Introduction to psychological

assessment in the South African

context 5th Edition Cheryl Foxcroft
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-psychological-assessment-in-the-sout
h-african-context-5th-edition-cheryl-foxcroft/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Introduction To Environmental Impact Assessment 5th

Riki Therivel

https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-environmental-
impact-assessment-5th-riki-therivel/

Sociology A Concise South African Introduction Paul

Stewart

https://textbookfull.com/product/sociology-a-concise-south-
african-introduction-paul-stewart/

Criminality in Context The Psychological Foundations of

Criminal Justice Reform 1st Edition Craig Haney

https://textbookfull.com/product/criminality-in-context-the-
psychological-foundations-of-criminal-justice-reform-1st-edition-
craig-haney/

Narrating the New African Diaspora: 21st Century

Nigerian Literature in Context Maximilian Feldner

https://textbookfull.com/product/narrating-the-new-african-
diaspora-21st-century-nigerian-literature-in-context-maximilian-
feldner/
The South African Law of Evidence 3rd Edition Dt
Zeffertt

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-south-african-law-of-
evidence-3rd-edition-dt-zeffertt/

Introduction to law University Of South Alabama

https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-law-university-
of-south-alabama/

Manufacturing Terrorism in Africa: The Securitisation

of South African Muslims Mohamed Natheem Hendricks

https://textbookfull.com/product/manufacturing-terrorism-in-
africa-the-securitisation-of-south-african-muslims-mohamed-
natheem-hendricks/

An Introduction to Psychological Science, Second

Canadian Edition Mark Krause

https://textbookfull.com/product/an-introduction-to-
psychological-science-second-canadian-edition-mark-krause/

An Introduction to Psychological Science Third Canadian

Edition Mark Krause

https://textbookfull.com/product/an-introduction-to-
psychological-science-third-canadian-edition-mark-krause/
 FIFTH
EDITION

PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSESSMENT
 FIFTH EDITION

PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSESSMENT

EDITED BY CHERYL FOXCROFT AND GERT ROODT

 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s
objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a
registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.
Published in South Africa by
Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Limited
Vasco Boulevard, Goodwood, N1 City, Cape Town, South Africa, 7460 P O Box 12119, N1
City, Cape Town, South Africa, 7463
© Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd 2018

The moral rights of the author have been asserted.

Fifth edition published 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University
Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed
with the appropriate reprographic rights organisation, DALRO, The Dramatic, Artistic and Literary
Rights Organisation at dalro@dalro.co.za. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of
the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty)
Ltd, at the above address.
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition
on any acquirer.
Introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context 5e
Print ISBN 978-0-190418-59-5
ePUB ISBN 978-0-190416-54-6
First impression 2018
Typeset in Helvetica Neue LT Std 10pt on 12pt
Acknowledgements
Publishing manager: Alida Terblanche
Publisher: Marisa Montemarano
Project manager: Gugulethu Baloyi
Editor: Deidre Donnelly
Designer: Jade Benjamin
Cover design: Judith Cross
Typesetter: Aptara
The authors and publisher gratefully acknowledge permission to reproduce copyright
material in this book. Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders, but if any
copyright infringements have been made, the publisher would be grateful for information
that would enable any omissions or errors to be corrected in subsequent impressions.
 Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for
information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Photograph acknowledgements
Page 179: kaetana; Shutterstock
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of contributors
Introduction

Part 1 Foundation Zone

1 An overview of assessment: Definition and

scope 1.1 Introduction
1.2 About tests, testing, and assessment
1.3 Assessment measures and tests
1.3.1 Characteristics of assessment measures
1.3.2 Important issues
1.4 The assessment process
1.5 Psychological assessment in Africa
1.6 Conclusion

2 Psychological assessment: A brief retrospective

overview 2.1 Introduction
2.2 A brief overview of the early origins of psychological
assessment 2.2.1 Astrology
2.2.2 Physiognomy
2.2.3 Humorology
2.2.4 Phrenology
2.2.5 Chirology – Palmistry
2.2.6 Graphology
2.2.7 Summary
2.3 The development of modern psychological
assessment: An international perspective
2.3.1 Early developments
2.3.2 The early twentieth century
2.3.3 Measurement challenges
2.3.4 The influence of technology
2.3.5 The influence of multiculturalism
2.3.6 Standards, training, and test users’ roles
2.4 The development of modern psychological
assessment: A South African perspective
2.4.1 The early years
2.4.2 The early use of assessment measures in industry
2.4.3 The development of psychological
assessment from the 1960s onwards
 2.4.4 Psychological assessment in democratic South Africa
2.4.4.1 Assessment in education
2.4.4.2 The Employment Equity Act
2.4.4.3 Professional practice guidelines
2.5 Can assessment measures and the process of
assessment still fulfil a useful function in modern society?
2.6 Conclusion

