legislatures, which never are the people. It is rather ridiculous to
find Hughes, associate champion of Wheeler for the new
Amendment, contending that the people never are the legislature,
while Wheeler contends that a government is controlled entirely by
the people when it is controlled entirely by legislatures. But, it is to be
expected, when men work in association on a common unsound
basis, that one champion should frequently contradict another as to
fact, and that even the same champion should often contradict
himself as to fact.
And so we find the Wheeler brief stating that the new Amendment,
made entirely by governments without any authority from the people
about whom he prates, “is generally recognized as the greatest
piece of constructive legislation that was ever adopted by a self-
governing people”; and we turn over the pages of the brief and we
find the remarkable proposition that these state legislatures, when
making the Eighteenth Amendment, were not legislating, but were “a
body of representatives sitting in a conventional capacity.” Of course,
we now learn, by this latter statement, that the greatest piece of
“constructive legislation” the world ever knew was not legislation at
all. But we also learn a more important thing. It would have been of
great advantage to the British Parliament in 1765, if it had only
known the Wheeler concept of our American security for human
freedom. Think how remarkable it would have been to have passed
a Stamp Act which would have been universally respected and
obeyed by the American people of that time! All the British
Parliament should have done was to announce: “This is not passed
by us as a legislature. In issuing this command to the American
people, we are a ‘body of representatives sitting in a conventional
capacity.’” Having exactly the same attitude mentally as Lord North
in 1775, this Wheeler would have been a better Minister for the
English King. He would have been able to keep for him the American
“subjects” of the British Legislature.
“Article V itself shows that the representative or convention idea
was in the minds of the framers of the Constitution. If the legislatures
of two thirds of the states should apply to Congress, then Congress
would be obliged to call a convention for proposing Amendments to
the Constitution. Then, also, when it came to the matter of
ratification, this question could be considered by conventions in the
various states. A review of the proceedings of the constitutional
convention, as well as a study of the political and governmental
bodies at the time at which the provision providing for amending the
federal Constitution was adopted, revealed the fact that these men
thought in terms of conventions ... and that the clear intent of the
framers was to ratify proposed amendments by bodies sitting in the
capacity of conventions. The Court will not find any able exponent of
the theories of government of that time, however, who even asserted
that the people could be considered as a portion of the legislature.
This can be shown most clearly by an examination of the
proceedings of the constitutional convention, as reported by Mr.
Madison and particularly by examining the various proposals
advanced in that convention for the ratification of the Constitution.”
We recognize immediately, in this extract from the briefs of 1920,
our own exact knowledge brought from those “conventions.” And,
when this briefer challenges the existence of the Eighteenth
Amendment on the ground that the people who made it showed “in
Article V itself” that “the convention idea was in the minds of the
framers” and “when it came to the matter of ratification,” a “Yes” or
“No” was to be considered by “conventions” in the various states, we
are amazed to find no upholder of the Eighteenth Amendment
replying to this attack upon its validity. The challenge to validity again
and again touches on the monumental error of the Tory concept
behind all claim to validity. The challenge puts its finger at once upon
the absurd assumption, on which the Eighteenth Amendment wholly
depends for existence, the assumption that the Americans we have
just left ever considered the “people” as the “legislature” or the
“legislature” as the “people.” The challenge emphasizes the fact we
all know, that the “conventions” knew that “conventions” were the
“people” and that “legislatures” never were the “people.” But we are
mistaken in believing that this clear challenge was not met by some
“constitutional thinker” in his effort to uphold the new supposed
national Article, made by the governments or “legislatures” which
the old “conventions” so well knew were not the “people.” In the brief
of one champion of the new national Article, we find this clear reply
to the challenge. And we notice how the reply is not mere assertion.
No one can deny the tremendous “support,” in history and in
decision and in the Fifth Article itself, for the full reply that the Fifth
Article states definitely that “the only agency which is authorized to
ratify the Amendment is the state legislatures!”
We have only one comment to make on the challenge itself and
the destructive reply to it, that the state legislatures are the “only
