Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar

Imaging With MATLAB Algorithms 2nd

Edition Caner Ozdemir
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/inverse-synthetic-aperture-radar-imaging-with-matlab-
algorithms-2nd-edition-caner-ozdemir/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Introduction to Radar Using Python and MATLAB Lee

Andrew (Andy) Harrison

https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-radar-using-
python-and-matlab-lee-andrew-andy-harrison/

Numerical Methods of Exploration Seismology With

Algorithms in Matlab r Gary F. Margrave

https://textbookfull.com/product/numerical-methods-of-
exploration-seismology-with-algorithms-in-matlab-r-gary-f-
margrave/

Differential Equations with Matlab 2nd Edition Brian R.

Hunt

https://textbookfull.com/product/differential-equations-with-
matlab-2nd-edition-brian-r-hunt/

Environmental Data Analysis with Matlab 2nd Edition

William Menke

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-data-analysis-
with-matlab-2nd-edition-william-menke/
Chemical Engineering Computation with MATLAB 2nd
Edition Yeong-Koo Yeo

https://textbookfull.com/product/chemical-engineering-
computation-with-matlab-2nd-edition-yeong-koo-yeo/

Automatic Detection Algorithms of Oil Spill in Radar

Images 1st Edition Maged Marghany (Author)

https://textbookfull.com/product/automatic-detection-algorithms-
of-oil-spill-in-radar-images-1st-edition-maged-marghany-author/

Robotics Vision and Control Fundamental Algorithms In

MATLAB Peter Corke

https://textbookfull.com/product/robotics-vision-and-control-
fundamental-algorithms-in-matlab-peter-corke/

Road Vehicle Dynamics: Fundamentals and Modeling with

MATLAB® 2nd Edition Georg Rill

https://textbookfull.com/product/road-vehicle-dynamics-
fundamentals-and-modeling-with-matlab-2nd-edition-georg-rill/

Inverse Problems: Basics, Theory and Applications in

Geophysics 2nd Edition Mathias Richter

https://textbookfull.com/product/inverse-problems-basics-theory-
and-applications-in-geophysics-2nd-edition-mathias-richter/
Inverse Synthetic Aperture
Radar Imaging with
MATLAB Algorithms
Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering
Kai Chang, Editor
Texas A&M University
A complete list of the titles in this series appears at the end of this volume.
Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging
with MATLAB Algorithms

With Advanced SAR/ISAR Imaging Concepts,

Algorithms, and MATLAB Codes

Second Edition

Caner Özdemir, Phd

Mersin University
Mersin, Turkey
This second edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Edition History
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1e, 2012)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is
available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Caner Özdemir to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance
with law.
Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
Editorial Office
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley
products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some
content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This work’s use or discussion of
MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The
MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software. While
the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no
representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work
and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an
organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of
further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services
the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is
sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The
advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult
with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work
may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither
the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages,
including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Özdemir, Caner, author.
Title: Inverse synthetic aperture radar imaging with MATLAB algorithms:
with advanced sar/isar imaging concepts, algorithms, and matlab codes /
Caner Ozdemir, PhD Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey.
Description: 2nd edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2021. | Series: Wiley
series in microwave and optical engineering | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020031216 (print) | LCCN 2020031217 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119521334 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119521365 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119521389 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: MATLAB. | Synthetic aperture radar. | MATLAB.
Classification: LCC TK6592.S95 O93 2020 (print) | LCC TK6592.S95 (ebook)
| DDC 621.3848/5–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031216
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031217
Cover design by Wiley
Cover image: Courtesy of Caner Özdemir, (background) © Maxiphoto/Getty Images
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To:
My wife Betül,
My three daughters,
My brother,
My father,
and the memory of my beloved mother
 vii

