DECC Nuclear Security Culture - Session 2 - v0-3

Nuclear
and Radiological
Materials Technology
Session 2
Professor Laurence G Williams FREng

Imperial College -‐ London
Norman Bird FRGS
UK -‐ NaAonal Nuclear Laboratory (NNL)

• Why is Nuclear Security different?

Nuclear Security Culture

• Why is Nuclear Security different?

• Nuclear and RadioacAve Materials have Unique ProperAes

•Why is Nuclear Security different?

•Nuclear and RadioacAve Materials have Unique ProperAes
Ø Fissile – can release large amounts of energy

ØFerAle – can breed fissile materials like Pu
ØRadioacAve – harmful effects


•Why is Nuclear Security different?

•Nuclear and RadioacAve Materials have Unique ProperAes
Ø Fissile – can release large amounts of energy

ØFerAle – can breed fissile materials like Pu
ØRadioacAve – harmful effects
•Need to understand these fundamental proper8es to ensure

nuclear security measures are effec8ve
•Includes Nuclear Security Culture

Aims and Objec8ves

• The AIM of this session i s

give you an insight into the
special properAes of nuclear and radioacAve materials
and their associated hazards to help you understand
why nuclear security culture is so important


The session will cover:

• a brief introducAon to nuclear energy and radiaAon

• the fundamentals of radiaAon biology

• basic radiaAon properAes and how to protect people from
the harmful effects of radiaAon


In the nuclear world you will come across materials such as:

Natural uranium (92U) 99.3% U + 0.7% 235U
238

Enriched uranium higher percentage of 235U
Power Reactors 3-‐5% 235U
Research Reactors > 20% 235U
Nuclear weapons > 90% 235U

Plutonium (94Pu) 239Pu, 240Pu, 241Pu

Thorium (90Th) 232Th
Picture taken from: www.sciencewithmrmilsAd.com/2008/10/atoms-‐atomic-‐history

In the radiological world you will come across materials such as:

Cobalt 59(27Co) RadioacAve source (60Co)

Caesium (55Cs) RadioacAve source (137Cs)

Hydrogen (1H) RadioacAve source TriAum (3H)


The Atom
Par8cle Proper8es

• Nucleus consists of Protons and neutrons

• Electrons are much lighter
• Protons have a charge of +1
• Electrons a charge of -‐1
• Neutron is uncharged

See Appendix A for

more informa8on
on the atom

Neutron Interac8ons

• Neutrons are very important
parAcles
• Being uncharged, free neutrons can travel long distances

before interacAng
• May interact with other nuclei in the following ways:

Ø Scaeering (ElasAc and inelasAc)
Ø Capture
Ø TransmutaAon
Ø Fission

Elas8c ScaFering

• the neutron bounces off, w ith

the same energy

• Greatest energy transfer for collision with light nuclei

• Afer many collisions, neutrons have energy characterisAc
of thermal moAon of nuclei
Ø About 0.025 eV (=1/40 eV)

• Termed thermal neutrons


Elas8c ScaFering

• Neutrons from fission have energies around 2 MeV
• To reduce energy from 2 MeV to 0.025 eV requires:

Ø About 18 collisions with H nuclei
Ø About 114 collisions with C nuclei
Ø About 2200 collisions with U nuclei

Neutron Capture

•Nucleus absorbs incident neutron,
producing isotope of original
nucleus

•Neutron binding energy released as gamma ray

•Product nucleus is usually radioacAve -‐ Decays by β/γ emission
Fission

• Energy released by incident neutron causes nucleus to split

Heat

Fission Energy Release
•Fission of Uranium 235
n + 235U [236U]* 95Y + 139I + 2 n + γ + E

95Y 95Zr 95Nb 95Mo ( stable)
139I 139Xe 139 Cs 139Ba 139La (stable)
• mass before (n + 235U) – mass afer (95Mo + 139La + 2n)
• = 0.2234 amu lost in reacAon
• E = Δm c2 = 208 MeV released

Cri8cality – The Chain Reac8on

•Suppose each fission produced
2 neutrons, which went on to
cause further fissions -‐ energy release would grow
exponenAally

Neutron Mul8plica8on Factor

• Not all emieed neutrons cause

fission
• Neutron mulAplicaAon factor, k, defined as:

• If k=1 system is cri8cal -‐ Chain reacAon is self-‐sustaining
• If k<1, system is sub-‐cri8cal -‐ Chain reacAon dies away rapidly
• If k>1, system is supercri8cal -‐ Chain reacAon increases unAl system
disintegrates