3 Basic measurement and statistical

concepts 3.1 Introduction
3.2 Levels of measurement
3.2.1 Properties of measurement scales
3.2.1.1 Magnitude
3.2.1.2 Equal intervals
3.2.1.3 Absolute zero
3.2.2 Categories of measurement levels
3.3 Measurement errors
3.3.1 Random error
3.3.2 Systematic error
3.4 Measurement scales
3.4.1 Different scaling options
3.4.1.1 Category scales
3.4.1.2 Likert-type scales
3.4.1.3 Semantic differential scales
3.4.1.4 Intensity scales
3.4.1.5 Constant-sum scales
3.4.1.6 Paired-comparison scales
3.4.1.7 Graphic rating scales
3.4.1.8 Forced-choice scales
3.4.1.9 Ipsative scales (and scoring)
3.4.1.10 Guttman scales
3.4.2 Considerations in deciding on a scale format
3.4.2.1 Single dimensional versus composite scale
3.4.2.2 Question-versus statement-item formats
3.4.2.3 Type of response labels versus unlabelled response categories
3.4.2.4 Single attribute versus comparative rating formats
3.4.2.5 Even-numbered versus odd-numbered rating options
3.4.2.6 Ipsative versus normative scale options
3.5 Basic statistical concepts
3.5.1 Displaying data
3.5.2 Measures of central tendency
3.5.3 Measures of variability
3.5.4 Measures of association
3.6 Norms
 3.6.1 The standard normal distribution
3.6.2 Establishing norm groups
3.6.3 Co-norming of measures
3.6.4 Types of test norms
3.6.4.1 Developmental scales
3.6.4.2 Percentiles
3.6.4.3 Standard scores
3.6.4.4 Deviation IQ scale
3.6.5 Interrelationships of norm scores
3.6.6 Setting standards and cut-off scores
3.6.7 Issues with norm use
3.7 Conclusion

4 Reliability: Basic concepts and

measures 4.1 Introduction
4.2 Reliability
4.2.1 Defining reliability
4.2.2 Types of reliability
4.2.2.1 Test-retest reliability
4.2.2.2 Alternate-form reliability
4.2.2.3 Split-half reliability
4.2.2.4 Inter-item consistency
4.2.2.5 Inter-scorer reliability
4.2.2.6 Intra-scorer reliability
4.2.2.7 Contemporary approaches to estimating reliability
4.2.3 Factors affecting reliability
4.2.3.1 Respondent error
4.2.3.2 Administrative error
4.2.4 Interpretation of reliability
4.2.4.1 The magnitude of the reliability coefficient
4.2.4.2 Standard Measurement Error
4.2.4.3 Reliability and mastery assessment
4.3 Conclusion

5 Validity: Basic concepts and

measures 5.1 Introduction
5.2 Validity
5.2.1 Defining validity
5.2.2 Types of validity
5.2.2.1 Content-description procedures
5.2.2.2 Construct-identification procedures
5.2.2.3 Criterion-prediction procedures
5.2.2.4 Possible criterion measures
5.2.3 Unitary validity
5.2.4 Indices and interpretation of validity
 5.2.4.1 Validity coefficient
5.2.4.2 Factors affecting the validity coefficient
5.2.4.3 Coefficient of determination
5.2.4.4 Standard error of estimation
5.2.4.5 Predicting the criterion: Regression analysis
5.3 Conclusion