agent” authorized by the Fifth Article to amend our national
Constitution. It is an interesting comment. Both the challenge and the
reply are from the brief of Wheeler, counsel for the political
organization which directed that governments make this new
national government of men.
This Wheeler believes that the Statute of ’76 is “one great
muniment of our liberty which can never be amended, revoked or
withdrawn.” He says so in his brief. He also maintains that his state
governments, not one of their members elected by us as citizens of
America, have omnipotent power over our every liberty, except that
they cannot change the number of senators from each State. At one
point in his brief he “proves” overwhelmingly that the citizens of
America universally demanded his new Article, the Eighteenth
Amendment. His proof is—and we cannot deny the fact which he
asserts as proof—that, in the year 1918, when Americans were in
the Argonne Forest in France, four thousand seven hundred and
forty-two Tories in forty-five state legislatures said “Yes” to this new
command to the one hundred million American citizens on a subject
not among the matters enumerated in our First Article. That his
“proof” might be perfect (for the claim that the making of the
command was demanded by the citizens of America) he fails to
mention the fact that not one of those four thousand odd Americans,
who were not the Americans in the Argonne or in our training camps
preparing to fight for human liberty, was elected for any purpose by
the citizens of America.
Reflecting upon this briefer’s admiration for the Statute of ’76 and
upon his knowledge that the “legislatures” never are the people,
while the “conventions” of the Fifth Article are the “people,” we
wonder if he ever read a certain statement of the early American
who wrote the Statute of ’76. It is a statement from Thomas
Jefferson quoted by Madison, author of the Fifth Article, when he
was urging the American people or “conventions” to make that Fifth
Article. Jefferson was talking about a constitution, in which “all the
powers of government ... result to the legislative body,” as they result
(under the modern assumption as to what the Fifth Article says) to
the state governments, the new omnipotent legislature of the
American people. This is what Jefferson had to say, what Madison
approved: “The concentrating these in the same hands, is precisely
the definition of despotic government. It will be no alleviation, that
these powers will be exercised by a plurality of hands, and not by a
single one. One hundred and seventy-three despots would surely be
as oppressive as one.... As little will it avail us, that they are chosen
by ourselves. An elective despotism was not the government we
fought for.” (Fed. No. 48.)
It is clearly the view of Wheeler and all his associates that the
early Americans did fight their Revolution so that we might have, in
these modern days, an elective despotism of four thousand seven
hundred and forty-two despots. That form of government is probably
relieved from the odium of the Madison and Jefferson attack, by the
“alleviation” that we ourselves, the citizens of America, those to be
governed by this “elective despotism,” do not elect or choose even
one of the despots!
We cannot linger longer with these amazing briefs of the
champions of the Eighteenth Amendment. From the viewpoint of
unconscious humor, we have become rather enamored of the
Wheeler idea that “state governments” and “the people of America”
expressed the same thought to the latter when they made the Fifth
Article. Since we read Wheeler’s brief, we have been trying the same
method with some famous statements of great Americans. For
example, we have this new excerpt from Washington’s famous
Farewell Address: “The basis of our political system is the right of the
‘state governments’ to make or alter the people’s Constitution of
government. And the Constitution which at any time exists, till
changed by an explicit and authentic act of ‘the legislatures of three
fourths of the states’”—(Washington said ‘the whole people’)—“is
sacredly obligatory upon all.”
And we like particularly the improved Wheeler concept of the
rather crude Gettysburg speech of Lincoln. In its new form, altered
by the Wheeler idea, it is wonderful to hear the appeal of Lincoln that
we, who were not among the dead at Gettysburg, should play our
part “that government of the people, by the state governments, and
for those who control the state governments, shall not perish from
the earth.”
We wonder if Hughes and Wheeler and Sheppard and Webb
realize how far they have gone beyond the Calhoun idea that was
repudiated forever at Gettysburg! In the old days, the Calhoun
doctrine was that a single state, although but a political entity, could
do as it pleased in its own affairs, even to leaving the Union without
reference to the wishes of the citizens of America. That question was
settled forever by the result at Gettysburg. The modern claim, the
sole claim upon which the Eighteenth Amendment depends for
existence, is that a state government, if it combines with enough
other state governments, can go outside its own jurisdiction, outside
