Flow Data & Concept of Loading

Chapter 2
Flow data and the concept of loading

This chapter highlights the importance of having flow data from all lines in a treatment plant. The concept of
load is introduced as an important element in the evaluation of the system. Examples demonstrate how flow
data are used in practice to support the assessment of treatment plant performance.
The contents in this chapter are mainly applicable to treatment plant monitoring, but the main concepts
are also applicable to water quality monitoring (discharge of effluents in water bodies).
CHAPTER CONTENTS
2.1 The Importance of Flow Data and the Concept of Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Measuring Flow Rates and Analysing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Using Flow Rates to Assess Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4 Check-List for Your Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
© 2020 The Authors. This is an Open Access book chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY-
NC-ND 4.0), which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercial purposes with no derivatives, provided the original work is properly
cited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). This does not affect the rights licensed or assigned from any third party in this
book. The chapter is from the book Assessment of Treatment Plant Performance and Water Quality Data: A Guide for Students,
Researchers and Practitioners, Marcos von Sperling, Matthew E. Verbyla and Sílvia M. A. C. Oliveira (Authors).
doi: 10.2166/9781780409320_0021
Downloaded from http://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/chapter-pdf/643395/9781780409320_0021.pdf

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22 Assessment of Treatment Plant Performance and Water Quality Data
2.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF FLOW DATA AND THE CONCEPT OF LOAD

It is very important to collect data about flow rates at treatment plants! Flow data will help you assess
Basic
treatment plant performance and pollution impact by allowing you to calculate loading rates. Treatment
plant staff collect liquid or sludge samples and measure the concentration of a pollutant in that sample.
But if you also know the flow rate at the location where the sample was collected, then you can calculate
the loading of that pollutant.
What is the difference between concentration and loading? Figure 2.1 shows that concentration is the
amount of a pollutant in a volume of water, while loading is the amount of a pollutant that passes
through a point during a given time duration.
Formally speaking, we have
Load = Flow × Concentration (2.1)
Mass loads have the dimension of mass per unit time and are generally calculated as
g 3 g
m
Load = flow × concentration (2.2)
d d m3
Note g/m3 = mg/L.
If you want to express loads as kg/d, as is usually done, the value calculated in Equation 2.2 should be
divided by 1000 g/kg:

kg flow (m3 /d) × concentration(g/m3 )
Load = (2.3)
d 1000(g/kg)
Loads can also be expressed as kg/year, kg/h, g/h, g/min, or by any other suitable unit representing
mass over time, provided consistency is given to all units in the calculation. Concentrations can also be
expressed in other mass units, such as μg/L or ng/L, or even MPN/100 mL (MPN = most probable
Figure 2.1 The difference between the concentration and the loading of a pollutant. Each circle contains a
mass of 1 mg of the constituent.

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Flow data and the concept of loading 23
number), if we are dealing with microorganisms; eggs/L, if we are studying helminths; and so on. The
concept of load can be applied to the influent and to the effluent of a treatment unit and is essential in
the evaluation of its performance.
A treatment unit can be affected in a somewhat similar way if it receives a small flow with a high
concentration or a high flow with a small concentration, provided the loads are the same. A comparable
comment can be made regarding the pollution potential from wastewaters discharged into a river:
sewage, with a high flow and low concentration, can have a similar impact of an industrial discharge,
with a small flow and a high concentration, in case both of the loads are the same. Of course, there are
hydraulic implications, directly associated with flow, but this general concept can be maintained when
making an analysis of the behaviour of a treatment unit.
In a treatment plant with several inputs and outputs in each treatment unit, it should also be understood
S. 12.3 that each concentration is directly associated with its respective flow. As will be seen in the section on mass
balances (Section 12.3), we can add or subtract flows and loads, but not concentrations.
In a mass balance (see Section 12.3) of several units in a treatment plant, if the load and flow are known,
the concentration can be estimated by simple rearrangement of Equation 2.3:
g load kg/d × 1000g/kg