Factors affec8ng cri8cality

• Mass
• Density and concentraAon
• Neutron energy
• ModeraAon
• InteracAon
• ReflecAon
• Poisons
• Enrichment


Factors affec8ng cri8cality

Geometry

•Sphere easiest to achieve criAcality

•Thin slab unlikely to become criAcal
“criAcality safe vessel”
for liquid systems

Cri8cality – Case Study
•Tokaimura, Japan -‐ CriAcality Accident 1999
•Incident occurred in a plant preparing fuel for an
experimental reactor
•Caused by bringing together too much uranium (x7) ~18.8%
enriched U235 (……& beyond safe geometry)
•CriAcality (a limited uncontrolled nuclear chain reacAon)
conAnued intermieently for 20 hours.
•A total of 119 people received a radiaAon dose over 1 mSv
from the accident
•3 workers received high doses of radiaAon (Two fatal)
•Wider causes -‐ inadequate regulatory oversight, lack of safety
culture; and inadequate worker training / qualificaAon.

• At 2km ( ) from the accident site ( ),
RadiaAon levels were 15,000 Ames
background levels
• Safe procedures were bypassed
• Approx. 16.6kg of enriched uranium,
seven Ames more than the recommended
2.4 kg (safe geometry inventory) caused
the criAcality


Introduc8on to Radia8on

Outline

• RadiaAon

Ø Basic properAes
Ø Effects on Human Biology
Ø RadiaAon ProtecAon


Isotopes

• Atoms with the same number of protons (i.e. same Z) but
different numbers of neutrons (i.e. different A) are known
as isotopes of the element.

• For example, carbon-‐12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its
nucleus, whereas carbon-‐14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons


R
Isotopes of Hydrogen
The hydrogen atom has one proton in the nucleus (Z=1, mass = 1)

• Isotopes oh hydrogen are:

Ø deuterium one addiAonal neutron (Z = 1, mass = 2)
Ø triAum two addiAonal neutrons (Z = 1, mass = 3)

• Chemical properAes the same


Unstable Atoms

• If there are too many or too few neutrons in a nucleus, the nucleus is

unstable and emits energy as radia8on

• The Phenomenon is called radioac8vity and the atom is said to be
radioac8ve

• Isotopes of elements which are radioacAve are called radionuclides

Isotopes of hydrogen
Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
Stable Stable Radioactive
Legend: = Electron (- charge)

= Proton (+ charge)
= Neutron (no charge)

Ac8vity

•This is the rate at which the nuclear transformaAons
(disintegraAons) occur in a given amount of a radioacAve material

•It is expressed in the unit : becquerel (Bq)

1 Bq = 1 disintegraAon per second

Antoine Henri Bequerel 1852 – 1908


Half Life

• Time it takes for half of the radionuclide to decay:
Measured in seconds (s), minutes (m), hours (h), or years (y)

• Simple illustraAon

One half-‐life Two Half-‐lives

Radioac8ve Decay

% activity
remaining

Number of half-lives

Examples of Half Lives

Iodine-‐131 8 days
Phosphorus-‐32 14.3 days
Iridium – 192 74 days
Polonium-‐210 138 days
Cobalt-‐60 5.25 years
Tri8um 12.32 years
StronAum-‐90 28.78 years
Caesium-‐137 30.07 years
Plutonium-‐238 87.7 years
Americium-‐ 241 432.7 years
Carbon-‐14 5760 years
Plutonium-‐239 2.41 x104
Uranium-‐235 7.04 x 108 years
Potassium-‐40 1.27 x 109 years
Uranium-‐238 4.5 x 109 years
Culture
Nuclear Security
Radia8on
• Radia8on from radionuclides is ionizing

Ø Alpha emieers Polonium-‐210, Uranium, Plutonium
Americium-‐241
Ø Beta emieers Potassium-‐40, Krypton-‐85, StronAum-‐90,

TriAum, Caesium
Ø Gamma emieers Cobalt=60, Iridium-‐192, Caesium-‐137,

Iodine-‐131
Ø Neutron emieers Americium-‐241 with Beryllium

Effects of Radia8on

It is the ionizaAon caused by ionizing

radiaAon that is at the origin of the
biological effects of radiaAon exposure


Radia8on Dose

Absorbed Dose

• measured in Grays (1 G = 1 joule / Kg)

Equivalent Dose

• measured in Sieverts

Effec8ve Dose

• measured in Sieverts

Radia8on Dose

Effec8ve Dose

• Defined as:

Absorbed dose:

• weighted for the type of radiaAon;

• weighted for the specific Assue affected; and

• Summed over all exposed organs / Assues


What does ionizing radia8on do?

