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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN
GEOGRAPHY
SECOND EDITION
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN
GEOGRAPHY
SECOND EDITION
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Audrey Kobayashi
Department of Geography
Queen’s University
Kingston, ON, Canada
VOLUME 1
Elsevier
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products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN 978-0-08-102295-5
Audrey Kobayashi is Professor of Geography and a Queen’s Research Chair at Queen’s University. A
native of British Columbia, she completed a B.A. (1976) and M.A. (1978) at the University of British
Columbia, and a PhD (1983) at UCLA. She taught in Geography and East Asian Studies at McGill
University from 1983 to 1994, then moved to Queen’s, initially as Director of the Institute of
Women’s Studies (1994 to 1999) and thereafter as Professor of Geography. Other positions include
President of the Canadian Association of Geographers (1999-2001), and President of the Association
of American Geographers (2011-2012). In 2011 she was inducted into the Royal Society of Canada,
and in 2018 was appointed a Fellow of the Association of American Geographers. Her scholarship
has always been strongly focused on issues of human rights. She has published widely on topics,
such as anti-racism, citizenship, immigration policy, employment equity, and disability studies.
Her publications are always matched, however, by participation in communities as a scholar activist.
She is currently involved in several research projects that address the “Landscapes of Injustice” of the
Japanese-Canadian uprooting, and the “Right to Remain” of people currently living in precarious
housing in the downtown East Side of Vancouver. Her most recent project is to study the role of
protest music in activism for the rights of homeless people in Dublin, Ireland and Vancouver. Major
publications include Rethinking the Great White North: Race, Nature, and the Historical Geographies of
Whiteness in Canada (co-edited with Andrew Baldwin and Laura Cameron, UBC Press, 2011), Immigrant Geographies of North American Cities
(co-edited with Carlos Teixeira and Wei Li, Oxford University Press, 2012), and Geographies of Peace and Armed Conflict (Routledge, 2012),
Racialization, Indigeneity, and Racism in Canadian Universities (UBC Press 2017), and The International Encyclopedia of Geography (editor 2017).
She has received major awards from the Canadian Association of Geographers, the American Association of Geographers, the Canadian
Association of University Teachers, as well as the Barnes teaching award from the Faculty of Arts and Science Undergraduate Society, and
the Queen’s Award for Excellence in Graduate Teaching.
v
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EDITORIAL BOARD
Mark Boyle
Heseltine Institute for Public Policy, Practice and Place
University of Liverpool
Liverpool, United Kingdom
Noel Castree
Department of Geography
Manchester University
Manchester, United Kingdom
Francis L. Collins
National Institute of Demographic and Economic Analysis
University of Waikato
Hamilton, New Zealand
Jeremy W. Crampton
School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape
Newcastle University
Newcastle, United Kingdom
Sarah de Leeuw
University of Northern British Columbia
Prince George, BC, Canada
Elaine Lynn-Ee Ho
Department of Geography
National University of Singapore
Singapore
Isaac Luginaah
Department of Geography
The University of Western Ontario
London, ON, Canada
Brij Maharaj
Geography Discipline, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Kwazulu-Natal
Durban, South Africa
vii
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SECTION EDITORS
Mark Boyle
Heseltine Institute for Public Policy, Practice and Place
University of Liverpool
Liverpool, United Kingdom
Mark Boyle worked from 2003 to 2007 at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow as Lecturer and
then Senior Lecturer in Geography and from 2007 to December 2017 as Professor/Chair of Geog-
raphy at the National University of Ireland, Maynooth. From 2007 to 2012, he served as head of the
Department of Geography at Maynooth and from 2013 to 2016 as Director of the Interdisciplinary
National Institute of Regional and Spatial Analyses (NIRSA) at Maynooth. From January 2018 he
serves as Chair or Urban Studies and Director of the Heseltine Institute for Public Policy, Practice
and Place, at the University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. He has authored two books, edited
a book, edited nine special editions/sections of international peer reviewed journals and published
over 90 scholarly papers and reports (including 44 in international peer reviewed journals).
ix
x Section Editors
Noel Castree
Department of Geography
Manchester University
Manchester, United Kingdom
Francis L. Collins
National Institute of Demographic and Economic Analysis
University of Waikato
Hamilton, New Zealand
Francis L. Collins is Professor of Geography and Director of the National Institute of Demographic
and Economic Analysis at the University of Waikato. His research has explored international migra-
tion focusing on the experiences, mobility patterns and regulation of temporary migrants. Francis’
research includes work exploring: international students and urban transformation, higher educa-
tion and the globalization of cities, labor migration, marginalization and exploitation, time and
youth migration, and the role of aspirations and desires as driving forces for migration. Francis is
the author of Global Asian City: migration, desire and the politics of encounter in 21st century Seoul (Wiley,
2018) and co-editor of Intersections of Inequality, Migration and Diversification (Palgrave, 2019), and
Aspiration, Desire and the Drivers of Migration (Routledge, 2019).
xii Section Editors
Jeremy W. Crampton
School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape
Newcastle University
Newcastle, United Kingdom
Jeremy W. Crampton’s interests are in how and why geolocational technology affects urban and
everyday experience and wellbeing. In particular, he studies the effects of surveillance on privacy,
spatial Big Data and algorithmic decision-making. To address these questions, he analyzes how
digital landscapes of algorithms and data are planned, mapped, and produced. He also has a recent
interest in the geolocational implications of biometric platforms such as facial and emotional recog-
nition technologies. Jeremy is an Editor of the journal Dialogues in Human Geography, and the author
of Mapping: A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS (Wiley).
