Liquid-Gas and Solid-Gas Separators

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Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators
 There are no such things as applied sciences,
only applications of science.
Louis Pasteur (11 September 1871)

Dedicated to my wife, Anne, without whose unwavering support, none of this

would have been possible.
Industrial Equipment for Chemical Engineering Set
coordinated by
Jean-Paul Duroudier

Liquid–Gas and
Solid–Gas Separators

Jean-Paul Duroudier
First published 2016 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Press Ltd and Elsevier Ltd

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
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© ISTE Press Ltd 2016

The rights of Jean-Paul Duroudier to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN 978-1-78548-181-9

Printed and bound in the UK and US

 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Chapter 1. Separation by Decantation or

Precipitation in a Magnetic or Electrical Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. Separation in a magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1. Recap on magnetic fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2. Intensity of magnetization and
magnetic separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3. Classification of solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4. Processes of magnetic separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2. Electrofilters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2. Shaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3. The transport mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4. Apparition of sparks and counter-ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5. Geometric data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.6. Operational equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.7. Calculation of the potential field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.8. Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.9. Potential due to a uniform field and to
a dielectrical particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.10. Celerity of the ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.11. Charging of particles by ion bombardment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.12. Charging of particles by heat diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.13. Smith and MacDonald’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.2.14. The classic expression of migration velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.2.15. Shock re-entrainment of incident particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.16. Separation equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
vi Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

1.2.17. By-pass effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

1.2.18. Variations in resistivity of the dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.2.19. How to modify the resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2.20. Electrical power consumed and yield
of a dust remover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.2.21. Advantages of using an electrofilter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.2.22. Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Chapter 2. Gas–Liquid Separator Vats and Drums . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.1. Gas separators and flash drums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.1. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.2. Gas separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.3. Entrainment rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.4. Horizontal flash drums (degassers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2. Separator vats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.1. Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.1. Liquid-vesicle particle sizes (estimation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3.2. Vertical flash drums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3.3. Summary table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chapter 3. Wet Dust Removal from Gases:

Venturi Pulverization Column, Choice of a
Dust Remover and Other Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1. The venturi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1.1. Description of a venturi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1.2. Usage of a venturi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.3. Energy equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.4. Equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.5. Conservation of the flowrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.6. Impulsion of the gas and pressure
drop in the convergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.1.7. Pressure drop due to the entrainment
of the scrubbing liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.8. Recovery of the pressure in the divergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.9. Size of drops of the scrubbing liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.10. Separation equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.1.11. Individual yield of the drops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1.12. Motion of the drops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.1.13. Length of the neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1.14. Theoretical dust capture yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
 Contents vii

3.1.15. Capture yield in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

3.1.16. Integration limits for the integral I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2. Example of simulation of a venturi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.1. Energy balance at the entrance to
the convergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.2. Pressure at the entrance to the neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.3. Heat balance at the entrance to the neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.4. Pressure drop in the neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.5. Pressure at the outlet from the divergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.6. Diameter of the drops of scrubbing water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.7. Length of the neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.8. Capture yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3. Pulverization columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.1. Theoretical capture yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.2. Pressure drop of the gas in the column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4. Various points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4.1. Other types of wet scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4.2. General conclusion on wet scrubbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.5. Choice of an air scrubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6. Varied calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.6.1. Approximate calculation of the integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.6.2. Calculation of the overall heat balance
for a wet scrubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Chapter 4. Separation Between a Fluid

and a Divided Solid Through Centrifugal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1. The cyclone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1.1. Principle and precautions for use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1.2. Phases and components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1.3. Presentation of the pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.1.4. Pressure drop in the separation volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.1.5. Calculation of Ui/Vi (Barth’s method, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1.6. Energy loss from the fluid upon return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.1.7. Overall pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.1.8. Pressure drop in hydrocyclones
(approximate calculation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.1.9. Cunningham correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.1.10. Motion of dust particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.1.11. Residence time of fluid filaments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.12. Capture yield for a given particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.1.13. Simplified calculation of the yield
of a gas cyclone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
viii Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

4.1.14. Simplified calculation of the yield

of a hydrocyclone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1.15. Wet aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.16. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.2. The disk decanter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2.1. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2.2. Velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.2.3. Theoretical separation yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2.4. Evolution of the theoretical yield as
a function of the flowrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.5. True separation yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.6. Engorgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.2.7. Use of disk centrifuge decanters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3. Tubular decanter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.1. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.2. The separation yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.4. Screw mud separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.4.1. Operational principles (Figure 4.9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.4.2. Velocity of the clarified liquid between
the threads of the screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4.3. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.4.4. Performances of the mud pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Appendix 1. Numerical Integration: the Fourth-order

Runge–Kutta Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Appendix 2. The Cgs Electromagnetic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Appendix 3. Mohs Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Appendix 4. Definition and Aperture

of Sieve Cloths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
 Preface

The observation is often made that, in creating a chemical installation, the

time spent on the recipient where the reaction takes place (the reactor)
accounts for no more than 5% of the total time spent on the project. This
series of books deals with the remaining 95% (with the exception of oil-fired
furnaces).

It is conceivable that humans will never understand all the truths of the
world. What is certain, though, is that we can and indeed must understand
what we and other humans have done and created, and, in particular, the
tools we have designed.

Even two thousand years ago, the saying existed: “faber fit fabricando”,
which, loosely translated, means: “c’est en forgeant que l’on devient
forgeron” (a popular French adage: one becomes a smith by smithing), or,
still more freely translated into English, “practice makes perfect”. The
“artisan” (faber) of the 21st Century is really the engineer who devises or
describes models of thought. It is precisely that which this series of books
investigates, the author having long combined industrial practice and
reflection about world research.

Scientific and technical research in the 20th century was characterized by

a veritable explosion of results. Undeniably, some of the techniques
discussed herein date back a very long way (for instance, the mixture of
water and ethanol has been being distilled for over a millennium). Today,
though, computers are needed to simulate the operation of the atmospheric
distillation column of an oil refinery. The laws used may be simple statistical
x Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

correlations but, sometimes, simple reasoning is enough to account for a

phenomenon.

Since our very beginnings on this planet, humans have had to deal with
the four primordial “elements” as they were known in the ancient world:
earth, water, air and fire (and a fifth: aether). Today, we speak of gases,
liquids, minerals and vegetables, and finally energy.
The unit operation expressing the behavior of matter are described in
thirteen volumes.
It would be pointless, as popular wisdom has it, to try to “reinvent the
wheel” – i.e. go through prior results. Indeed, we well know that all human
reflection is based on memory, and it has been said for centuries that every
generation is standing on the shoulders of the previous one.