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition xvi

Acknowledgments xix
Acronyms xx

1 Basics of Fourier Analysis 1

1.1 Forward and Inverse Fourier Transform 1
1.1.1 Brief History of FT 1
1.1.2 Forward FT Operation 2
1.1.3 IFT 3
1.2 FT Rules and Pairs 3
1.2.1 Linearity 3
1.2.2 Time Shifting 3
1.2.3 Frequency Shifting 4
1.2.4 Scaling 4
1.2.5 Duality 4
1.2.6 Time Reversal 4
1.2.7 Conjugation 4
1.2.8 Multiplication 4
1.2.9 Convolution 5
1.2.10 Modulation 5
1.2.11 Derivation and Integration 5
1.2.12 Parseval’s Relationship 5
1.3 Time-Frequency Representation of a Signal 5
1.3.1 Signal in the Time Domain 6
1.3.2 Signal in the Frequency Domain 6
1.3.3 Signal in the Joint Time-Frequency (JTF) Plane 7
viii Contents

1.4 Convolution and Multiplication Using FT 11

1.5 Filtering/ Windowing 12
1.6 Data Sampling 14
1.7 DFT and FFT 16
1.7.1 DFT 16
1.7.2 FFT 17
1.7.3 Bandwidth and Resolutions 17
1.8 Aliasing 19
1.9 Importance of FT in Radar Imaging 19
1.10 Effect of Aliasing in Radar Imaging 23
1.11 Matlab Codes 26
References 33

2 Radar Fundamentals 35
2.1 Electromagnetic Scattering 35
2.2 Scattering from PECs 38
2.3 Radar Cross Section 39
2.3.1 Definition of RCS 40
2.3.2 RCS of Simple-Shaped Objects 43
2.3.3 RCS of Complex-Shaped Objects 44
2.4 Radar Range Equation 44
2.4.1 Bistatic Case 46
2.4.2 Monostatic Case 49
2.5 Range of Radar Detection 50
2.5.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 51
2.6 Radar Waveforms 53
2.6.1 Continuous Wave 53
2.6.2 Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave 56
2.6.3 Stepped-Frequency Continuous Wave 59
2.6.4 Short Pulse 61
2.6.5 Chirp (LFM) Pulse 62
2.7 Pulsed Radar 69
2.7.1 Pulse Repetition Frequency 69
2.7.2 Maximum Range and Range Ambiguity 69
2.7.3 Doppler Frequency 70
2.8 Matlab Codes 74
References 82
 Contents ix

3 Synthetic Aperture Radar 85

3.1 SAR Modes 86
3.2 SAR System Design 87
3.3 Resolutions in SAR 88
3.4 SAR Image Formation 91
3.5 Range Compression 92
3.5.1 Matched Filter 92
3.5.1.1 Computing Matched Filter Output via Fourier Processing 95
3.5.1.2 Example for Matched Filtering 96
3.5.2 Ambiguity Function 99
3.5.2.1 Relation to Matched Filter 100
3.5.2.2 Ideal Ambiguity Function 101
3.5.2.3 Rectangular-Pulse Ambiguity Function 102
3.5.2.4 LFM-Pulse Ambiguity Function 102
3.5.3 Pulse Compression 105
3.5.3.1 Detailed Processing of Pulse Compression 105
3.5.3.2 Bandwidth, Resolution, and Compression Issues for LFM Signal 109
3.5.3.3 Pulse Compression Example 110
3.6 Azimuth Compression 110
3.6.1 Processing in Azimuth 110
3.6.2 Azimuth Resolution 116
3.6.3 Relation to ISAR 117
3.7 SAR Imaging 118
3.8 SAR Focusing Algorithms 118
3.8.1 RDA 119
3.8.1.1 Range Compression in RDA 120
3.8.1.2 Azimuth Fourier Transform 126
3.8.1.3 Range Cell Migration Correction 128
3.8.1.4 Azimuth Compression 129
3.8.1.5 Simulated SAR Imaging Example 130
3.8.1.6 Drawbacks of RDA 133
3.8.2 Chirp Scaling Algorithm 133
3.8.3 The ω-kA 133
3.8.4 Back-Projection Algorithm 134
3.9 Example of a Real SAR Imagery 135
3.10 Problems in SAR Imaging 136
3.10.1 Range Migration and Range Walk 136
3.10.2 Motion Errors 137
3.10.3 Speckle Noise 140
x Contents