the citizenship which chose the legislators in it, and issue its
omnipotent command telling the citizens of America what they may
do and may not do, “in all matters whatsoever.”
But we leave the Court of 1920, quite satisfied that the modern
“constitutional thinkers,” who filed their briefs therein, have not
exactly the American concept of the relation of government to human
beings, which would have located them at Valley Forge, with
Marshall, in the Winter of 1778.
We leave that Court, however, quite satisfied that the Court itself
still has the knowledge which Marshall had, the knowledge stated in
the Tenth Amendment and by the decision of that Court in 1907, that
all the powers not granted by the Constitution to the general
government at Washington “are reserved to the people and can be
exercised only by them or, upon further grant from them.”
We do not forget the question of the Court, the question which
none of the lawyers could answer, “In what way do counsel believe
that the Eighteenth Amendment could be made constitutionally?”
We do know the answer to that question. The Americans, in the
“conventions” we just left, wrote the answer in the Fifth Article in the
words which are the most important words in the Article and one of
our greatest securities to human liberty, “by conventions in three
fourths thereof.”
The “conventions” which mentioned themselves, the
“conventions,” in the Fifth Article, are the same “conventions” which
demanded that the declaration be made that every power, not
granted in that Constitution to the government at Washington,
remained where it had been. As the state governments had been
incompetent to make the First Article or the Eighteenth Amendment,
they remained incompetent to make either of them.
If we needed any assurance that the Supreme Court still retains
the accurate conceptions of these early Americans, we find it in one
of the most significant facts in the whole remarkable story of the last
five years.
We do not need to recall how every lawyer dwells continuously
upon the fact that the Fifth Article is a “grant” of power to make new
Articles. We do not need to refresh our mind with the recollection
that the Root brief referred to the Fifth Article over fifty times as a
“grant” of such power. We know that every argument in every brief
was based on the stated assumption that the Fifth Article was a
“grant” and that it made the legislatures of state citizens attorneys in
fact for the citizens of America, who elect none of the members of
those legislatures.
Did this monumental error of all the lawyers have any effect upon
the accurate knowledge of the Supreme Court? Did this insistence
upon the absurd assumption that the Fifth Article is a “grant,” in
which “conventions” grant something to themselves and to the state
governments, lead the Court into the error of calling it a “grant?”
Read the conclusions of the Court, as they were stated by Judge
Van Devanter. The opening sentence of that statement sweeps aside
every assumption that the Fifth Article is a “grant.” Can our
knowledge, brought right from the old “conventions,” be put more
completely than in the one statement: “Power to amend the
Constitution was reserved by Article V.”
Where is the “grant” all the lawyers have been talking about?
Where is the “grant” on which the Eighteenth Amendment depends
for existence? Where is the “grant” which makes the state
legislatures of state citizens attorneys in fact, for any purpose, for the
American citizens? Before the Constitution, in which is the Fifth
Article, there was no citizen of America. And, as the exclusive ability
of “conventions” to make national Articles (like the ability of state
legislatures to make Articles which are not national) “was reserved
by Article V,” the state governments, as imaginary attorneys for
ourselves, disappear entirely from the scene. We remain free
citizens. We have not become “subjects.”
This comforting knowledge is emphasized when we find that, as
the Supreme Court states its Fourth Conclusion, again the accurate
statement is that the ability to make the new Article “is within the
power to amend reserved by Article V of the Constitution.”
That is our own knowledge. We have brought from the
conventions, in which we have sat with the early Americans, their
knowledge that the ability of the “conventions” to make Articles of
that kind, their exclusive ability to do so, was reserved to those
“conventions,” the assembled citizens of America. We know that the
Tenth Amendment expressly so declares. Therefore, when we go to
the Supreme Court, with our contention that we still are citizens and
that a revolution by government against the people, a revolution to
make us “subjects,” must be repudiated by the Supreme Court which
we have established to protect our human liberty against all
usurpation by governments, our challenge will be in the words of
Wilson, uttered in the Pennsylvania Convention where Americans
first set their names to the Fifth Article:
“How comes it, sir, that these state governments dictate to their
superiors—to the majesty of the people?”
CHAPTER XXVI
THE AMERICAN CITIZEN WILL REMAIN
The United States [the great political society of men which