Therefore, exploiting numerous references taken from all over the world,
this series of books describes the operation, the advantages, the drawbacks
and, especially, the choices needing to be made for the various pieces of
equipment used in tens of elementary operations in industry. It presents
simple calculations but also sophisticated logics which will help businesses
avoid lengthy and costly testing and trial-and-error.

Herein, readers will find the methods needed for the understanding the
machinery, even if, sometimes, we must not shy away from complicated
calculations. Fortunately, engineers are trained in computer science, and
highly-accurate machines are available on the market, which enables the
operator or designer to, themselves, build the programs they need. Indeed,
we have to be careful in using commercial programs with obscure internal
logic which are not necessarily well suited to the problem at hand.

The copies of all the publications used in this book were provided by the
Institut National d’Information Scientifique et Technique at Vandœuvre-lès-
Nancy.

The books published in France can be consulted at the Bibliothèque

Nationale de France; those from elsewhere are available at the British
Library in London.

In the in-chapter bibliographies, the name of the author is specified so as

to give each researcher his/her due. By consulting these works, readers may
 Preface xi

gain more in-depth knowledge about each subject if he/she so desires. In a

reflection of today’s multilingual world, the references to which this series
points are in German, French and English.

The problems of optimization of costs have not been touched upon.

However, when armed with a good knowledge of the devices’ operating
parameters, there is no problem with using the method of steepest descent so
as to minimize the sum of the investment and operating expenditure.
This page intentionally left blank
 1

Separation by Decantation
or Precipitation in a
Magnetic or Electrical Field

1.1. Separation in a magnetic field

1.1.1. Recap on magnetic fields

In a vacuum, the magnetic induction caused by an electrical current I has

the following dimensions:

intensity
[ B] = μ 0 [ H ] = μ 0 ×
m
uv
H: magnetic field

μ 0 : magnetic permeability of a vacuum

The value of μ0 depends on the system of units used.

International system (SI) μ0 = 4π.10–7 [B] = Tesla or Ampere

per meter × μ0.

EMCGS μ 0 = 4π [ B] = gauss
2 Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

Let us examine the units of magnetic field:

1 oersted is the value of the magnetic field H which, in a vacuum,

produces B = 1 gauss.

The SI unit of field, in a vacuum, produces an induction of 4π.10 −7

Tesla.

By definition:

1,000
1 oersted = A.m −1
4π

From this, we deduce:

1 A.m −1 → 4 π.10 −7 Tesla

1 oersted → 1 gauss

We can divide both sides of the equation in turn, because the induction is
proportional to the field.

1,000 oersted gauss

= −1
=
4π A.m 4π.10−7 Tesla

Thus, we have the following correspondence between the units of

magnetic induction:

1 Tesla = 10,000 gauss

1.1.2. Intensity of magnetization and magnetic separation

When subjected to a magnetic induction B, an elementary volume v of

magnetizable substance acquires local magnetization M, where M is the
magnetic moment of the elementary volume.

The volumetric intensity of magnetization per unit volume is:

uuv uv
M B uv
J= =χ = χH
v μ0
 Separation by Decantation or Precipitation in a Magnetic or Electrical Field 3

The dimensions of the magnetic moment are:

Electrical intensity × surface = I.m²

χ is the magnetic susceptibility, which is approximately 10-5 in the SI.

As [ M ] = I.m 2 , we have [ M/v ] = I.m −1

J is therefore measured in the same units as H, and the magnetic

susceptibility is a dimensionless number.

1.1.3. Classification of solids

1) Depending on the sign of the magnetic susceptibility:

– diamagnetics move away from zones of strong field, towards zones of
weak field. Their susceptibility is negative (such is the case with graphite,
for example). They cannot be separated using a magnetic field;
– ferromagnetics (Fe, Co, Ni), paramagnetics (Pt, Pd, Pyrite, FeO, MnO,
NiO), antiferromagnetics and ferrimagnetics (ferrites M2O4 where M is a
divalent metal such as Mg, Fe, Co or Mn) are attracted to zones where the
field is strong. It is these substances that we can treat using a magnetic field.
2) Depending on their magnetizability:
– non-metallic minerals are not magnetizable, even by fields stronger
than 25×105 A.m-1;
– the separation of metallic minerals requires induction fields between
5×105 A.m-1 (weak fields) and 25×105 A.m-1 (strong fields). The range of
susceptibilities is such that:
χ
1, 20.10 −6 < < 50.10−6 (SI)
μ0

(in the international system, the value χ/μ0 is 1/4π CGS units of the value χ).
Table 1.1 shows the susceptibility of a number of solids.
Note that magnetite, which is aptly named, can be separated by an
induction field weaker than 1.2×105 A.m-1 because, for it, χ/µ0 > 240×10-6.
4 Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

Finally, a solid is more magnetizable when its magnetic susceptibility is

high.

Aegyrine 6.8 Hausmannite 4.6

Ankerite 2.7 Hornblende 2.4–18.3
Apatite 0.32 Ilmenite 2–9.1
Biotite 3.2–4.4 Manganite 3.8
Blende 0–0.8 Malachite 1.2
Bornite 0.6 Marcassite 0
Braunite 9.54 Mispickel 0
Calcite 0–0.24 Monazite 1.1
Manganiferous calcite 5.2–7.6 Psilomelane 2–4
Chalcocite 0 Pyrite 0
Corindon 0 Pyrolusite –2.4
Dolomite 0.16 Quartz 0
Erubescite 2.15 Rhodocrosite 8–15.5
Feldspar 0.4 Rutile 42.16
Fluorine 0.4 Stilbine 0.48
Galene 0 Talc 2.23
Giobertite 0–1.2 Wad 6.8
Glauconite 4.8 Wernadite 2.4–3.58
Garnet 4.8–12.7 Wolframite 5.5–7.56
Zircon 14

Table 1.1. Susceptibility of minerals (χ/µ0 in 10-6)

1.1.4. Processes of magnetic separation

When a magnetizable solid is subjected to a magnetic induction field, the

local magnetic moments are oriented in the direction of the induction fields,
and the whole solid becomes similar to a magnet, each pole is attracted by
the opposite pole of any magnet in the vicinity.
 Separation by Decantation or Precipitation in a Magnetic or Electrical Field 5

When we want to attract a product which is not highly magnetizable, we

must use a powerful magnet, and vice versa. In the way of magnets, we
could use:
– permanent magnets;
– electro-magnets, whose intensity can be varied from one machine to
another;
– cylinders of mild steel, situated in the air gap of powerful magnets, and
magnetized by induction (“induced rotors”).