Section Editors xiii
Sarah de Leeuw
University of Northern British Columbia
Prince George, BC, Canada
Sarah de Leeuw, a Professor in Canada with the University of Northern British Columbia’s
Northern Medical Program, the Faculty of Medicine at the University of British Columbia, is
a cultural–historical geographer and creative writer (poetry and literary non-fiction). Her research,
writing, teaching, and activism focus on feminist anti-colonial social justice, especially in rural,
northern, and marginalized places. She holds a Canada Research Chair in Humanities and Health
Inequities and, in 2017, was inducted into the Royal Society of Canada as a member of the College
of New Scholars, Artists, and Scientists.
xiv Section Editors
Elaine Lynn-Ee Ho
Department of Geography
National University of Singapore
Singapore
Elaine Lynn-Ee Ho is Associate Professor at the Department of Geography and Senior Research
Fellow at the Asia Research Institute (ARI), National University of Singapore. Her research addresses
how citizenship is changing as a result of multi-directional migration flows in the Asia-Pacific. She is
author of Citizens in Motion: Emigration, Immigration and Re-migration Across China’s Borders (Stanford
University Press), which received the American Sociological Association’s (ASA) award for “Best
Book in Global and Transnational Sociology by an International Scholar” in 2019. Elaine is Editor
of the journal Social and Cultural Geography, and serves on the journal editorial boards of Citizenship
Studies; Emotions, Society and Space; and the Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography.
Section Editors xv
Isaac Luginaah
Department of Geography
The University of Western Ontario
London, ON, Canada
Isaac Luginaah is a Professor and was a Canada Research Chair in Health Geography (200-2017) at
the Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada. He is a graduate of
the University of Cape Coast, Ghana (BSc. Hons), Queen’s University of Belfast, UK (MSc), York
University (MES), and McMaster University (PhD), Canada. His research addresses how emerging
epidemics are radically changing health landscapes in the face of increased burdens from environ-
mental exposure in both developed and developing countries. He has led several projects on pop-
ulation, environment, and health. His work in Africa and North America has made strong
theoretical and methodological contributions, addressing environmental hazards and deficiencies
in health service provision.
xvi Section Editors
Brij Maharaj
Geography Discipline, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Kwazulu-Natal
Durban, South Africa
Brij Maharaj is a senior professor in geography who has received widespread recognition for his
research on urban politics, segregation, displacement, local economic development, xenophobia,
and human rights, migration and diasporas, religion, philanthropy, and development. He has pub-
lished over 150 scholarly papers in renowned journals, such as Urban Studies, International Journal of
Urban and Regional Studies, Political Geography, Urban Geography, Antipode, Polity and Space, Geoforum,
Local Economy, and GeoJournal, as well as five co-edited book collections. He is co-editor of the South
African Geographical Journal (Routledge), and serves on several international editorial boards. He is
a B-Rated NRF researcher. He is a regular media commentator on topical issues as part of his
commitment to public intellectualism.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
xvii
xviii List of Contributors
S Brentjes RA Butlin
Univeristy of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Gary Bridge Michael Buzzelli
School of Geography and Planning, Cardiff University, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON,
Cardiff, United Kingdom Canada
Gavin Bridge Jason A Byrne
Department of Geography, Durham University, Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences,
Durham, United Kingdom University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
John Briggs Jake Rom D Cadag
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City,
Kingdom Philippines
James MR Brock Catherine A Calder
School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United
Auckland, New Zealand States
Marc Brosseau
Sydney Calkin
Department of Geography, University of Ottawa,
Department of Geography, Durham University,
Ottawa, ON, Canada
Durham, United Kingdom; and School of Geography,
Aleid E Brouwer Queen Mary University of London, London, United
Faculty of Spatial Science, University of Groningen, Kingdom
Groningen, The Netherlands; and Academy of
International Business Administration, NHL Stenden Liam Campling
University of Applied Sciences, Leeuwarden, The School of Business and Management,
Netherlands Queen Mary University of London, London,
United Kingdom
Kath Browne
Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland Sébastien Caquard
Christopher R Bryant Department of Geography, Planning and
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada Environment, Concordia University, Montreal, QC,
Canada
John R Bryson
City-Region Economic Development Institute, Jordan Carlson
Department of Strategy and International Business, Department of Geography and Planning, Queen’s
Birmingham Business School, University of University, Kingston, ON, Canada
Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
Jordan T Carlson
Dirk Burghardt Department of Geography and Planning, Queen's
Institute of Cartography, Dresden University of University, Kingston, ON, Canada
Technology, Dresden, Germany
Pádraig Carmody
Ryan Burns
Department of Geography, Trinity College, Dublin,
Geography, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
Ireland; University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg,
Richard Bustin South Africa; and Trinity College Dublin, Dublin,
Lancing College, Lancing, United Kingdom Ireland
Colin D Butler Juliet Carpenter
Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United
Australia; and Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Kingdom
Australia
Ricardo Carreon Sosa
Tim Butler Posgraduate School of Engineering, National
Department of Geography, King’s College London, Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City,
London, United Kingdom Mexico
List of Contributors xxi
Author: Alain
Language: French
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