6 Developing a psychological
measure 6.1 Introduction
6.2 Steps in developing a measure
6.2.1 The planning phase
6.2.1.1 Establish a test-development team
6.2.1.2 Specify the aim, target population, and nature of the measure
6.2.1.3 Define the content of the measure
6.2.1.4 Other test specifications to include in the
plan 6.2.2 Item development, creation or sourcing
6.2.2.1 Develop the items
6.2.2.2 Review the items
6.2.3 Assemble and pre-test the experimental version of the
measure 6.2.3.1 Arrange the items
6.2.3.2 Finalise the length
6.2.3.3 Answer mechanisms and protocols
6.2.3.4 Develop administration instructions
6.2.3.5 Pre-test the experimental version of the
measure 6.2.4 The item-analysis phase
6.2.4.1 Classical Test-Theory item analysis: Determine item difficulty (p)
6.2.4.2 Classical Test-Theory item analysis: Determine discriminating power
6.2.4.3 Item-Response Theory (IRT)
6.2.4.4 Identify items for final pool
6.2.5 Revise and standardise the final version of the
measure 6.2.5.1 Revise the items and test
6.2.5.2 Select items for the final version
6.2.5.3 Refine administration instructions and scoring procedures
6.2.5.4 Administer the final version
6.2.6 Technical evaluation and establishing norms
6.2.6.1 Establish validity and reliability
6.2.6.2 Establish norms, set performance standards or
cut-scores 6.2.7 Publish and refine continuously
6.2.7.1 Compile the test manual
6.2.7.2 Submit the measure for classification
6.2.7.3 Publish and market the measure
6.2.7.4 Revise and refine continuously
6.3 Evaluating a measure
6.4 Conclusion
7 Cross-cultural test adaptation, translation, and tests in multiple
languages 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Reasons for adapting measures
7.3 Test adaptation
7.3.1 Types of test adaptation
7.3.2 Challenges related to test adaptation in South Africa
7.4 Equivalence of adapted versions of measures used in multicultural and multilingual
contexts 7.4.1 Equivalence of measures adapted for cross-cultural use
7.4.2 Exploring linguistic equivalence
7.4.2.1 Judgemental approaches
7.4.2.2 Empirical investigations
7.5 Statistical approaches to establish equivalence
7.5.1 Bias and equivalence
7.5.2 Measurement bias and equivalence
7.5.2.1 Bias and equivalence at the item level
7.5.2.2 Bias and equivalence in factor structures between groups
7.5.2.3 Evaluation of measurement invariance (MI) approaches
7.5.3 Prediction bias and equivalence
7.5.3.1 Procedures to establish prediction bias and equivalence
7.5.4 Construct bias and construct equivalence
7.5.5 Nomological bias
7.5.6 Method bias
7.6 Steps for maximising success in test adaptations
7.7 Multicultural test development
7.8 Conclusion

Part 2 Assessment Practice Zone

8 The practice of psychological assessment: Controlling the use of

measures, competing values, and ethical practice standards
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Statutory control of the use of psychological assessment measures in South
Africa 8.2.1 Why should the use of assessment measures be controlled?
8.2.2 How control over the use of psychological assessment measures is
exercised in South Africa
8.2.2.1 Statutory control
8.2.2.2 The different categories of psychology professionals who
may use psychological measures
8.2.2.3 Other professionals who use psychological measures
8.2.2.4 The classification and evaluation of psychological measures
8.2.2.5 The Professional Board for Psychology and the protection of the public
8.3 Fair and ethical assessment practices
8.3.1 What constitutes fair and ethical assessment practices?
8.3.2 Why assessment practitioners need to ensure that their assessment practices are
 ethical
8.3.3 Professional practices that assessment practitioners should follow
8.3.4 Rights and responsibilities of test-takers
8.3.5 Preparing test-takers
8.3.6 Ethical dilemmas
8.4 Multiple constituents and competing values in the
practice of assessment
8.4.1 Multiple constituency model
8.4.2 Competing values: An example from industry
8.4.3 Responsibilities of organisations as regards fair assessment practices
8.5 Conclusion