Concentration = (2.4)
m3 flow m3 /d
Example 2.1 shows how to undertake the calculation of a load based on values of flow and concentration.
For a more detailed description of mass loadings and some example problems, see Chapter 13 that deals with
C. 13 the loading rates applied to treatment units.
Flow rates are also used to determine appropriate dosing rates of chemicals used in treatment processes
such as coagulation and flocculation, as shown in Example 2.2.
Flow rate information can also let you know if the treatment system is operating under or over its design
capacity.
EXAMPLE 2.1 CALCULATING LOADING FROM A FLOW RATE AND A CONCENTRATION

Example
(a) Calculate the total load of a certain constituent in the influent to a treatment unit, given that
• concentration = 300 mg/L
• flow = 50 L/s
Solution:
Expressing flow in m3/d
(50 L/s) × (86,400 s/d)
Q= = 4320 m3 /d
1000 L/m3
The load is (Equation 2.3)
(300 g/m3 ) × (4320 m3 /d)
Load = = 1296 kg/d
1000 g/kg
(b) In the same works, calculate the concentration of another constituent in the influent to a treatment
unit, given that the influent load is 35 kg/d.

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From Equation 2.4, one has

(35 kg/d) × (1000 g/kg)
Concentration = = 8.1 g/m3 = 8.1 mg/L
4320 m3 /d
Example
EXAMPLE 2.2 USING FLOW RATES TO DETERMINE DOSING FLOW
RATES FOR COAGULANTS
Assume that a water treatment plant has determined that 15 mg/L of ferric chloride and 4 mg/L of
polymer are required to optimize the coagulation–flocculation process. Industrial ferric chloride is
supplied to the treatment facility in barrels at a concentration of 40% (40 g/100 mL or 400 g/L).
Industrial stock polymer, likewise, is supplied at a concentration of 50% (500 g/L). If the flow rate of
raw water coming into the system is constant at 300,000 m3/d, what flow rates should be provided
for ferric chloride and polymer?
Solution:
First, convert the units of the required concentrations of coagulants (ferric chloride and polymer) from
mg/L to g/m3 (remember, 1 mg/L = 1 g/m3). Then, multiply the required coagulant concentrations
by the design flow rate to get the loading of coagulant required. Then, divide that loading by the
concentration of the coagulant stock to calculate the required flow rate of coagulant that should be
dosed into the raw water.
• Ferric chloride
15 g/m3 × 300,000 m3/d = 4,500,000 g/d
(4,500,000 g/d)/(400 g/L) = 11,250 L/d = 7.81 L//min
• Polymer
4 g/m3 × 300,000 m3/d = 1,200,000 g/d
(1,200,000 g/d)/(500 g/L) = 2400 L/d = 1.67 L//min
2.2 MEASURING FLOW RATES AND ANALYSING DATA

2.2.1 Methods for measuring flow rates
Okay, so it is clearly important to have data about the flow rate at a treatment facility, but how can you measure
Basic it? The methods used to measure flow rates depend on whether the water is moving through an open channel or
a closed conduit, and also on the magnitude of the flow rate. An open channel is a structure that contains water
on the bottom and on the two sides, with the surface of the water flowing free. Examples of open channel flow
are when water moves through a concrete swale. A large drainage pipe, such as the kind used for sanitary or
storm sewer networks, is also considered as open channel flow as long as the pipe is not flowing full or under
pressure. Even the flow through rivers and streams can be approximated by open channel hydraulics. On the
contrary, in a closed conduit, the water is completely contained. An example of a closed conduit is a pressurized
pipe, such as the type used for potable water distribution systems.
To measure flow rates in open channels, you can use structures such as weirs and flumes. In closed
conduits, flow rates can be measured using devices such as orifice plates, Venturi meters, magnetic and
ultrasonic flow meters, or turbine and propeller flow meters. However, if you have very small flow rates,
you may use simple procedures such as volumetric measurements and tipping buckets. Tables 2.1–2.3

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Table 2.1 Procedures commonly used to measure flow rates of water and wastewater for systems with small flows.
Structure Image Description
Bucket and This is the simplest method for measuring flow rates. It requires two
stopwatch people: one to fill a bucket of a known volume with flow from the system
and the other to record the amount of time using a stopwatch. The flow
rate is calculated by dividing the volume of the bucket by the amount of
time required to fill it up. You need to repeat this measurement several
times.
Advantages
• Simple operation
• Low cost
Disadvantages
• Less accurate than other methods
• Requires more labour, not automated
• Requires a clearance for flow to fall into the bucket
• Only works with small flows