The general principle is to attract the magnetizable particles with a metal

surface which is, itself, magnetized. Then, the metal surface moves out of the
induction field and the particles that it had attracted detach, generally aided by
centrifugal force (if the attracting surface is a cylinder) or a fluid current.

Whether the product is dry or dispersed in water, the principles remain

the same. However, humid separation is limited by the viscosity of the liquid –
particularly in the case of fine particles, whose velocity of displacement is
reduced. Dry separation circumvents this problem but, in order to treat
particles which are smaller than 20µm, the product’s humidity must be less
than 1%.

1.2. Electrofilters

1.2.1. Description

The general design of an electrofilter is shown by Figure 1.1. The wires

have a lower potential than the plates. As the corona effect manifests around
the wires, we say that, in this case, the discharge is negative.

Figure 1.1. Electrofilter

6 Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

The frames are held in place by quartz insulators (which are insensitive
to significant variations in temperature), electrically heated if necessary, to
prevent the formation of condensates on the insulators, because of the high
water vapor content of the gases.

The shape of the receiver plates (collecting plates) is as shown in

Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2. Collecting electrodes

This shape decreases the risks of the fixed dust particles rebounding. The
velocity of the gases must be fairly high to render the installation profitable.
However, it must not be too high, so as not to entrain the particles which
have already precipitated.

The distribution of the gases as they enter the electrofilter is crucially

important for the yield. The speed of the gas streams, measured with an
anemometer, must be as uniform as possible. To this effect, we install
perforated sheet metals in the inlet diffuser. These sheets create almost all of
the pressure drop in the device. They constitute something of a pre-deduster,
which necessitates the installation of a dust hopper beneath the diffuser.

When the gases enter through the top or the bottom, we install guide
vanes rectifying the gaseous streams and bringing them to the horizontal in
front of the perforated sheet metal at the inlet to the electrofilter.

1.2.2. Shaking

To dislodge the dust situated on the collecting electrodes, we periodically

give those electrodes with a vibrational motion. The plates need to oscillate
easily over the whole of their height so that the effect of the shaking at their
bottom is transmitted fully to their top.
 Separation by Decantation or Precipitation in a Magnetic or Electrical Field 7

The shaking lends the plates an acceleration of 50 to 100 g (g = 9.81 m.s-2)

and thus evacuates 90% of the dust collected.

The dust must fall in clusters because their drop speed is high (as the air
resistance is negligible). Given the presence of the air stream, we cannot
hope to make isolated particles fall. If such particles appear during the
course of the shaking, the separation will need to be restarted from a distance
of a few centimeters in front of the collecting electrode and, if the device is
too short, the yield will drop.

Preferably, shaking should not be continuous and should be timed so that,

between two operations, the clusters of dust have the time to grow – in other
words, so that the thickness of the dust layer is sufficient. For example, we
could adopt rest intervals of 5 minutes at the inlet and 15 minutes at the outlet
(because it is here that there is least dust). The optimal interval between
shaking cycles, and their intensity, need to be determined at startup.

If the dust has trouble detaching, we could spray:

– water if the dust is water-soluble;
– mineral oil for organic products (tar, naphthalene, etc.).

1.2.3. The transport mechanism

When there is a sufficient potential difference between a highly-curved

electrode – say, a wire (and, a fortiori, a barbed wire) – and an electrode
with little or no curvature like a plate, the wire is literally covered in charged
ions which radiate in the ultra-violet spectrum. This is known as the corona
effect.

In industrial electrofilters, the wires are given a negative potential in

relation to the plates (the opposite is true in air-conditioning, so as to moderate
the appearance of ozone). The wires constitute the emissive electrode and the
plates (on which the dust accumulates) are the collecting electrodes.

Electrons are emitted by the wires by way of the photoelectrical effect,

generally speaking, and in the electrofilter by the shock of positive ions
moving away from the positive collecting electrode toward the wires. In their
movement in opposite directions, the electrons encounter the molecules of gas
(and the collisions between them liberate secondary electrons) and positive
8 Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

ions, with the production of UV radiation. Above all, though (and it is here
that the interest lies), electrons affix to the gaseous molecules and transform
them into negative ions, which in turn affix to the dust, giving it a negative
charge.

1.2.4. Apparition of sparks and counter-ionization

The dust deposited on the collecting electrode has a certain resistance

and, according to Ohm’s law, a potential difference arises between the faces
of the dust layer.

If the resistivity of the dust is sufficiently high, the corresponding

potential difference may become greater than the breakdown voltage of the
imperfect insulator, which is dust. Sparks fly (breakdown) and cause the
formation of craters in which ions of both polarities come into being. This
has a number of consequences:
1) when a spark appears, it is a preferential path for the electric current
and the intensity passing through the installation increases sharply; it is then
necessary for a device to be put in place to limit the intensity if we wish to
avoid damaging the electrical circuits;
2) with the apparition of sparks, ions of both polarities are formed in the
craters, and the positive ions formed are attracted into the gas space by the
negatively-charged particles, equalizing and thus neutralizing their charge –
hence the term “counter-ionization”;
3) the formation of craters tends to re-disperse the dust collected into the
gaseous environment.

The last two points above are significant causes of yield reduction and, in
order for an installation to function properly, it is important that the
frequency of disruptions is no higher than 1min-1 per electrical section. In
practice, for the working voltage, we choose the nominal voltage compatible
with that condition, which is tantamount to adopting a potential difference
equal to 90% of the disruption voltage.

Note that the disruption electrical voltage is lower in the case of positive
discharge than negative discharge, meaning that sparks occur more readily
with a positive discharge. This is one of the reasons why dust removers
operate with negative discharge.
 Separation by Decantation or Precipitation in a Magnetic or Electrical Field 9

1.2.5. Geometric data

Perforated sheet metal is installed at the input to the deduster so as to

regulate the flow of gas. If these sheets are improperly attached, or if the
fixings give way under the influence of a blow or of thermal expansion, an
imbalance of gaseous flow will arise, which is detrimental to the overall
yield, because the higher yield obtained for the slowest gaseous veins does
not compensate for the degradation of the yield obtained with the faster
veins.

If the wires were spaced a considerable distance apart, the current density
on the collecting plates at the end of the wires could be 50% higher than the
installation’s average value. It is therefore useful to space the wires closer
together – i.e. to increase the number thereof – but no great improvement is
obtained once the distance separating two consecutive wires becomes
smaller than the spacing between two plates.

The surface area of the collecting electrodes may be up to a maximum of

150 m² per m3.s-1 of gas in real conditions (non-standard). This surface area
will be larger when separation is more difficult and, with the velocity of the
gas remaining constant, the surface area determines the number of plates (i.e.
their spacing) and the distance traveled by the gas in the device (characterized
by the elongation – i.e. the ratio of the device’s length to its height). Let us
first examine this latter point.