9 Administering psychological assessment

measures 9.1 Introduction
9.2 Preparation prior to the assessment session
9.2.1 Selecting measures to include in a test battery
9.2.2 Checking assessment materials and equipment
9.2.3 Becoming familiar with assessment measures and instructions
9.2.4 Checking that assessment conditions will be satisfactory
9.2.4.1 Assessment rooms
9.2.4.2 Minimising cheating during group assessment and using
assessment assistants
9.2.5 Personal circumstances of the test-taker and the timing of assessment
9.2.6 Planning the sequence of assessment measures and the length of assessment sessions
9.2.7 Planning how to address linguistic factors
9.2.8 Planning how to address test sophistication
9.2.9 Informed consent
9.3 The assessment practitioner’s duties during assessment administration
9.3.1 The relationship between the assessment practitioner and the test-taker
9.3.1.1 Adopting a scientific attitude
9.3.1.2 Exercising control over groups during group assessment
9.3.1.3 Motivating test-takers
9.3.1.4 Establishing rapport
9.3.2 Dealing with assessment anxiety
9.3.3 Providing assessment instructions
9.3.4 Adhering to time limits
9.3.5 Managing irregularities
9.3.6 Recording assessment behaviour
9.3.7 Specific suggestions for assessing young children and individuals with
physical and mental disabilities
9.3.7.1 Specific suggestions for assessing young children
9.3.7.2 Assessment of individuals with physical disabilities
9.3.7.3 Assessment of mental disability
9.4 The assessment practitioner’s duties after assessment administration
 9.4.1 Collecting and securing assessment materials
9.4.2 Recording process notes, scoring, and interpreting the assessment measures
9.5 Conclusion

Part 3 Types of Measures Zone

10 Assessment of cognitive
functioning 10.1 Introduction
10.2 Theories of intelligence: A brief history and
overview 10.2.1 Background
10.2.2 Defining intelligence
10.2.3 Theories of intelligence
10.3 Interpreting the intelligence score and diversity issues
10.3.1 The meaning of the intelligence score
10.3.2 Individual differences and cultural diversity
10.4 Measures of general cognitive functioning
10.4.1 Individual intelligence measures
10.4.1.1 Description and aim
10.4.1.2 The application of results
10.4.2 Group tests of intelligence
10.4.2.1 Description and aim
10.4.2.2 The application of results
10.5 Measures of specific abilities
10.5.1 Aptitude measures
10.5.1.1 Description and aim
10.5.1.2 The application of results
10.5.2 Measures of specific cognitive functions
10.5.2.1 Description and aim
10.5.2.2 The application of results
10.6 Scholastic tests
10.7 Current and new trends in cognitive assessment
10.8 Conclusion
11 Measures of well-
being 11.1 Introduction
11.2 Well-being
11.2.1 Defining well-being
11.2.2 Positive psychology and well-being
11.2.3 Domains of well-being
11.2.3.1 Subjective well-being
11.2.3.2 Other dimensions of well-being
11.2.3.3 Mental illness
11.3 Well-being in the workplace
11.3.1 Why well-being matters
 11.3.2 The cost of ill health
11.3.3 Well-being in the workplace
11.3.4 Wellness programmes
11.4 Well-being among university students
11.5 Measures of well-being
11.5.1 Assessment of well-being in diverse contexts
11.5.2 Assessment of well-being in the work context
11.6 Conclusion
12 Personality assessment
12.1 Introduction
12.2 A conceptual scheme for personality assessment
12.3 Level 1: The assessment of relatively stable personality traits
12.3.1 The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
12.3.2 The Big Five model of personality traits
12.3.3 The Basic Traits Inventory
12.3.4 The Hogan Personality Inventory
12.3.5 The Occupational Personality Questionnaire
12.3.6 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
12.3.7 The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
12.3.8 Cross-cultural use of structured personality assessment measures
12.3.9 The South African Personality Inventory (SAPI)
12.4 Level 2: Assessment of motives and personal concerns
12.4.1 Explicit motives
12.4.2 Implicit motives
12.4.3 Other projective methods of personality assessment
12.5 Personality and counterproductive behaviour at work
12.5.1 Work-related Risk and Integrity Scales (WRISc)
12.5.2 Hogan Development Survey
12.6 Uses and applications of personality tests
12.7 Conclusion
13 Career-counselling
assessment 13.1 Introduction
13.2 The person-environment fit approach
13.2.1 Assessing intelligence
13.2.2 Assessing aptitude
13.2.3 Assessing vocational interests
13.2.4 Assessing personality
13.2.5 Assessing values
13.2.6 Evaluation of the person-environment fit approach to career counselling
assessment 13.3 The developmental approach to career counselling assessment
13.3.1 Career assessment in the developmental approach
13.3.2 Evaluation of the developmental approach to career counselling
assessment 13.4 The systems approach to career counselling assessment
 13.4.1 Career assessment in the systems approach
13.4.2 Evaluation of the systems approach to career counselling assessment
13.5 Career construction theory and life-design counselling
13.5.1 Assessment in career construction theory and life-design counselling
13.5.2 Evaluation of career construction theory and life-design counselling
13.6 Career counselling in a changing environment
13.7 Conclusion