• Subject to user error (starting and stopping exactly at the right
moment)
Tipping bucket The tipping bucket has two compartments, one on each side, and
flow gauge when the first compartment fills up, the device tips over, dumping out
the water and rotating to let the other side start filling up. When that side
fills up, the device tips over again, dumping out the water and rotating
to let the first side start to fill up again. Each time the device tips, a count
is registered by an electromagnetic sensor, allowing for the calculation
of the volume flowing per unit time throughout the day.
Advantages
• Low cost
• May be more accurate than flow measurement in channels or weirs
in the case of very small flows
Disadvantages
• Requires a clearance for flow to fall into the device
25
• Only works with small flows

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Table 2.2 Structures commonly used to measure flow rates of water and wastewater in open channels.
Structure Image Description 26
Weir The cross-sectional area of flow above the crest of the
weir is proportional to the flow rate, so the depth of
water can be correlated with flow. Broad-crested weirs
are typically used to measure very large flows, like in
channelized rivers.
Advantages
• Easy construction
• Appropriate for wastewater systems
• Depth can be measured automatically with gauges,
floats, or ultrasonic meters
• V-notch weirs are less influenced by small
differences in their level compared with continuous
weirs (e.g., effluent weirs in sedimentation tanks)
Disadvantages

• Must calculate the structure’s unique weir
coefficient to correlate depth with flow rate
• V-notch weirs may accumulate solids when
receiving wastewater, what can affect
the measurements
Parshall Consists of a reduction in the channel width, and a
flume drop in the bottom slope of the channel causes a
correlation between the water depth and the flow rate.
Advantages
• Appropriate for wastewater systems, since the
liquid is always flowing
Assessment of Treatment Plant Performance and Water Quality Data
• Depth can be measured automatically with gauges,

floats, or ultrasonic meters
Disadvantages
• Construction is more difficult
• Must be precision-fabricated
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Table 2.3 Devices commonly used to measure flow rates of water and wastewater in closed conduits.
Device Image Description
Orifice plate Orifice plate has an opening that is narrower than the pipe diameter,
and Venturi producing a pressure drop that can be used to estimate the flow rate.
meters The Venturi meter operates with the same principles but the
convergence from larger to smaller diameter is less drastic, which
reduces friction loss.
Advantages
• Simple and inexpensive
Disadvantages
• Medium to high friction losses (higher friction losses for orifice
plates)
Magnetic and For magnetic meters, a voltage proportional to the flow rate is produced
ultrasonic as the liquid moves through a magnetic field. For ultrasonic meters, the
meters frequency of sound waves reflected by gas bubbles and dissolved
solids is converted by a piezoelectric transducer into a flow velocity.

Advantages
• Lower friction loss (compared to orifice plates and Venturi meters)
Disadvantages
• Contaminants can coat electrodes, limiting suitability for wastewater
• Doppler-type ultrasonic meters may work with wastewater, but
transit-time meters are only applicable for measurements of flow
rates in clean water sources

• More expensive than other types of meters
Turbine and The rotation frequency and voltage produced by spinning propeller
propeller blades or other rotating elements as water passes through the meter is
meters proportional to the flow rate.
Advantages
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages
• Very high friction losses
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• Only appropriate for clean water, as particulates can cause bearings

to fail
show the differences between these different flow measurement structures and devices and the typical
applications for water, wastewater, and stormwater treatment systems.
2.2.2 Recording flow data

Flow rates must be recorded on a periodic basis to statistically analyse treatment plant performance. Flow
Basic rates can be recorded manually (e.g., by observing the depth of flow passing through a weir or a flume and by
recording the amount of time required to fill a receptacle of a known volume). However, at larger facilities, it
is often advantageous to record flow rates using online continuous measurement devices such as a
data logger.
The use of flow rate data from treatment plant side streams is equally as important for the assessment of
performance as the use of flow rate data from the treatment plant influent and effluent points. Some example
side streams for which flow rate data are used to evaluate performance are filter backwashing lines, excess
sludge wasting lines, sludge recycle lines, and return flows.
2.2.3 Flow variations