• Energy is sufficient to ionize maeer

• This can lead to biological consequences
Ø Damage to DNA

• Incorrect repair of DNA can lead to:
Ø Cancer inducAon
Ø Hereditary consequences

• High doses kill many cells leading to: Skin burns, radiaAon
sickness, death

Radia8on Damage

Double helix of DNA
Shows damaged sites
Shows damaged sites


Radia8on Damage

1) Damage repaired
Viable Cell
222) Cell dies

Unviable Cell
3) Cell survives but mutates

Stoch.effect
Effects of Exposure to Ionizing radia8on

RadiaAon ‘burns’ recent experience


Effects of Exposure to Ionizing Radia8on

•Internal exposure to Polonium-‐210

•Dose unknown, probably tens
of Grays

•Death in 3 weeks

•White blood cell count “close to zero”
Alexander Litvinenko

Death
RadiaAon
Increasing risk of Cancer Sickness
Limit for
RadiaAon
Workers
Natural
Background
Limit for
Public
1 mSv 2.7 mSv 20 mSv 1 Sv 6 Sv

per year acute exposure
Nuclear Security Culture Workshop, Jakarta, Indonesia 23 -‐27 March 2015
Session 02 Nuclear and Radiological Materials Technology
Radia8on Protec8on

• ProtecAon of people from the harmful effects of ionizing
radiaAon

• Prevent determinisAc effects

• Limit the probability of stochasAc effects


Radia8on Protec8on

• ProtecAon against the external radia8on hazard

Ø Remove/reduce ac8vity
Ø Decrease exposure 8me.
Ø Increase distance from the source
Ø Put shielding in place

Radia8on Protec8on

Gamma radiaAon – Inverse Square Law
1 metre 2 metres

1mSv/hour 0.25 mSv/hour

Shielding

pPaper Aluminum Lead

Shielding
Image Credits /Sources: Nuclear Security Culture

BNFL / Sellafield Ltd / INS - www.innuserv.com – All Rights Reserved
http://nangluongvietnam.vn/stores/news_dataimages/Tongbientap/012014/09/20/bthe_nuclear_power_station_kursk_(russian_kurskaya_aes)_i_9.jpg
Radia8on Protec8on

ProtecAve clothing
to prevent
Inhala8on and
inges8on
Containment

Radia8on Protec8on

Personal Dosimetry
TLD measures beta/gamma

and neutron radiaAon

Personal electronic
dosimeters give direct
reading of dose/doserate


Appendix 1

The Atom and Nuclear Physics
Facts – At a glance

The Atom
Units

Mass: the atomic mass unit (amu), defined as
1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-‐12
(1 amu≈1.67×10-‐27 kg)

Charge: the electron charge (e=1.6×10-‐19 C)

Energy: the electron volt (eV), equal to the energy
gained by an electron when accelerated through a
potenAal difference of 1 volt (1 eV = 1.6×10-‐19 J

The Atom
Par8cle Proper8es

• Protons and neutrons have masses of about 1 amu

• Electrons are much lighter (about 0.00055 amu)
• Protons have a charge of +1
• Electrons a charge of -‐1
• Neutron is uncharged


The Atom
Structure of the Atom

• In a simplified picture of an atom:

Ø the protons and neutrons are confined
to the nucleus (and together are known
as nucleons)
Ø diameter of nucleus is about 10-‐14 m,
Ø electrons circle the nucleus in fixed orbits
of diameter order 10-‐10 m.


The Atom
Proper8es of the Atom

• Atoms are usually uncharged

• The number of protons in the nucleus = the
number of electrons circulaAng it

• This number is known as the atomic number
and given the symbol, Z. e.g. Uranium 92U

• The total number of nucleons in the nucleus is known
as the mass number, and Picture
given t he s ymbol, A . e.g. 235U
taken from: www.sciencewithmrmilsAd.com/2008/10/atoms-‐atomic-‐history

In the nucleus of the atom what holds the protons
and neutrons together?