14 Computer-based and Internet-delivered

assessment 14.1 Introduction
14.2 Some terms explained
14.3 Computer-based and Internet-delivered assessments in
South Africa 14.3.1 Early South African developments
14.3.2 Technical limitations of early testing systems
14.3.3 A wider choice of tests becomes available
14.4 Computer-based testing in the twenty-first century
14.4.1 A wider variety of tests
14.4.2 Internet-delivered testing and cloud storage
14.4.3 Changes in the size and scope of assessment projects
14.4.4 Changes in reporting and interpretation
14.4.5 New types of assessments
14.4.6 Non-commercial resources become available for test developers and users
14.4.7 Artificial intelligence
14.4.8 Summary
14.5 Ethical and legal use of computer-based and Internet-delivered testing In South Africa
14.6 Conclusion

Part 4 Assessment Practice Zone (2)

15 The use of assessment measures in various applied

contexts 15.1 Introduction
15.2 Assessment in industry
15.2.1 Assessment of individuals
15.2.1.1 Personnel selection
15.2.1.2 Performance ratings or assessment
15.2.1.3 Interviews
15.2.1.4 Situational tests
15.2.2 Assessment of workgroups or work teams
15.2.3 Assessment of organisations
15.2.4 Organisational research opportunities
15.3 Infant and preschool developmental assessment
15.3.1 Why do we assess development?
15.3.2 What functions do we assess?
15.3.3 How do we assess?
 15.3.4 What developmental measures are available for South African children?
15.3.4.1 Global developmental screening measures
15.3.4.2 Educationally focused screening measures
15.3.4.3 Diagnostic measures
15.3.4.4 Shortcomings of developmental assessment
15.3.4.5 Information from other sources and observations
15.4 The role of psychological assessment in education
15.4.1 The uses of psychological measures in educational settings
15.4.1.1 Uses for school-age learners
15.4.1.2 Uses for educational accountability purposes
15.4.2 Types of measures used in educational settings
15.4.2.1 Achievement measures
15.4.2.2 Aptitude measures
15.4.2.3 General and specific cognitive measures
15.4.2.4 Personality-related measures
15.4.2.5 Dynamic assessment
15.4.3 Uses of tests in higher-education contexts
15.5 Psychodiagnostic assessment
15.5.1 What is psychodiagnostic assessment?
15.5.2 Assessment measures and procedures
15.5.2.1 Interviews
15.5.2.2 Psychological assessment measures
15.5.3 Psychological knowledge and expertise
15.5.4 Psycholegal or forensic assessment
15.5.5 Limitations of psychodiagnostic assessment
15.6 Conclusion

16 Interpreting and reporting assessment

results 16.1 Introduction
16.2 Interpretation
16.2.1 The relation between interpretation and validity
16.2.1.1 Descriptive interpretation
16.2.1.2 Causal interpretation
16.2.1.3 Predictive interpretation
16.2.1.4 Evaluative interpretation
16.2.2 Methods of interpretation
16.2.2.1 Mechanical interpretation of assessment results
16.2.2.2 Non-mechanical interpretation of assessment results
16.2.2.3 Combining mechanical and non-mechanical approaches
16.2.3 Interpretation of norm-referenced tests
16.2.4 Interpretation of criterion-referenced measures
16.3 Principles for conveying test results
16.3.1 Ethical considerations
16.3.1.1 Confidentiality
 16.3.1.2 Accountability
16.3.2 Methods of conveying assessment results
16.3.3 Conveying children’s assessment results
16.4 Reporting assessment results in written form
16.5 Conclusion