Flow rates at a treatment plant may vary considerably throughout the course of the year (for water and
Basic wastewater treatment plants) and even throughout the course of a single day (for wastewater treatment
plants).
Peak flow rates at wastewater facilities are normally associated with the rainy season in combined
sewerage systems, while peak demands at water treatment facilities normally occur during the summer
season or holiday periods. The flow rate in stormwater collection systems varies on account of the rainfall
intensity and duration. Knowing flow rates is extremely important for sizing and designing treatment
facilities, and there are already excellent text references that cover the use of flow rate data to design
water, wastewater, and stormwater management and treatment facilities (e.g., Hammer & Hammer, 2012).
This chapter will focus on the use of flow rate data to assess the performance of treatment facilities.
Use the following statistics to understand and describe the variation of flow rates throughout the day and
throughout the year:
• Use the average seasonal flow to compare pollutant loadings and treatment plant performance
between different seasons
• Use the average daily flow to calculate daily loading rates and mass balances
• Use the average hourly flow to determine peaking factors and their impact on hydraulic retention
time (HRT)
Daily and annual hydrographs can also be used to visualize the variation in flow rates with respect to the
time of day or the time of year. Flow rate peaking factors are commonly used for design purposes, but the
peak daily flow can also be used to assess treatment plant performance, for example, to predict the effect of
an equalization basin on influent pollutant concentrations to a treatment process. Peaking factors can be
S. 2.2.5 calculated using the 95th or 99th percentile associated with the normal score of the plotting position (see
Example 2.4 in Section 2.2.5).
2.2.4 Flow equalization

Advanced Flow equalization tanks or basins are frequently used in treatment systems to mitigate the effect of varying
flow rates and make it easier to design and operate treatment unit processes. Engineered treatment systems
simply work better and are easier to operate when the flow rate of the liquid being treated is stable. Another
benefit of flow equalization is that the concentrations of pollutants in the water also become more stable.

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The larger the relative volume of the equalization tank or basin, the more stable the concentration of
pollutants will be throughout the course of the day. Thus, when assessing treatment plant performance, it
is often useful to be able to predict the impact of flow equalization on the concentration of pollutants
(Example 2.3) (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).
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Please note that in this example, we anticipate some concepts that will be detailed in Chapter 12, relative
to water and mass balances.
EXAMPLE 2.3 THE EFFECT OF FLOW EQUALIZATION ON POLLUTANT

Example
CONCENTRATIONS
Use the flow data in the Excel spreadsheet associated with this example. Calculate the effect of a
50,000 m3 equalization basin on the following biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) concentrations:
Time Period Average BOD Concentration Coming

During the Day into the Basin (mg//L)
Dry Season Rainy Season
0:00 – 1:00 146 110
1:00 – 2:00 126 132
2:00 – 3:00 101 109
3:00 – 4:00 42 110
4:00 – 5:00 50 100
5:00 – 6:00 56 95
6:00 – 7:00 101 85
7:00 – 8:00 132 116
8:00 – 9:00 171 180
9:00 – 10:00 200 195
10:00 – 11:00 227 233
11:00 – 12:00 235 220
12:00 – 13:00 244 215
13:00 – 14:00 225 225
14:00 – 15:00 201 188
15:00 – 16:00 160 150
16:00 – 17:00 150 153
17:00 – 18:00 144 178
18:00 – 19:00 177 195
19:00 – 20:00 209 200
20:00 – 21:00 288 255
21:00 – 22:00 314 240
22:00 – 23:00 252 186
23:00 – 0:00 180 141
Excel Note: This example is available as an Excel spreadsheet.