this book persistently calls America] form, for many, and for
most important purposes, a single nation.... In war, we are
one people. In making peace, we are one people. In all
commercial regulations, we are one and the same people. In
many other respects, the American people are one; and the
government which is alone capable of controlling and
managing their interests in all these respects, is the
government of the Union. It is their government, and in that
character they have no other. America has chosen to be, in
many respects, and to many purposes, a nation; and for all
these purposes, her government is complete; to all these
objects, it is competent. The people have declared that, in the
exercise of all powers given for these objects, it is supreme. It
can, then, in effecting these objects, legitimately control all
individuals or governments within the American territory. (U.
S. Supreme Court, Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, at p.
413 et seq.)
These words of Marshall tell every American why there is an
“America,” a nation of men, in addition to a “United States,” a
federation or league of political entities. The league existed before
the Constitution created the nation. The league was not created by
the Constitution. But the league was continued by the Constitution in
which free men created the nation. In that Constitution, the league
and its component members (the states) were made subordinate to
the nation and its component members, who are the citizens of
America.
How comes it, then, that modern leaders, for five years last past,
have talked their nonsense about another government of the one
American people? How comes it that they have argued and acted as
if the Fifth Article constituted another government of the one
American people?
It certainly would be startling for Marshall and his generation to
hear the Eighteenth Amendment claim that one important purpose
for which Americans chose to be one people was the purpose of
enabling thirty-six legislatures of state citizens to interfere, “in all
matters whatsoever,” with every individual liberty of all American
citizens.
In the light of our education with the one American people who
chose to be, “in many respects, and to many purposes, a nation” and
to have, in that character, no government other than the
government constituted by the First Article, how otherwise, than by
the one word “nonsense,” can we dignify the five-year discussion as
to the extent of the powers granted in the Fifth Article to other
governments, the respective governments of the members of the
league, to interfere with the liberties of the members of the nation,
the citizens of America?
Citizens of America, particularly emigrants from Europe, must be
taught the reason why and the fact that the one American people
“were bound to have and did at last secure” a government free from
interference by “legislatures, whether representing the states or the
federal government.” (Judge Parker, supra, in Preface.)
Who is to teach the average citizen the reason or the fact? Have
our most renowned lawyers shown any knowledge of either? Their
own briefs have been permitted to speak for them. Which of those
briefs has put a finger upon the basic flaw in the Eighteenth
Amendment challenge to the fact that the American citizens “did at
last secure a Government” which its citizens “could control despite”
all legislatures, whether representing state citizens or themselves?
The men who wrote these briefs are far more than lawyers of great
renown. They are among the best known leaders of public opinion in
America. Many thousands of average citizens rely upon such men to
know and state every constitutional protection to individual liberty. In
any generation, reliance upon any public leaders for knowledge on
that matter is a distinct menace to individual liberty. The imaginary
Eighteenth Amendment will have served a useful purpose if it
teaches us that we must know of our own knowledge, if we want to
remain free citizens of America.
“No man, let his ingenuity be what it will, could enumerate all the
individual rights not relinquished by this Constitution.” (Iredell, later a
Supreme Court Justice, in the North Carolina convention, 4 Ell. Deb.
149)
These are the rights “retained by the people” of America in the
Ninth Amendment because not enumerated in the First Article.
“If this Constitution be adopted, it must be presumed the
instrument will be in the hands of every man in America, to see
whether authority be usurped; and any person by inspecting it may
see if the power claimed be enumerated. If it be not, he will know it
to be a usurpation.” (Iredell, in North Carolina convention, 4 Ell. Deb.
172.)
All granted powers to interfere with the individual freedom of the
American citizen, “in that character,” are enumerated in the First
Article.
All powers of that kind not enumerated therein are reserved in the
Tenth Amendment exclusively to the American citizens themselves to
be exercised or granted by them in the “conventions” of the Fifth
Article.
One of these powers is that which some governments of state
citizens, in the Eighteenth Amendment, have attempted both to
exercise and grant.
The brief of which public leader has known or stated these facts to
the destruction of the Amendment and to the continued existence of
the free American citizen?
The experience of ages has taught that human liberty, even in a
republic, is never secure unless the citizens of the republic
themselves understand the basic security which protects that liberty.
The writer of this book wishes to keep his own individual liberties
secure against usurpation by any government in America. He wishes
to keep his status, as such citizen, to all governments in America—
the status established by the citizens of America through whose
experience we have been educated. He knows that such status must
end forever unless American citizens generally have the same
earnest wish and, of their own knowledge, know how the
Constitution secures that status and their individual liberty.
Shortly after the American people had chosen to be a nation with
one government of enumerated powers, there came to that then land
of individual liberty an Irish exile. Quickly he assumed his place with
the great lawyers of America. And in the year 1824 he made clear
that he would have been able to teach our new citizens and our
public leaders how the one American people “did at last secure a
government” which that one American people “could control despite”
the state legislatures. In the argument before the Supreme Court in
the famous case of Gibbons v. Ogden (9 Wheat. 1, at p. 87), where
his opponent was Webster, this is how Emmett stated a fact then
known and “felt and acknowledged by all”:
“The Constitution gives nothing to the states or to the people.
Their rights existed before it was formed.... The Constitution gives
only to the general government, and, so far as it operates on the
state or popular rights, it takes away a portion, which it gives to the
general government.... But the states or the people must not be
thereby excluded from exercise of any part of the sovereign or
popular rights held by them before the adoption of the Constitution