17 Factors affecting assessment

results 17.1 Introduction
17.2 Viewing assessment results in context
17.2.1 The biological context
17.2.1.1 Age-related changes
17.2.1.2 Physical impairments
17.2.2 The intrapsychic context
17.2.2.1 Transient conditions
17.2.2.2 Psychopathology
17.2.3 The social context
17.2.3.1 Schooling
17.2.3.2 Language
17.2.3.3 Culture
17.2.3.4 Environmental factors
17.2.3.5 Test-wiseness
17.3 Methodological considerations
17.3.1 Test administration and standardised procedures
17.3.2 Interpreting patterns in test scores
17.3.3 The influence of the assessment practitioner
17.3.4 Status of the test-taker
17.3.4.1 Anxiety, test-taking effort, and motivation
17.3.4.2 Faking bad, malingering, and faking good
17.3.4.3 Cheating
17.3.4.4 Practice effects
17.3.5 Bias and construct validity
17.4 Conclusion

18 On the road to culturally meaningful psychological assessment in

South Africa 18.1 Introduction
18.2 Culturally meaningful psychological assessment: The journey so far
18.2.1 Conceptualising how to combine African-centred and Western-oriented approaches
18.2.2 Progress in developing indigenous, African-centred measures
18.2.3 Progress in adapting and researching Western-oriented measures
for the South African context
18.3 Roadmap for the next phase of the journey
18.3.1 Culturally appropriate measures
18.3.1.1 Routes to developing indigenous measures and adapting
Western-oriented measures
18.3.1.2 Inspiration for African-centred item development
 18.3.1.3 Delineating norm groups
18.3.1.4 Qualitative measures
18.3.1.5 Creating repositories of research studies into assessment measures
18.3.2 Capacity-building in test development and adaptation
18.3.3 Foster good ethical practices and address assessment misuse
18.4 Conclusion
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
• Prof. Fatima Abrahams, Department of Industrial Psychology,
University of the Western Cape (UWC).
• Prof. Mariéde Beer, Professor Emeritus retired from the
Department of Industrial & Organisational Psychology, University
of South Africa (UNISA).
• Prof. Gideon P. de Bruin, Professor in the Department of
Industrial Psychology, Stellenbosch University (US).
• Dr Karina de Bruin, Managing Director, JvR Academy, and
Research Associate in the Department of Psychology, University
of the Free State (UFS).
• Prof. Francois De Kock, Associate Professor in the Section of
Organisational Psychology, University of Cape Town (UCT).
• Prof. Cheryl Foxcroft, Dean: Teaching and Learning and
Professor of Psychology, Nelson Mandela University.
• Dr Carolina Henn, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Industrial
Psychology and People Management, University of Johannesburg
(UJ).
• Dr Loura Griessel, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Industrial
Psychology, University of the Free State (UFS).
• Prof. Kate Grieve, Former Associate Professor in the Department
of Psychology, University of South Africa (UNISA), and Clinical
Psychologist (area of interest: Neuropsychology).
• Prof. Gert Roodt, former Vice-dean: Research in the previous
Faculty of Management, University of Johannesburg (UJ).
• Prof. Louise Stroud, Professor in the Psychology Department
and Director: School of Behavioural Sciences and School of
Lifestyle Sciences, Nelson Mandela University.
• Dr Nicola Taylor, Director of Research at JvR Psychometrics,
Randburg.
• Nanette Tredoux, CEO of Psytech South Africa, former Senior
 Research Specialist at the Human Sciences Research Council
specialising in computerised assessments.
• Prof. René van Eeden, Professor in the Department of
Psychology, University of South Africa (UNISA).

The editors would like to thank the following authors for their
contributions to previous editions of Introduction to Psychological
Assessment: Prof. Diane Elkonin, Caroline Davies, Dr Jenny
Jansen, and Prof. Anil Kanjee.
INTRODUCTION
The start of an exciting journey
Hi there! You are about to embark on an interesting, challenging
journey that will introduce you to the world of psychological
assessment. Interesting? Challenging? ‘That’s not what I have heard
about assessment,’ you might say. Many people view courses and
books on psychological assessment as dull, boring, and not relevant
for students and professionals in people-oriented careers. Even if you
have some doubts that you are going to enjoy learning about
assessment, we beg you to give us a chance to share our enthusiasm
about assessment with you and to show you why our enthusiasm is
shared by countless others in South Africa and, indeed, all over the
world. As you read this book, we hope that you will discover that
assessment is an essential, integral part of psychology and other
people-oriented professions. You will be exposed to the fact that
assessment can be used in many different contexts, such as
educational, counselling, clinical, psychodiagnostic,
psycholegal/forensic, industrial (occupational), and research contexts.
Furthermore, you will discover that assessment can be used for many
different purposes (e.g. diagnosing learning problems, assessing
whether a mass murderer is fit to stand trial, determining whether
therapeutic intervention has been successful, and making job
selection, placement, and training decisions). Does assessment still
sound dull, boring, and irrelevant to you? No ways! Well then, let the
journey begin.