Strong nuclear force

• Very strong (~100 Ames Coulomb)
• AeracAve (repulsive core)
• Charge independent (nn, pp, np)
• Very short range (few nucleon

size only)

Binding Energy

•Mass of nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of

consAtuent protons and neutrons
•Difference is known as mass defect

Example
Ø235U nucleus weighs 234.993 amu
Ø92 protons weigh 92X1.007276 amu
Ø143 neutrons weigh 143X1.008665 amu
ØTotal = 92.669+144.239 = 236.908 amu
ØMass defect = 1.915 amu
ØEquivalent energy = 1784 MeV

• Known as “binding energy”


Neutron Capture – examples

Co-‐60 acAvaAon:

Then:

Plutonium producAon:

Then:

Cross Sec8ons
•Most neutrons pass through m
aeer without interacAng
•Others may interact by scaeering, capture or transmutaAon

•The cross-‐secAon σ is the area per nucleus for interacAng
•Different for each interacAon, i.e.
Ø σs scaeering cross secAon
Ø σc capture cross secAon
Ø σt transmutaAon cross secAon
•Depends on the target nucleus and neutron energy
•Usually measured in barns -‐ 1 barn = 10-‐28 m2
Cross Sec8ons

• May be much larger than 1 barn

Ø Cd-‐113 has σc = 20,000 barns for thermal neutrons
Ø B-‐10 has σt = 3800 barns for the 10B(n,α)7Li reacAon

•These materials are “poisons” as they capture neutrons

Fission

How much 235U is require to generate

1000Mw(e) per day in a PWR?


Fission

200 MeV = 3.2 x 10-‐11 joules

3 x 1010 fissions/second = 1 joule/s = 1 wae

number of atoms / g = Avogadro’s number = 6 x 1023 = 2.55 x 1021
Atomic number 235

1 Mw = 3 x 1016 fissions/ sec

1 Mw require the fission of 1 g U235 / day

1000 Mw(E) reactor consumes around 3.5 Kg U235 per day

Ac8vity

• Old unit of acAvity is the curie (Ci)

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq

Maria Curie 1867-‐1934


Appendix 2

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle – At a
glance

Image Credit: Kernkraftwerk Gösgen-Däniken AG, All Rights Reserved, via www.wikipedia.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KKG_Reactor_Core.jpg


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Nuclear

Professor Laurence G Williams FREng

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Ø Fissile – can release large amounts of energy

Nuclear Security Culture

Ø Fissile – can release large amounts of energy

•Need to understand these fundamental proper8es to ensure

•Includes Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Picture taken from: www.sciencewithmrmilsAd.com/2008/10/atoms-­‐atomic-­‐history

Nuclear Security Culture

• Nucleus consists of Protons and neutrons

Nuclear Security Culture

• Being uncharged, free neutrons can travel long distances

• May interact with other nuclei in the following ways:

Nuclear Security Culture

Ø About 0.025 eV (=1/40 eV)

Nuclear Security Culture

• To reduce energy from 2 MeV to 0.025 eV requires:

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

n + 235U [236U]* 95Y + 139I + 2 n + γ + E

139I 139Xe 139 Cs 139Ba 139La (stable)

• mass before (n + 235U) – mass afer (95Mo + 139La + 2n)

• = 0.2234 amu lost in reacAon

• E = Δm c2 = 208 MeV released

Nuclear Security Culture

• Not all emieed neutrons cause

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Ø triAum two addiAonal neutrons (Z = 1, mass = 3)

Nuclear Security Culture

Legend: = Electron (- charge)

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Ø Beta emieers Potassium-­‐40, Krypton-­‐85, StronAum-­‐90,

Ø Gamma emieers Cobalt=60, Iridium-­‐192, Caesium-­‐137,

Ø Neutron emieers Americium-­‐241 with Beryllium

Nuclear Security Culture

It is the ionizaAon caused by ionizing

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Shows damaged sites

Shows damaged sites

Nuclear Security Culture

222) Cell dies

3) Cell survives but mutates

Nuclear Security Culture

Nuclear Security Culture

Picture taken from: www.sciencewithmrmilsAd.com/2008/10/atoms-‐atomic-‐history

Ø Beta emieers Potassium-‐40, Krypton-‐85, StronAum-‐90,

Ø Gamma emieers Cobalt=60, Iridium-‐192, Caesium-‐137,

Ø Neutron emieers Americium-‐241 with Beryllium

Picture taken from: www.sciencewithmrmilsAd.com/2008/10/atoms-‐atomic-‐history

Ø B-‐10 has σt = 3800 barns for the 10B(n,α)7Li reacAon