except where that instrument has given it exclusively to the general
government.” The italics are those of Emmett.
What does this clear statement of fact (known by Emmett and his
generation to be the exact statement of the Tenth Amendment) make
out of every argument, whether for or against the Eighteenth
Amendment, based on the assumption that the Fifth Article does
give something to the states and their governments? Can any
American citizen doubt that it makes clear that to describe such
arguments by any other word save “nonsense” is to lend them a
dignity which they do not possess?
Without a single exception, every argument during the last five
years, whether for or against the Eighteenth Amendment, has
deserved the criticism of the Supreme Court for the fact that such
argument neither knew nor considered the meaning of the Tenth
Amendment.
It reads: “The powers not delegated to the United States by
the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are
reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.” The
argument of counsel ignores the principal factor in this Article,
to wit, “the people.” Its principal purpose was not the
distribution of power between the United States and the
states, but a reservation to the people of all powers not
granted. The Preamble of the Constitution declares who
framed it,—“We the people of the United States,” not the
people of one state, but the people of all the states; and
Article X reserves to the people of all the states the powers
not delegated to the United States. The powers affecting the
internal affairs of the states not granted to the United States
by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are
reserved to the states respectively, [the power of each state
for that state to its own people or citizens] and all powers of a
national character which are not delegated to the national
government by the Constitution are reserved to the people of
the United States [the one people or citizens of America, that
one American people which Marshall so accurately knew].
The people who adopted the Constitution, knew that in the
nature of things they could not forsee all the questions which
might arise in the future, all the circumstances which might
call for the exercise of further national powers than those
granted to the United States, and, after making provision for
an Amendment to the Constitution by which any needed
additional powers would be granted, they reserved to
themselves all powers not so delegated. (Supreme Court,
Kansas v. Colorado, 1907, 206 U. S. 46 at p. 90.)
Why has every argument, for or against the new Amendment,
ignored the simple and impressive fact that the one word
“conventions” was written into the Fifth Article and the Seventh
Article by the delegates at Philadelphia, very shortly after they had
reasoned out and reached their famous legal decision as to the
difference between the ability of “conventions” and the ability of
“state legislatures,” also named in the Fifth Article? Why completely
ignore the decisive effect of this fact when considered with the fact,
that Philadelphia mentioned “conventions” in both Articles and only
in the Fifth mentioned “state legislatures”? If we put ourselves
exactly in the position of Philadelphia when it was doing this, we see
at once why state “legislatures” are pointedly absent from the
Seventh Article. Philadelphia knew the nature of the First Article, that
it constituted government ability to interfere with individual freedom.
Philadelphia knew that neither “state legislatures” nor any
combination of governments can make an Article of that kind in any
land where men are “citizens” and not “subjects.” That is why
“legislatures” are not mentioned in the Seventh Article. But
Philadelphia did not know the nature of any Article which might be
proposed at any particular time in the future by the body which was
to perform the duty of proposing, the duty which Philadelphia was
then performing. And Philadelphia knew that any future proposed
Article might be of the kind which state legislatures could make. It
was the conviction of Hamilton that all future proposed Articles would
be of the kind that “legislatures” could make because they would be
of the kind that did not relate to “the mass of powers” to interfere with
individual liberty. That is why Philadelphia, almost immediately after
it had omitted any mention of “legislatures” in the Seventh Article, did
mention “legislatures” in the Fifth Article, which related to the making
of future Articles whose nature Philadelphia could not possibly know.
Let us not forget what Madison told us about the Seventh Article:
“This Article speaks for itself. The express authority of the people
alone could give due validity to the Constitution.” (Fed. 43.) This is
his statement that the Article itself tells us that “the express authority
of the people” will make the Articles proposed from Philadelphia.
How does the Article speak for itself and tell us that? By its one word
“conventions.” Could Madison tell us more plainly that the word
“conventions,” which he and his associates wrote into the Seventh
and which he wrote into the Fifth Article, means “the express
authority of the people”?
Can any supporter of the Eighteenth Amendment find any
statement from Madison in which he tells us his word “legislatures”
means what he has just told us his word “conventions” means? And,
when “conventions” meant the “express authority of the people”
before the Fifth or Seventh Articles were written, how could the
mention of “conventions” in the Fifth imply a grant from the
“conventions” to the “conventions”?
Why not admit the simple truth overlooked for the past five years?
The respective mentions of “Congress,” of “conventions” and of state
“legislatures” in the Fifth Article speak plainly of each body
respectively doing something which it could do if there were no Fifth
Article.
If there were no Fifth Article, could not Congress draft an Article
and propose it and propose a mode of ratification? Philadelphia did
all these things and knew and stated that it exercised no power in
doing any of them. The mention of Congress implies no “grant.” On
the contrary, it is a command which prevents the rest of us from
making such proposals and prevents “conventions” or state
“legislatures” from making Articles, within their respective abilities,
unless proposed to them by “two thirds of both houses of Congress.”
If there were no Fifth Article, could not “conventions” make any
kind of an article, as they had made the National Articles of 1776 and
as they were making the Articles of 1787? The mention of
“conventions” implies no grant. On the contrary, it is a command
telling the “conventions” that a “Yes” from three fourths of the
“conventions” shall be necessary and sufficient for “constitutional”
exercise of the power they have. It is a great security for human
freedom. It makes very difficult oppression of the people by the
people.
If there were no Fifth Article, could not state “legislatures” make
declaratory or federal Articles, which neither exercise nor create
power to interfere with human individual freedom? They had, in
1781, made an entire constitution of Articles of that kind. The