Requirements for our journey

Whenever we set off on a journey, we need to make sure that we
have a suitable mode of transport, a map, and other necessities such
as fuel, refreshments, a first-aid kit, a reliable spare tyre, and so on.
For your journey into psychological assessment territory:
• your vehicle will be the contents of this book, which have been
carefully put together by a number of prominent people in the
assessment field in South Africa
• you will be provided with a map, so that you have some idea of the
places that we will visit and how those places can be grouped
together
• a set of signposts will be provided to help you to identify
important landmarks along the way and to correlate the
information that you obtain in the various chapters
• you have to bring along an enquiring, open mind as you will find
that we are going to challenge you to think about what you are
reading and to develop personal insights
• you will need to keep a pen and a
notebook/laptop/netbook/iPad/tablet handy at all times so that
you can record your responses to challenging questions and case
studies, as well as document your growing understanding of
psychological assessment.

The map for our journey

You will notice that the map has been divided into three zones, which
provide a logical grouping of the various stops (or chapters) that you
will make along the way. This means that instead of thinking of this as
a book (or journey) with 18 chapters (or stops), you should rather
visualise three major focus points in your journey, as this makes it
more manageable:
• In the Foundation Zone, which comprises Chapters 1 to 7, we will
introduce you to the basic concepts and language of assessment
as well as to how measures are developed and adapted so that
they are culturally appropriate.
• In the Assessment Practice Zone, which comprises Chapters 8
to 9 and 15 to 18, we will tackle various issues concerning who
may use measures, good assessment practices related to
administration, scoring, interpretation and reporting, the contexts in
which assessment is used, and the progress being made in terms
 of psychological assessment becoming more culturally meaningful
in South Africa.
• In the Types of Measure Zone, which comprises Chapters 10 to
14, we will focus on the different types of measures that are used
to measure various aspects of human behaviour and functioning
as well as on computer-based and Internet-delivered testing.

Please note that we indicated only key aspects of chapter titles on

the map (e.g. 1 Assessment overview). An important aspect of your
journey is the speed at which you travel. Take things at a pace that
you find comfortable. Speeding could result in a failure to grasp some
of the essential concepts. Do not be alarmed if you find that you
sometimes need to retrace your steps, especially when you travel
through the Foundation Zone. It is better to revisit any concepts that
you find difficult to understand in the early part of the book, as the
remainder of the book builds on the knowledge that you acquire in
the Foundation Zone.

Signposts for our journey

As you travel through each chapter you will find a number of
signposts.
Chapter outcomes
Before you are provided with any material, you will be given an
overview of the out comes of the chapter. This will enable you to work
through the contents of the chapter in a focused way.

Concepts
To help you to identify the really important concepts in a chapter, they
will always be presented in boldface or italics.

Critical thinking challenge and case studies

At an appropriate point in each chapter, you will find a case study, or
something to get you thinking. The purpose of presenting you with this
material is to encourage you to think critically about the material and to
apply your new knowledge about assessment to real-life situations. We
will provide you with some cues to help you with some of the critical
thinking challenges and case studies. Although each chapter includes a
case study, you should browse through some of the other chapters when
answering the questions posed for a case study. Furthermore, as the
case studies focus on ethical dilemmas, you should particularly consult
the Ethical Rules of Conduct for Practitioners Registered under the
Health Professions Act, 1974
(http://www.hpcsa.co.za/downloads/conduct_ethics/rules/ethical_rules_
when working through the case studies.

Check your progress

At the end of every chapter you will find a few questions that you
should try and answer. This will give you a good indication of whether
you understood all the concepts and issues explained in the chapter.