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Solution:
First, calculate average hourly flow rates and use those to determine the average volume of flow
entering the equalization basin each hour. The overall volume of water in the basin at any given time
is then computed by subtracting the average daily flow rate from the fluctuating hourly flow rate.
Finally, the BOD concentration leaving the basin (assuming the basin is well mixed) is calculated as
follows, where BODin and BODbasin are the influent and effluent concentrations of BOD to the
equalization basin, Vin is the volume entering the basin within an hour, and Vbasin is the volume of
water stored in the basin at time t or t − 1:
BODin,t Vin,t + BODbasin,t−1 Vbasin,t−1
BODbasin,t =
Vbasin,t−1 + Vin,t
Because the data set is very large, we will not show the calculations here, and you should consult the
Excel spreadsheet.
The results, shown in the plots below, demonstrate the smoothing effect of flow equalization on BOD
concentrations. The minimum and maximum concentrations (dry season) without equalization are 42
and 314 mg/L; with equalization, the minimum and maximum concentrations are 126 and 202 mg/L.
2.2.5 Determining typical flow rates and distributions

Advanced We anticipate here concepts that will be further detailed in other chapters of this book, but we present them
so that you get the feeling of dealing with flow rate distributions. If you feel that not all concepts are entirely
clear, refer to the sections we mention below for their detailed coverage, and then come back to this section.
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Flow rates are usually distributed normally or log-normally (see Chapter 8 for more information about
normal and log-normal distributions). In order to determine which distribution your flow data follow,
you should rank the measured flow rates from lowest to highest and then plot measured flow rates with
S. 9.6 respect to the normal score of the plotting position. This procedure is detailed in Section 9.6, which deals
with frequency analysis using normal and log-normal distributions.

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S. 9.5
The plotting position (PP) is determined using Equation 2.5, where R is the rank of the data point and n is
the total number of data points (this concept is further detailed in Section 9.5).
R
PP = (2.5)
n+1
The normal score is calculated in Excel using the command NORM.S.INV() and then referring to the PP
value. If the points connect to form a straight line, then the distribution may be considered to be normal. If
the points form a curved line, then the distribution may be log-normal, but you need to verify by plotting the
points on a log scale or calculating the log of the values and then plotting them on a normal scale. If
log-transformed points form a straight line, then the flow data may be considered to be log-normally
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distributed. In Chapter 8, we will present in a more formal way the procedures for assessing the
adherence of your data to a normal distribution and a log-normal distribution.
Example
EXAMPLE 2.4 DETERMINING THE DISTRIBUTION OF FLOW DATA
Use the data shown in the spreadsheet associated with this example. Determine the distribution of the
flow rate data collected daily over one year during wet and dry weather. Use the data to determine the
typical (mean) flow rates during each season, as well as the peaking factor associated with the 95th
percentile flow rates.
Solution:
Because the data set is very large, we will not show all the calculations here, and you should consult the
Excel spreadsheet.
First, rank the values from 1 to 365. Then, use the rank to calculate the plotting position (Equation
2.5). The following tables show the first few rows of data and then the few rows of ranked data for
each season with the calculated PPs and normal scores.
We have n = 184 data for the wet season and n = 181 data for the dry season.
=1/(184+1) =1/(181+1)
Wet Season Dry Season

Flow Flow Plotting Normal Plotting
rate rate Position Score Flow rate Position Normal
Date Season (m3/h) (m3/h) Rank PP (Z) (m3/h) Rank PP Score (Z)
1/1/18 Wet 609 145 1 0.5% -2.55 47 1 0.5% -2.54
1/2/18 Wet 241 160 2 1.1% -2.30 49 2 1.1% -2.29
1/3/18 Wet 301 160 3 1.6% -2.14 50 3 1.6% -2.13
1/4/18 Wet 669 162 4 2.2% -2.02 50 4 2.2% -2.01
1/5/18 Wet 162 175 5 2.7% -1.93 50 5 2.7% -1.92
1/6/18 Wet 910 175 6 3.2% -1.85 51 6 3.3% -1.84
1/7/18 Wet 258 177 7 3.8% -1.78 51 7 3.8% -1.77
… … … … … … … … … … …