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PART I PROJECT MANAGEMENT FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1 Introduction to Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Chapter 2 The Project Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Chapter 3 Managing Project Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Leadership, Power, and Conflict in Project Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Chapter 4 Managing Project Stakeholders and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Part I Appendix: Agile Project Management Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

PART II STARTING, ORGANIZING, AND PREPARING THE PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Chapter 5 Managing Project Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Chapter 6 Managing Project Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Chapter 7 Managing Project Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Chapter 8 Managing Project Costs and Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Chapter 9 Managing Project Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Managing Project Risk and PMBOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Chapter 10 Managing Project Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Part II Appendix: Starting, Organizing, and Preparing Agile Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

PART III EXECUTING, CONTROLLING, AND ENDING THE PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Chapter 11 Managing Project Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

Chapter 12 Managing Project Control and Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Techniques for Managing Project Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

What’s New in This Edition

teamwork, as an example, is commonplace as organizations put together resources to

Project Management Body of Knowledge Focus

Common Chapter Elements

Tips from the Pros

Part I: Project Management Foundations

Part II: Starting, Organizing, and Preparing the Project

Part III: Executing, Controlling, and Ending the Project

Part Appendices: Agile Project Management

Online Appendix: Microsoft Project Professional Tutorial

• Danny J. Albert, Tulane University

Project Management Foundations

Information Systems Project Management,

Figure 1.1 Chapter 1 learning objectives

Opening Case: Business Requirements Driving Big Data Projects at Citibank

Information Systems Project Management,

Information Systems Project Management,

Information Systems Project Management,

Figure 1.4 Projects, programs, and portfolios

Information Systems Project Management,

Global Implications: U.S. Business Firms Look Overseas for IT Help

Information Systems Project Management,

Unique Features of IS Projects

Figure 1.7 IS project complexities

Information Systems Project Management,

First, the technological context in which companies operate today is in constant

Information Systems Project Management,

Information Systems Project Management,

Ethical Dilemma: Solving Dilemmas in Project Management

What Is Project Management?