At a given gas velocity VG, the length of the gas path defines the
residence time of the gas in the device, and that length of stay is no greater
than 15 seconds. If the elongation is sufficient, natural sedimentation of the
coarser particles occurs (particularly if VG is no greater than 1 m.s-1). The
elongation also has an influence on the losses engendered by shaking (to
dislodge the layer of dust from the plates). If the device is too short, dust
falling from the plates may be entrained out of the electrofilter by the gas
stream. In the case of finer dust, the drop time over a height of 7–10 m may
reach up to several seconds and if, in addition, the elongation is less than 1
and VG greater than 1.5 m.s-1, there will be harmful consequences for the
yield. In practice, the elongation L/H lies somewhere between the following
bounds:

0.5 < L/H < 1.5

10 Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

and, most usually:

0.7 < L/H < 1.3 (L: length; H: height)

The spacing of the plates varies, from case to case, between 0.15 and
0.40 m. Significant spacing is used when the dust concentration is high, so as
to minimize the risks of sparks. On the other hand, spacing close together
lowers the necessary voltage, but it is then more difficult to obtain a regular
alignment. We shall soon see, though, that it is possible to circumvent this
problem by dividing the device into independent sections.

A large surface of collecting electrodes with a single electrical inlet

exhibits two weaknesses which favor the appearance of sparks because of
imbalance of the current density:
– it is difficult to rigorously maintain the alignment of the electrodes;
– there are numerous local accumulations of dust not evacuated by the
shaking.

Thus, the idea was to divide the device into sections, each with an
independent electrical supply. Depending on the device, there may be
between 2 and 8 sections per 100 m3.s-1 of gas, each section with a surface
area ranging between 500 and 8000 m².

Thus, if we wish to process 100 m3.s-1 of a gas with 90 m².(m3.s-1)-1, we

need to use 9000 m², which could be divided into three sections of 3000 m².
By working in this way, we can hope to increase the voltage at which sparks
begin to appear by 5–10 kV.

In summary, with a proper design, we can expect a good yield, because

there will be:
– uniformity of the gas flowrate;
– correct alignment of the electrodes;
– uniformity of the current density on the electrodes.

If these three conditions are not respected, it is possible for a predicted

yield of 95% to 99% to be, in reality, only 50% to 90%.
 Separation by Decantation or Precipitation in a Magnetic or Electrical Field 11

1.2.6. Operational equation

In the gaseous space, the flux of electrical charges passing across an

elementary surface dS is:

n (u q E) dS

Here, u is the mobility of the charged ions, E the electrical field and q the
volumetric charge density. The vector n is the unit vector normal to the
elementary surface dS.

In the permanent regime, there is no accumulation of charges in a closed

surface:

⌠ n ( u q E ) dS = 0
⎮
⌡S

The mobility u is a constant which we can extract from the sum sign. Let
us then apply Ostrogradsky’s theorem:

⌠
0 = ⎮ n ⋅ ( qE ) dS = ⌠
⎮ div ( qE ) dV
⌡S ⌡V

These equalities do not depend on the chosen volume; they are equivalent
to:

div (qE) = 0

However, using vectorial analysis, we can show (see Spiegel, p. 120)

that:

div (qE) = q div E + E.grad q

According to Maxwell’s laws:

q = div D = εr ε0 div E

(In the case of interest to us here, the relative permittivity εr is very close
to 1, because we are dealing with gas at atmospheric pressure).
12 Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

From the last three equations, it results that:

q2
+ E ⋅ grad q = 0
ε0
However:

E = - grad V

where V is the electrical potential. We finally obtain the operational equation:

q² = ε0 grad V. grad q

1.2.7. Calculation of the potential field

For calculating the potential field, we have two equations at our disposal:
– Poisson’s equation:
q
ΔV + =0
ε0

– the operational equation:

q² = ε0 grad V. grad q

In the y direction, the arrangement of the wires is periodic, with a spatial

period d and the domain of length d exhibits two axes of symmetry.
Therefore, we merely need to perform the calculations on the cross-hatched
domain D.

This domain is divided into elementary squares. Figure 1.4 represents

four of these squares whose side length is equal to a.

Figure 1.3. Arrangement of wires and collecting electrodes

 Separation by Decantation or Precipitation in a Magnetic or Electrical Field 13

For the potential, the boundary conditions are as follows:

Its value is imposed on the wire and on the collecting electrode. In

addition, owing to the symmetry:

∂V
on the side OP: =0
∂x
∂V
on the sides OR and PQ : =0
∂y

Poisson’s equation is written thus:

V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 − 4V0 q 0
+ =0
a2 ε0

We then take a uniform charge density q(0) – e.g. equal to 1013 elementary
charges per m3 (i.e. 1.602×10-6 C/m3).

The Poisson equation can then be used to calculate the potential field.

If we know the potential field, we need to calculate new values of the

charge density. For this purpose, we need to know the lineic current density
jL on the wire.

Figure 1.4. Typical mesh

14 Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

If we suppose that the wire occupies the point 0 in the typical mesh, we
can write the following, with u being the celerity of the charged particles:

jL ⎡ ⎡ q + q 0 ⎤ ⎡ V0 − V1 ⎤ ⎡ q 4 + q 0 ⎤ ⎡ V0 − V4 ⎤ ⎤
= a 2u ⎢⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎥
4 ⎣⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ a ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ a ⎦⎦

With the exception of the point 0, in light of symmetry, we are able to

write:

∂q
on the side OP: =0
∂x
∂q
on the sides OR and PQ : =0
∂y

On the collecting electrode, we write the operational equation, expressing

the derivatives with respect to x using the left-hand differences.

Within the domain D, we write that equation in the form:

ε0
q (1)
0 = ⎡( V4 − V2 )( q 4 − q 2 ) + ( V3 − V1 )( q 3 − q1 ) ⎤⎦
4a q 0 (0) ⎣
2

and on the collecting electrode, if we accept that the point 0 of the typical
mesh is on that electrode:

ε0
q (1)
0 = grad V ⋅ grad q
q (0)
0

Thus, we have as many linear equations in q(1) as there are unknowns.

After solving this system, we replace q(0) with q(1), and continue in this way
until the values of q no longer vary. Having thus determined the range of the
charge densities, we recalculate the potential range and continue until both
ranges no longer vary.