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Below is a plot of the measured flow rates versus the plotting position, first on an arithmetic scale and
then on a logarithmic scale. The trend is curved on the arithmetic scale (top panel) and linear on the
logarithmic scale (bottom panel), which indicates that the data are closer to a log-normal distribution.
S. 5.6.4 Therefore, the geometric mean is a better representation of the typical flow rates for each season
(see Section 5.6.4 for the concept of geometric means).
Plots of the measured flow rates with respect to the normal Z score associated with their plotting
position on an arithmetic scale (above) and on a logarithmic scale (below). The shapes of the curves
indicate that the data are closer to a log-normal distribution.
The typical flow rates are calculated using the geometric mean, since the data are log-normally
distributed.
• Geometric mean wet weather flow rate: 410 m3/ h
• Geometric mean dry weather flow rate: 60 m3/ h
The peaking factors associated with the 95th percentile are determined using the plotting positions.
To get the 95th percentile peaking factors, divide the flow rate associated with the plotting position of
0.95 by the geometric mean flow rate for each season.
• Wet weather 95th percentile flow rate: 939 m3/ h
• Wet weather peaking factor = 95th percentile/geometric mean = 939/410 = 2.29
• Dry weather 95th percentile flow rate: 70 m3/ h
• Dry weather peaking factor = 95th percentile/geometric mean = 70/60 = 1.17

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2.2.6 Analysing flow data

Advanced Flow data are also used to calculate peaking factors to anticipate future peak flows during rain events, for
example. The calculation of peak flow rates can be useful when assessing treatment plant performance when
considering ‘worst case scenario’ situations. See Example 2.5 (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).
Example EXAMPLE 2.5 ANALYSING TRENDS IN THE HOURLY FLOW RATES
Use the data shown in the spreadsheet associated with this example. The spreadsheet contains
example flow rate measurements collected at the influent of a wastewater treatment facility during
seven random days in the dry season and seven random days in the wet season.
(a) Calculate the mean, minimum, and maximum daily flow rates and the mean, minimum, and
maximum hourly flow rates.
(b) Plot daily hydrographs showing wet and dry season conditions using the mean hourly flow rate
data from these seven random days.
(c) Calculate a flow rate peaking factor for wet conditions (compared to dry conditions) using the upper
99% prediction interval for data from the rainy season (assumed equal to the mean value plus three
times the standard deviation).

Solution:
Because the data set is very large, we will not show all the calculations here, and you should consult the
Excel spreadsheet.
(a) Mean, minimum, and maximum values
The mean (min, max) daily flow rates are 87 (27, 157) and 170 (21, 500) m3/h for dry and wet
seasons, respectively.
The mean, minimum, and maximum hourly flow rates are shown in the following table.
Time of Hourly Flow Rates (m3/ h)

Day
Mean Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum
0:00 47 39 51 117 23 322
1:00 39 39 47 105 25 311
2:00 37 39 48 112 22 351
3:00 37 39 48 130 21 418
4:00 38 39 47 150 21 489
5:00 44 39 63 158 25 500
6:00 57 39 80 160 32 463
7:00 83 39 111 174 48 451
8:00 114 39 141 186 79 369
9:00 137 39 156 210 109 369
10:00 140 39 157 233 108 432
11:00 126 39 148 207 76 464
12:00 113 39 136 189 76 355
13:00 123 39 145 195 84 383
14:00 116 39 142 198 77 483

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Time of Hourly Flow Rates (m3/ h)

Day
Mean Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum
15:00 104 39 132 195 70 401
16:00 103 39 122 191 70 409
17:00 120 39 145 197 74 386
18:00 129 39 147 211 90 402
19:00 123 39 144 186 74 357
20:00 96 39 126 159 45 374
21:00 66 39 103 136 30 304
22:00 52 39 79 137 28 264
23:00 49 39 74 140 28 343
(b) Daily hydrographs

The three figures below show (top) all flow rate data, (medium) mean hourly flow rates, and (bottom)
the upper end of the 99% prediction interval.
Flow rate data with respect to time of day for the dry and rainy seasons.
Mean hourly flow rates for the dry and rainy seasons, with error bars corresponding to the 95%
confidence intervals.