Web sites and advanced readings

Something else that is important is to note that we have included
many references to work published in South African journals. We
would encourage you to access the relevant articles as they will
expand on what has been included in this book. In addition, many
chapters include references to advanced readings that you could
consult to read further on a topic. Furthermore, there are a number of
Web sites that could be accessed where you can get up to date
knowledge and information about psychological assessment and
testing. For example:
• http://en.wikipedia.org
• www.psychtesting.org.uk
• www.intestcom.org
• https://www.intestcom.org/page/4 and
https://www.intestcom.org/page/5 (for online readings in testing
and assessment)
• http://www.apa.org/topics/testing/index.aspx
• www.psyssa.com
• www.siopsa.org.za

We hope that you find your journey through this book as interesting
as we found the conceptualisation and preparation stages. We would
also like to thank all those who contributed to making this book a
reality, either by way of writing sections or on the editorial,
typesetting, and production side. The contributors, in particular, need
to be thanked for their time and effort in preparing their insightful,
scholarly contributions.
Finally, we would like you to let us know your impressions of this
book, and any suggestions you have for improving it. Send your
comments to Cheryl at the following email address:
Cheryl.Foxcroft@mandela.ac.za.

Cheryl Foxcroft and Gert Roodt

Foundation Zone
When you look at the map that guides your journey through this book, you
probably don’t realise that the first zone involves climbing up a rather
steep hill. The reason why the hill is so steep is that you will be introduced
to most of the important concepts in psychological assessment and
measurement in this zone. These concepts are not always easy to
understand, so we suggest that you proceed slowly through this zone. Do
not be afraid to turn back and retrace your steps if you need to.

1 Assessment overview
Part 2 Historical perspectives
3 Basic measurement concepts
1 4 Reliability
5 Validity
6 Developing a measure
7 Cross-cultural perspectives
An overview of assessment:
Definition and scope
CHERYL FOXCROFT AND GERT ROODT
 Chapter CHAPTER OUTCOMES
1 By the end of this chapter you will be able to:
❱ distinguish between tests, assessment measures, testing and
psychological and competency-based assessment
❱ name the characteristics of assessment measures
❱ understand the value of adopting an Africa-centred approach
in South Africa
❱ recognise the limitations of assessment results
❱ explain assessment as a multidimensional process.

1.1 Introduction
We constantly have to make decisions in our everyday lives: what to
study, what career to pursue, whom to choose as our life partner,
which applicant to hire, how to put together an effective team to
perform a specific task, and so on. This book will focus on the role of
psychological assessment in providing information to guide
individuals, groups, and organisations to understand aspects of their
behaviour and make informed and appropriate decisions. In the
process you will discover that assessment can serve many purposes.
For example, assessment can help to identify strengths and
weaknesses, map development or progress, inform decisions
regarding suitability for a job or a field of study, identify training and
education needs, or it can assist in making a diagnosis. Assessment
can also assist in identifying intervention and therapy needs,
measuring the effectiveness of an intervention programme, and in
gathering research data to increase psychology’s knowledge base
about human behaviour or to inform policy-making.
South Africa is situated in Africa, and professionals and
researchers are increasingly recognising the importance and value of
adopting a more African-centred approach. As South African society
is multicultural and multilingual in nature, this book also aims to raise
awareness about the role of culture and language in assessment, and
to suggest ways of addressing them from an African-centred
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute
this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the
Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if
you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project
Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other format used in the official version posted on the official
Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at
no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a
means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project
Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™
works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or

providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different
terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain
permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3
below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on,
transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright
law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite
these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the
medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,”
such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt
data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other
medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -

Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in
paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic
work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU
AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE,
STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH
OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER
THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR
ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE
OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If

you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of
receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you
paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you
received the work from. If you received the work on a physical
medium, you must return the medium with your written
explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the
defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu
of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or
entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.
If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund
in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set

forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’,
WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this
agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this
agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the
maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable
state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of
this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless
from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that
arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project
Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or
deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect
you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new
computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of
volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™
collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In
2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was
created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project
Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your
efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the
Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-
profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the
laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by
the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal
tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax
deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and
your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500

West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact
links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s website and official page at
www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission
of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works
that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form
accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated
equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly
important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws

regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of
the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform
and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many
fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not
solicit donations in locations where we have not received written
confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or
determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states

where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know
of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from
donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot

make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations
received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp
our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current

donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a
number of other ways including checks, online payments and
credit card donations. To donate, please visit:
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could
be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose
network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several

printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by
copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus,
we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any
particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new
eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear
about new eBooks.