Remember that the expression of the derivative by left difference is:

∂V 1
= ⎡3Vj − 4Vj−1 + Vj− 2 ⎤⎦
∂x 2a ⎣
 Separation by Decantation or Precipitation in a Magnetic or Electrical Field 15

1.2.8. Consequences

Leutert et al. [LEU 72] applied this method, and their publication gives
the fields obtained. We then say that the electrical field is nearly uniform
over four fifths of the distance separating the plates from the wires (starting
at the plates). This is why, hereafter, we shall accept the hypothesis of a
uniform electrical field at a distance from each particle which is significant
in relation to the size of that particle.

On the other hand, as regards the electrical charges, the above

calculations do indeed give the electrical charge at each point, but that
charge is an overall charge which is the sum of three terms, pertaining
respectively to:
– the electrons;
– the ions; or
– the charged particles of dust.

At present, we are unable to distribute the overall charge into those three
elements. However, in the practical calculations, we accept that only the ions
are significant.

1.2.9. Potential due to a uniform field and to a dielectrical particle

Let us begin by looking for the potential V0 linked to the lone uniform
field E0. We can write:

∂V0
− = E0 [1.1]
∂x

and

∂V0
− =0 [1.2]
∂y

Let us take the origin of the potentials at point 0 and integrate equation
[1.1]:

V0 = − E 0 x
16 Liquid–Gas and Solid–Gas Separators

This expression automatically satisfies equation [1.2] and, finally:

V0 = − E 0 r cos θ

Outside of the particle, which is initially supposed to be non-charged, we

can seek an expression of the potential in the form of a serial expansion:
∞
Bn
Ve = −E 0 r cos θ + ∑ ( cos θ)
n

n =0 r n +1

Indeed, a long way from the particle, we must find the expression of the
potential due to a uniform field.

Inside of the supposedly-spherical particle whose center lies at 0, we can

also look for an expression of the potential in the form of a serial expansion:
∞
Vi = ∑ A n r n ( cos θ )
n

n =1

Figure 1.5. Dielectric particle assimilated to point 0

Indeed, at point 0, the potential must not only remain finite but actually
disappear, because we have taken the origin of the potentials at that point.

Let us write that at the surface of the particle, the potential is continuous:

B0 B1 cos θ B 2 cos 2 θ
− E 0 rp cos θ + + + = A1rp cos θ + A 2 rp2 cos 2 θ [1.3]
rp rp2 rp3
Another random document with
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"And why so?" I asked.

"Because, an you read and believe it, you will never go back
there," answered Dick; and that was all I could get out of
him.

Dick is changed, but not as Mistress Bullen said. He is far

graver, and more manly than he used to be. He has lost
most of his old blundering bashfulness, and seems indeed
not to think of himself at all. The very expression of his face
is changed, yet he has all his old kind ways, and is just as
ready to do service to gentle and simple.

It is odd he never so much as noticed the change in my

dress.

I am vexed when I think of the coil that was made about

poor Dick's simple offering. If dear Mother had only opened
it—but she will know when I write to her.

To-morrow is May-day, and is like to be fine. If so we shall

go down as usual, and see the dances on the green, and
perhaps join in them. My Lord and Lady have promised to
grace us with their presence. I fear she will think our
country ways but rude and boisterous, as she has lived all
her life in town and about the Court; though in her manners
she is as modest and simple as any country maid.
 CHAPTER XXVI.

May 12.

THE May games went off very well. We had all the usual
sports—Robin Hood and Little John, Maid Marian and all the
rest of them, and besides a Miracle play—the first ever seen
in these parts, and for mine own part I should hope it might
be the last. The players, it seems, were at Biddeford May
games, and hearing that we were to have unusual festivities
here, they sent a deputation hither, praying my Lord and
my father to patronize them. The Prior also gave them his
good word, so my Lord consented and won my father to do
the same.

The old May pole having been shivered by lightning last

year, my Lord gave a new one from his own woods, a fine,
stately shaft, which was duly bedizened with flowers and
ribbons, and drawn to its place on the morning of the
games, with all the oxen that could be mustered, and a
great noise of horns, hautbois and fiddles.

We walked down to the green about ten of the clock, and

found the lads and maids dancing about the pole, and more
than the usual crowd assembled. There was an Egyptian
woman telling of fortunes, a travelling huckster or two with
ribbons, toys and gingerbread, and another selling of books
and ballads, who I fear made but a bad speculation. He was
a sober, decent-looking man, and seeing him looking our
way, my mother beckoned him, and began looking over his
stock, which was made up mostly of tracts and primers,
with some ballads and penny prints of saints and virgins.

"And have you no other wares than these?" asked my step-

dame. "There are many new books going now-a-days?"

"And that is true, madam," answered the chapman, (and I

could not but notice how well he spoke, respectfully, but
with no fawning servility, such as chapmen commonly use).
"The present time is, under your favor, like the householder
in the scriptures, bringing forth out of his treasures things
new and old. Aye, and the old have been so long forgot in
these parts that they are the newest of all."

"And that is true!" answered my mother. "Well, this is but a

public place. Come you to Corby End this evening, and we
will look over your wares, and give you a night's
entertainment."

The man gave her courteous thanks and turned away. Just
then Harry came to tell us that the play was about to begin,
and only waited our coming to the seats reserved for us.

"I have little fancy for these mummeries," said my Lady to

us, as we took the stools which had been set for our
accommodation; "but yet we must not mortify the poor
players. I trust they will confine themselves in proper
bounds."

"'Tis the Passion of our Lord they are about to play," said
the Prior of Stanton, who had his seat near us. "No one can
object to that, surely."

"With submission, reverend Father, such a subject seems to

me hardly fitted for the day and the scene," answered my
Lady, gently. "Besides, does it not seem to you to savor of
presumption—to say no more—that a poor strolling player,
and he often a lewd and profane person, as but too many of
them are—should take upon himself to personate our
suffering Lord, putting his own words in the mouth of one
so unspeakably august and venerable?"

The Prior fidgetted on his scat, and looked somewhat

uncomfortable as he answered:

"You know, my Lady, the Church path always sanctioned

these things, considering them to be of the nature of
pictures and images, which are called the books of the
unlearned."

"But why not expend the time and treasure which these
things cost, in teaching the unlearned?" asked my mother.

"Nay, Madam, that would never do," answered the Prior.

"What, would you have Jack and Jill, and Hodge and Joan,
leaving their ploughing and spinning to pore over books of
divinity, and discuss questions of casuistry? What then
would become of the work, and of the respect which they
owe to their betters?"

The poor old fat priest got so red and did seem so
disturbed, that I was glad my mother made him no reply,
save a smile. Indeed, she had no time to do so, for the play
began directly.