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Upper limit of the 99% prediction interval for the hourly flow rates during the rainy season.
(c) Flow rate peaking factor

The flow rate peaking factor can be calculated using the 99% prediction interval, which can be
estimated, in a practical way, as the mean flow rate plus three standard deviations. This upper
prediction interval value can be divided by the estimated mean hourly flow rate during the dry
season to yield an estimated peaking factor. The estimated hourly peaking factors are shown in
the following table. Note that for the design of wastewater treatment facilities, the use of peaking
factors greater than 4:1 is not always cost-effective.
Hourly peaking factors calculated by dividing the upper 99% prediction interval for rainy
season hourly flow rates by the mean dry season hourly flow rates are shown in the
following table:
Time Flow Rate Time of Day Flow Rate

of Day Peaking Factor Peaking Factor
0:00 8.3 13:00 3.3
1:00 8.6 14:00 4.2
2:00 10.2 15:00 4.3
3:00 11.7 16:00 4.1
4:00 13.1 17:00 3.5
5:00 12.0 18:00 3.5
6:00 8.9 19:00 3.4
7:00 5.6 20:00 4.3
8:00 3.5 21:00 5.2
9:00 2.9 22:00 6.9
10:00 3.4 23:00 8.0
11:00 3.7 13:00 3.3
12:00 3.6 14:00 4.2

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2.3 USING FLOW RATES TO ASSESS PERFORMANCE

2.3.1 Hydraulic retention time
Time is a very important factor for many treatment processes. The flow rate is related to the mean
theoretical HRT (HRT) of a treatment process such as a reactor. The mean theoretical HRT is the
amount of time that water stays within the reactor, before being discharged in the effluent. The
theoretical mean HRT of a unit process is calculated as the reactor volume (V) divided by the average
daily flow rate (Q).
V
HRT = (2.6)
Q
Thus, flow rate data are used to calculate daily and seasonal variations in the theoretical mean HRT of a
treatment unit process. This can give you some insight regarding why the performance of a system may
fluctuate throughout the year. Example 2.6 shows an example of monthly mean HRTs calculated for a
wastewater treatment facility that utilizes waste stabilization ponds.
We present here only introductory concepts related to this highly important process variable. In
reality, due to mixing, the true retention time in a reactor is a distribution, rather than a single
value. Some water molecules move more quickly through the reactor, while others may stay around
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for longer before leaving in the effluent. The distribution of HRT can be estimated using data from
a tracer study. It is important to note that the actual mean HRT (calculated using data from a
tracer study) is often different from the theoretical mean HRT (e.g., V/Q). See Chapter 13 for
more details on this regard. In Section 13.2, we cover the concept of HRT in a thorough way,
including the factors that may lead to the actual mean HRT being different from the theoretical one,
calculated by Equation 2.6.
Example EXAMPLE 2.6 USING FLOW RATES TO CALCULATE MEAN

HYDRAULIC RETENTION TIME
A waste stabilization pond system has an overall volume of 15,000 m3 and a flow rate that varies
throughout the year between 280 and 659 m3/d. Use the flow rate data in the associated
spreadsheet to calculate the mean theoretical hydraulic retention time (HRT) and plot that with
respect to the per cent BOD removal. Determine if the trend is for BOD removal to increase or
decrease with respect to increasing hydraulic retention times.

Solution:
The data are monthly averages and span a total period of 10 days. Because of this, they will not be
shown here, and you should consult the Excel spreadsheet for further details.

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Using the flow rate data provided, the HRT ranged from 22.8 to 53.6 days, with lower retention times
corresponding with the months of December through April (see figure).
Mean theoretical hydraulic retention time for a waste stabilization pond system with respect to month of
the year.
When these retention times are plotted against the per cent BOD removal, there are some
indications that higher retention times may correlate with higher BOD removal values, which would
be expected. The more time wastewater stays inside the ponds, the more BOD degradation should
occur. However, you can also see that the data points show a wide scatter, and therefore, it is
difficult to conclude whether there is a significant correlation between HRT and BOD removal
C. 11 efficiency. This is a very important point, and it will be discussed in detail in Chapter 11 that deals
with correlation and regression analysis.
Per cent BOD removal versus mean theoretical hydraulic retention time for a waste stabilization
pond system.
2.3.2 Water losses and gains

The loss of water due to evaporation, evapotranspiration, or infiltration and the gain of water due to
precipitation (e.g., rain) can affect the flow rates coming into and going out of certain treatment facilities
with long hydraulic retention times. Water and wastewater pass through many treatment facilities within
a few hours; however, some facilities have retention times on the order of days or weeks. Similarly,

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water storage reservoirs may have retention times on the order of months. Underground water aquifers may
have retention times on the order of years or even decades.
Water levels in surface and groundwater reservoirs will often fluctuate throughout the year in a seasonal
pattern, storing more water during the winter when the demand is low, and drawing down the additional
storage during the summer months when the demand is high. In cases where hydraulic retention times
are measured on the order of days, weeks, or months, it may be necessary to account for water losses
and gains in order to accurately assess the concentrations of pollutants going into or coming out of the
facility.
A mass balance approach can be used to balance the water in a treatment unit. To start, define the
boundary of the system. Then, record flow rate measurements at all influent and effluent points of the
system. A comparison of the recorded flow rates entering the system and the recorded flow rates exiting
or withdrawn from the system over a long period of time will allow you to estimate net gains or losses
of water due to evaporation or rainfall.
Influent flow rates are commonly used for design purposes; however, for performance assessment, the
average influent and effluent flow rates should be used if available.
The subject of water balance is very important in treatment plant assessment and is covered in detail in
S. 12.2 Section 12.2.
2.4 CHECK-LIST FOR YOUR REPORT
✓ Check that the flow rates have been measured using appropriate devices depending on whether the
flow is through an open channel or a closed conduit.
✓ Flow rate data are collected either manually or using a data logger; verify whether it is important that
raw flow rate data are included in the appendix of the report.
✓ Verify whether the distribution of flow rate data has been assessed.
✓ Typical seasonal flow rates, daily flow rates, and hourly flow rates are calculated using the arithmetic
or geometric mean as necessary based on the assessment of the flow rate distribution.
✓ Hourly peaking factors are reported.
✓ Mean theoretical hydraulic retention times are calculated using the flow rates and the reactor volume.

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Flow Data & Concept of Loading

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Flow Data & Concept of Loading

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Chapter 2

Flow data and the concept of loading

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2.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF FLOW DATA AND THE CONCEPT OF LOAD

Load = Flow × Concentration (2.1)

Note g/m3 = mg/L.

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g load kg/d × 1000g/kg

EXAMPLE 2.1 CALCULATING LOADING FROM A FLOW RATE AND A CONCENTRATION

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From Equation 2.4, one has

2.2 MEASURING FLOW RATES AND ANALYSING DATA

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• Only works with small flows

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• Depth can be measured automatically with gauges,

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rates in clean water sources

• Only appropriate for clean water, as particulates can cause bearings

2.2.2 Recording flow data

2.2.3 Flow variations

2.2.4 Flow equalization

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EXAMPLE 2.3 THE EFFECT OF FLOW EQUALIZATION ON POLLUTANT

Time Period Average BOD Concentration Coming

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2.2.5 Determining typical flow rates and distributions

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Excel Note: This example is available as an Excel spreadsheet.

Wet Season Dry Season

1/2/18 Wet 241 160 2 1.1% -2.30 49 2 1.1% -2.29

1/3/18 Wet 301 160 3 1.6% -2.14 50 3 1.6% -2.13

1/4/18 Wet 669 162 4 2.2% -2.02 50 4 2.2% -2.01

1/5/18 Wet 162 175 5 2.7% -1.93 50 5 2.7% -1.92

1/6/18 Wet 910 175 6 3.2% -1.85 51 6 3.3% -1.84

1/7/18 Wet 258 177 7 3.8% -1.78 51 7 3.8% -1.77

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2.2.6 Analysing flow data

Example EXAMPLE 2.5 ANALYSING TRENDS IN THE HOURLY FLOW RATES

Excel Note: This example is available as an Excel spreadsheet.

Time of Hourly Flow Rates (m3/ h)

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Time of Hourly Flow Rates (m3/ h)

(b) Daily hydrographs

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(c) Flow rate peaking factor

Time Flow Rate Time of Day Flow Rate

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2.3 USING FLOW RATES TO ASSESS PERFORMANCE

Example EXAMPLE 2.6 USING FLOW RATES TO CALCULATE MEAN

Excel Note: This example is available as an Excel spreadsheet.

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2.3.2 Water losses and gains

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2.4 CHECK-LIST FOR YOUR REPORT

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g load kg/d × 1000g/kg