I had never seen such an one before, and I must say I was
shocked. There were all the holy Apostles, our Lady
(represented by a simpering boy with a crack in his voice)
Pontius Pilate (a most truculent looking personage), the two
thieves, and worst of all, our Lord himself, besides devils
and angels in plenty. The people made their remarks freely
enough, and I can't say they seemed greatly solemnized or
edified. The part which pleased them most was when the
devils thrust Judas down to the infernal pit, and were then
kicked after him, without any ceremony, by the angels, who
afterward ascended to heaven, one at a time, on the same
cloud which had served our Lord, and which was worked in
plain sight by a man with a rope and a winch.

It seems to me almost profane to write these things down,

and yet I don't know why I should feel so. We used to make
little Christs of wax at the convent, and paint them to the
life, and nobody thought any harm of that. And there were
our Bethlehems, which practice was begun by Saint Francis
himself, our holy founder, and at the first of which happened
a wonderful miracle, for during the ceremony, the saint was
seen caressing an infant of celestial beauty, who appeared
to the astonishment of all beholders. The straw on which
this apparition happened was preserved with great
devotion, and worked many miraculous cures. We had some
of it among our relics, and 'twas held almost as sacred as
the glass containing the Holy Virgin's milk. But I am
forgetting the May games.

After the play was ended, the dancing began anew. Several
of the fathers were down from the convent, as usual, but
methought they were not very cordially received. And when
Father Jerome ventured to chuck Jan Lee's new wife under
the chin, with what I must needs say was rather a broad
jest, Jan gave him a look as black as thunder and drew his
bride away. I too had an encounter which did not please
me. I was standing by my father, and leaning on his arm,
when the Prior came up to us with the same dark priest who
had been in the church on Sunday, and presented him to
my father as Father Barnabas of Glastonbury. Then turning
to me:

"What, my fair Rosamond, is this you? I did not know the

dove in her plumage!"
While I was thinking what to say in reply, the other priest
broke in:

"Methinks neither the plumes nor the place are very well
suited to the promised bride of Christ; how well soever they
may beseem fair Rosamond!" with an emphasis on the
name. It was now my father's turn to look black.

"My daughter, sir priest, is no nun; and being as yet under

her father's roof and rule, she dresses to please him, like a
dutiful maiden, and according to the words we heard last
Sunday: 'Honor thy father and mother.'"

"Aye, there it is," said the prior. "Now may we see what
comes of these innovations. Soon every man will be ready
with his text and his commentary—according to the boast of
that archfiend Tyndale, which I heard him make to myself,
that he would so order matters that in a few years every
ploughboy should know more of Scripture than I did. And
what are we to do then!"

"Lackaday! I don't know," answered Will Paxton, my Lord's

jester, putting in his word as usual—"'Tis an ill-ordered
house where the man can write, though the master can't
read."

Whereat the priest frowned, and my father laughed heartily,

and gave Will a silver groat, bidding him go buy a fairing for
his sweetheart. Then saying that I was standing too long
and would be ill again, he led me away, and we presently
went up to the Court to spend the day with my Lady, to
whom I had promised instruction in the art of knitting. We
passed a very quiet and pleasant day, and walking home
together in the twilight, in a thoughtful mood, I suddenly
bethought myself of Dick's little book, and asked my
mother, saying:
"Madam, have you ever seen one of these same Testaments
of Master Tyndale's?"

"Aye, daughter, that have I! I have both seen and read it!"
she answered.

"And do you think 'tis really the true Gospel?" I asked

again, remembering what Amice had told me about it.

"I have no doubt of it. Master Ellenwood, at my request,

and for his own satisfaction, has been comparing it with the
Greek and Latin text, and says 'tis marvellously well done."

"Oh, how I should love to read it!" I exclaimed.

"You would find many things to astonish you, my child,"

answered my mother. "Yea, to upset all your former notions,
and mayhap lead you to renounce and contemn many
things which you have been used to hold most sacred all
your life long."

"Dick said I must not read it if I ever meant to go back to

the convent," I said. "But mother—Madam, I would say—"

"Nay, dearest child, call me ever mother, if you will," said

she, pressing my arm kindly. "'Tis very sweet to me to hear
the name fall so naturally from your lips. But what would
you say, dear heart?"

"I was going to say, that this difference seems very strange
and sad to me," I went on. "If the Gospels are right—and
the true Gospel must be right—then is the Church wrong!"

"Well, what then?" she asked. "Your reasoning is good, but

what then?"
"Why, then we must follow the Gospel, as it seems to me," I
answered. "But, mother, will you let me have this Gospel to
read?"

"Yes, child! Since you ask it, I can do no otherwise," said

she, after a moment's hesitation. "I dare not withhold the
word of God from you—but alas, my child, have you
considered that you may be taking in hand the torch to light
your own funeral pile, withal? Shall I give you that which
may be your death?"

"Why not, if it shall lead me to eternal life?" I said.

"Besides, it may not be so bad as you say. Mistress Bullen
favors the new teachings, my Lady says—not that I think
any better of them for that, but she is very great with the
King, as we all know."

"I build not at all on Mrs. Bullen's favor," answered my Lady.

"She is indeed in the sunshine of his Majesty's countenance
even now, but how long will she stay there, think you? She
is beautiful and brilliant and fascinating, if you will—though
I must say she never pleased me—but she hath neither
principle nor prudence to guide her in her dangerous path.
Ah, child, be thankful that you have grown up at home, and
not in a Court."

"But as to this book!" I ventured to say.

"As to this book, you shall have it, if your father be willing
to let you run the risk. But count the cost, my child, and
pray for guidance to Him who has promised to give wisdom
to them that ask. When you have done so, come to me in
my closet, and I will put into your hands the word of God."
 CHAPTER XXVII.

June 1.

DICK was right! I shall never go back to the convent.

The next day after the May games, my mother, according to

her promise, put into my hand Master Tyndale's New
Testament, and with it a copy of the same in Latin—the
Vulgate, as 'tis called—bidding me compare as I read. Since
then every leisure moment has been spent in reading and
studying and comparing, and oh, in what a new world of
thought and feeling and experience do I find myself! What
clouds have cleared away from my mind!

I have spent many hours closeted with my mother, and

while our fingers worked at Harry's outfit, our minds were
busy with these great themes. No, I never can go back,
never can take the veil! I find in the word of God no warrant
for any such life.

How astonished I was to find that St. Peter and St. James
and other of the Apostles had been married—that our Lady
herself seems to have lived at home with her husband like
any other woman—and that she is nowhere represented as
bearing any rule, or being of more authority in the Church
than any other woman. Indeed, our Lord Himself said that
any one who had His word and kept it, was as near to Him
as His mother—"the same is my brother, and sister, and
mother"—are His words. And then this very Gospel, which
the priests keep so jealously from us, was at the first
preached to the common folk in those parts—they followed
Him in crowds to hear His words, and indeed very few of
the better or more religious class followed Him at all. But I
cannot write down all my thoughts—they are too new and
too precious. I must think them over.

My mother tells me that the chapman whom we saw at the

May games, and who stayed more than one night here and
at the Court, was a member of the fraternity known among
themselves as the Christian Brothers—a company of
merchants and men of substance who devote their time,
their means, yea and their lives also to spreading the word
of God in this land. This same Master Bradbury's stock in
trade consisted chiefly of Testaments, or fragments of the
same, which he disseminated wherever he found
opportunity.

My mother, I can see, builds nothing at all on his Majesty's

favor for the new religion. She says he may quarrel with the
Pope about this matter of the divorce, but if so, 'twill be but
to make himself Pope instead. He is already highly enraged
at Tyndale, because of his letter against the divorce, and
hath forbidden the circulation of his books; but, said my
mother, he might as well forbid the wind to blow.

'Tis even as Master Ellenwood said—like making a breach in

the dykes and forbidding the sea to run through.

But I can't help hoping more than my mother does—

perhaps because I am younger. Anyhow I am sure I shall
never be sorry that I have come to know the true Gospel. It
has cleared away many doubts and fears and cares from my
mind. All anxiety for my mother's soul, for one thing;
because, though she believed as she was taught, and never
saw this book, yet I am sure she trusted in God for her
salvation, and served Him according to the light that she
had. As for my dear Amice, I feel sure that she has obtained
the object of her old ambition, though in a far different way
from that she proposed for herself, and is now indeed a
saint—a glorified saint, to go no more out from His presence
forever, in whom she trusted. Oh, that dear Mother
Gertrude could have this comfort about one whom she
mourns as eternally condemned to perdition! I cannot give
it her—I can only pray for her and—what a word have I here
written! Only pray for her, forsooth!

CHAPTER XXVIII.
I HAVE had an adventure which hath bred serious
consequences in the household.

The night before last was very dark and sultry, with thick,
low hanging clouds, and a feeling of thunder in the air. The
sea was calling loudly, and Dobby's Pool roaring in that
hollow, boding tone, which always foretells a storm. I had
had a headache, and some threatenings of a chill, a
visitation to which I am now and then subject, and my
mother gave me a dose of her favorite spicy cordial, and
sent me early to bed.

Thunder always makes me drowsy, and I was soon asleep.

It must have been near midnight when I waked. The waning
moon had risen, and shone full into the chamber and on the
door of my mother's oratory. To my utter amazement it
opened slowly, and a figure issued therefrom, dressed in my
mother's garments, and bearing in one hand a dim light, in
the other my old convent dress, which it seemed to hold up
reproachfully before my eyes, while it uttered in a hollow
whisper these words:

"Wretched, apostate child! Will you doom your own soul and
your mother's to the flames of hell forever?"

I was scared at first, I confess—but the moment the

apparition spoke, my courage returned, or something which
served me instead. I sprang from the bed, and snatching
the bed staff which stood near, I rushed at the would-be
ghost, which retreated the way it had come with all haste,
but not before I had dealt it one sound blow, which fell
plainly on corporal substance. I followed the thing into the
oratory, but it was nowhere to be seen. By this time I was
as cool as possible. I knew there was but one place of
concealment, namely a small closet which had no outlet,
and finding the key in the oratory door, I quietly locked it on
the outside, put the key away, and returned to bed.

The start and exertion brought on my shivering fit, and I

was just beginning to get over it a little, when I heard a
voice I well knew, but humble and quavering enough.

"Mrs. Rosamond—Oh, Mistress Rosamond—" then as I did

not answer—"Oh, Mistress Rosamond, do let me out! There
is a storm coming on, and I dare not stay here."

"Who are you?" I asked, trying to speak soberly, though I

was choked with laughter.

"I am nobody but Prudence—Prudence, your poor bower-

woman. Oh, Mistress Rosamond, do let me out, and I will
thank you all my days!"

"I do not believe you!" I said. "Prudence would never play

such a wicked, malicious trick, and one too so profane and
impious. You are some impudent stroller and thief—an
Egyptian, too, for aught I know. You shall stay till morning,
and see what measure my Lord and my father will deal out
to you."

She still pleaded for mercy, and in tones of such real and
abject terror, that I began to fear she might die of fright,
and rose to release her; but just as I was striking a light,
for the clouds had risen once more, and it was very dark,
my stepmother entered the room with a candle in her hand.

"Are you ill, Rosamond—and who were you talking with?"

said she, looking around, and naturally surprised to see
nobody. "I am sure I heard you talking."
"You did, Madam!" I answered. "A ghost appeared to me
and I chased it with the bed staff into the closet yonder and
locked it up, and now it is scared and wants to get out."

Madam looked as if she thought my wits were wandering,

and as well as I could for laughing, I told her the tale. Then
suddenly the wickedness and unkindness of the trick flashed
on me, and I fell to crying as hard as I had laughed.

Madam soothed and kissed me, and making me lie down,

she said she would fetch me some drops from her room
—"and then I will call your father, and we will unearth this
ghost of ours."

When she was gone, Prudence renewed her pleadings. "Oh,

Mistress Rosamond, do let me out. My master will kill me!"

"I can't," said I. "Madam has taken the key—" (as indeed
she had, thinking, I dare say, that I should relent).
"Whoever you are, you must bake as you have brewed. I
fear the bread will not be to your taste."

My father and mother entered even as I spoke, and going at

once to the door, my father unlocked and threw it open.
There stood Mistress Prudence, arrayed as I had seen her,
for in the darkness she had not been able to find her own
gown, and looking as foolish and venomous as a fox caught
in a poultry yard.

I pass over the scene that followed—my father's stern

wrath, which my mother vainly strove to mitigate, and
Prue's tears and exclamations that she meant no harm, and
it was only a joke, and so on.

"It is a joke that shall cost you dear," said my father, grimly.
"You shall spend the night in the prison you have chosen,
and in the morning you leave this house forever. But for her
sake whose memory you have outraged, the rising sun
should see you set in the stocks on the village green as a
thief and an impudent witch."

"I am no thief!" sobbed Prudence. "I never took so much as

a hair."

"Where got you the clothes you wear—and that rosary by

your side—wretch that you are!" interrupted my father, his
wrath rising as he recognized my mother's beads and cross,
which he had always kept on his own table. "Here, you men
and women—" for by this time half the household were
gathered at the door—"come in and see this woman, who
has dared to dress up in her sainted lady's clothes to scare
my daughter. Look at her well! For by this hand you will not
see her soon again!"

Many and various were the remarks and comments of pity

for me and anger and contempt against Prue, who is no
favorite.

"If it had been any common young lady, and so delicate in

health as Mistress Rosamond too—it might have scared her
to death!" said one.

"I wonder Mrs. Prue didn't see a ghost in good earnest,"

said another. "I should have expected an evil spirit to come
after me if I had played such a trick."

"There is no evil spirit worse than the spirit of lying and

cruelty—remember that, maids!" said Madam, solemnly.
"Now let all go to bed, say your paternosters, and let the
house be quiet."

In the morning Prue was released from her durance and

allowed to go free whither she would. So much grace did
my mother and I obtain for her, but farther than that my
father was adamant. He declared in answer to a hint of
mine that she had had a lesson, and might be allowed to
remain—that nothing should tempt him to let her stay
under the roof another day. And here indeed my step-dame
took part against me, and on consideration, I believe they
are both right—yet I can't but feel very sorry for Prue. She
came to my room to bid me farewell, and I gave her some
money. My step-dame did the same, though I believe there
was little need of it, for I know she hath saved nearly all her
earnings.

"Oh, Mistress Rosamond!" was all she could say at first, for
she was really weeping—and then—"'Twas all for your good
—to save your precious soul and your mother's."

"Souls are not to be saved by lies, Prue!" says I.

"Remember that there is no sin that God hates more than
this of lying."

"Nay, 'tis but a venial sin," she answered, excusing herself;

"'tis not one of the seven deadly sins!"

"'Tis a sin most expressly forbidden in the word of God," I

told her, "as you might have known if you had listened to
the commandments which have been read in the church
lately."

"Not I!" said she, tartly. "I am for no such new-fangled

ways. But oh, Mistress Rosamond, I meant not to harm you
—I did not, indeed. 'Twas all for your good, and to scare
you into your duty. Oh, Mistress Rosamond, my dear heart,
do not you be persuaded into breaking your convent vows!
Your mother, your blessed mother, gave you to the Church
the very hour you were born, and before. You will pull down
destruction on your head, if you draw back—Father
Barnabas himself says the same. This new lady is no better
than a heretic, and I have it from a sure hand that in
London she was well-known as such, and my mistress is
just the same. Oh, that ever I should have lived to see the
day! But, my dear Mistress Rosamond, for your own soul
and body's sake, don't you break your vows and be a
castaway!"

"Now you are meddling with matters far too high for you,
Prudence!" said I. "As for my vows, there can be none
broken where there were none made, and for the rest,
beware my Lord's anger! If he should hear that you had but
breathed on the fair fame of his wife, it were better you had
never been born!"

She winced a little at this, and took refuge in tears and

exclamations that ever she had lived to see the day: and so
took her leave, meaning, as she says, to go to her sisters at
Bristol. Yet I hear she hath not gone, but is staying with
some one here in the village, making a great show of
devotion, and specially of saying her prayers at my
mother's grave. I wish she would go away, I know not why,
but I do dread some mischief from her tongue.

What she said about lying has set me to looking up all the
passages in Scripture relating to the same. I find plenty of
them condemning the sin in the strongest terms, as even
that all liars shall have their part in the lake that burneth
with fire and brimstone, which is the second death; and yet
it is true, as she said, that the Church counts it but a venial
sin. I cannot understand it.
 CHAPTER XXIX.

June 20.

I HAVE been called on to make a very solemn and awful

decision—and I have made it. Some days ago my father
sent for me into his room, and said to me:

"Rosamond, the time has come for you to decide upon your
way of life. If you are going back to the convent it is time
and more that you were gone. You know what your
mother's and my wishes once were on the subject. You
have seen what convent life is, and now you must decide
what you will do—whether you will become a nun, or live at
home."

I was struck dumb for a few minutes. It had never occurred

to me that I was to be called upon to decide the matter. I
had somehow supposed that it would be settled for me.
"So far as we are concerned," continued my father, after a
little silence, "my wife and I would gladly keep you at home.
You have ever shown yourself a dutiful and good child to us,
as well as to—her that is gone. But we put no force upon
your inclinations, either way. You must decide for yourself."

"But not this minute, or this hour, dear heart," said madam,
who had hitherto been silent. "Take time, pray, ask counsel
of God and thine own heart, and then decide. Be sure that
we shall be only too glad to keep you with us as long as we
can."

"Only this much I must say, Rosamond," added my father,

"I do believe if we could know thy mother's mind now, she
would bid thee remain at home. But go now and do as
madam hath said—pray—read the Gospel, and then decide.
Bless thee, my dear one; and truly I believe thou wilt be
blessed, for better maid never lived."

I cannot but write these words, they are so precious,

coming from my father, who seldom puts his deeper feelings
into words. I rose from my knees and went to mine own
chamber, to the oratory where my mother spent so much
time in prayer, and there I remained many hours—Madam,
with her usual kind care, giving orders that I should not be
disturbed.

For a while my mind was so tossed and tumbled that I could

see nothing. I could not even pray, and at last took refuge
in repeating the Psalms, specially the hundred and
nineteenth, which seemed full of petitions suitable to my
state. By degrees my spirit grew calmer, and I was able to
pour out my whole heart. I do not now pray to the Saints or
to our Lady, because I can find in the whole of Scripture no
warrant for doing so, but every encouragement to come at
once to my Heavenly Father, through the merits and
intercession of His Son.

Toward evening my mother came, bringing with her own

hands a simple and dainty little repast, decked with fresh
flowers, as her manner is. (She does love flowers above any
woman I ever saw, and has brought from London and the
East country many new kinds of roots and seeds, such as
have never been seen in these parts.) She would have me
eat and drink to keep up my strength; and though I felt no
great inclination thereto, it behooved me to please her,
when she had taken so much pains for me.

"And now, my dear one, let me give thee a little counsel!"

said she. "Do not you remain shut up here, but go out and
walk in the fresh cool evening, before the sun goes down,
and then committing thyself and all thy cares to thy
Heavenly Father, lie down to rest in peace. Be sure He will
guide thee to a wise decision."

I had purposed to watch all night in the oratory, I told her.

She smiled.

"And will that clear your head, think you, sweetheart? Or

will a fit of ague, such as any fatigue is sure to bring upon
you, assist you in deciding wisely? See here what the
Psalmist says!"

And taking up my Latin Psalter, she read from the hundred

and twenty-seventh Psalm: "It is but lost labor that ye
haste to rise up early, and so late take rest—for so He
giveth his beloved sleep!"

I saw that she was right. Certainly the ague does not clear
one's head, and I am apt to have a return of it on any
unusual fatigue. So I kissed her good-night, said my