3.11 Advanced Topics in SAR 140

3.11.1 SAR Interferometry 140
3.11.2 SAR Polarimetry 142
3.12 Matlab Codes 143
References 158

4 Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging and Its Basic Concepts 162
4.1 SAR versus ISAR 162
4.2 The Relation of Scattered Field to the Image Function in ISAR 166
4.3 One-Dimensional (1D) Range Profile 167
4.4 1D Cross-Range Profile 172
4.5 Two-Dimensional (2D) ISAR Image Formation (Small Bandwidth, Small
Angle) 176
4.5.1 Resolutions in ISAR 180
4.5.1.1 Range Resolution 181
4.5.1.2 Cross-Range Resolution: 181
4.5.2 Range and Cross-Range Extends 181
4.5.3 Imaging Multibounces in ISAR 182
4.5.4 Sample Design Procedure for ISAR 185
4.5.4.1 ISAR Design Example #1: “Aircraft Target” 189
4.5.4.2 ISAR Design Example #2: “Military Tank Target” 193
4.6 2D ISAR Image Formation (Wide Bandwidth, Large Angles) 197
4.6.1 Direct Integration 198
4.6.2 Polar Reformatting 201
4.7 3D ISAR Image Formation 205
4.7.1 Range and Cross-Range resolutions 209
4.7.2 A Design Example for 3D ISAR 210
4.8 Matlab Codes 217
References 243

5 Imaging Issues in Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar 246

5.1 Fourier-Related Issues 246
5.1.1 DFT Revisited 246
5.1.2 Positive and Negative Frequencies in DFT 250
5.2 Image Aliasing 252
5.3 Polar Reformatting Revisited 255
5.3.1 Nearest Neighbor Interpolation 255
5.3.2 Bilinear Interpolation 258
 Contents xi

5.4 Zero Padding 260

5.5 Point Spread Function 264
5.6 Windowing 269
5.6.1 Common Windowing Functions 269
5.6.1.1 Rectangular Window 269
5.6.1.2 Triangular Window 269
5.6.1.3 Hanning Window 272
5.6.1.4 Hamming Window 272
5.6.1.5 Kaiser Window 272
5.6.1.6 Blackman Window 276
5.6.1.7 Chebyshev Window 277
5.6.2 ISAR Image Smoothing via Windowing 277
5.7 Matlab Codes 280
References 304

6 Range-Doppler Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Processing 306

6.1 Scenarios for ISAR 306
6.1.1 Imaging Aerial Targets via Ground-Based Radar 307
6.1.2 Imaging Ground/Sea Targets via Aerial Radar 309
6.2 ISAR Waveforms for Range-Doppler Processing 312
6.2.1 Chirp Pulse Train 312
6.2.2 Stepped Frequency Pulse Train 314
6.3 Doppler Shift’s Relation to Cross-Range 316
6.3.1 Doppler Frequency Shift Resolution 317
6.3.2 Resolving Doppler Shift and Cross-Range 318
6.4 Forming the Range-Doppler Image 319
6.5 ISAR Receiver 320
6.5.1 ISAR Receiver for Chirp Pulse Radar 320
6.5.2 ISAR Receiver for SFCW Radar 321
6.6 Quadrature Detection 323
6.6.1 I-Channel Processing 324
6.6.2 Q-Channel Processing 324
6.7 Range Alignment 326
6.8 Defining the Range-Doppler ISAR Imaging Parameters 327
6.8.1 Image Frame Dimension (Image Extends) 327
6.8.2 Range and Cross-Range Resolution 328
6.8.3 Frequency Bandwidth and the Center Frequency 328
6.8.4 Doppler Frequency Bandwidth 328
xii Contents

6.8.5 Pulse Repetition Frequency 329

6.8.6 Coherent Integration (Dwell) Time 329
6.8.7 Pulse Width 330
6.9 Example of Chirp Pulse-Based Range-Doppler ISAR Imaging 331
6.10 Example of SFCW-Based Range-Doppler ISAR Imaging 336
6.11 Matlab Codes 339
References 347

7 Scattering Center Representation of Inverse Synthetic Aperture

Radar 349
7.1 Scattering/Radiation Center Model 350
7.2 Extraction of Scattering Centers 352
7.2.1 Image Domain Formulation 352
7.2.1.1 Extraction in the Image Domain: The “CLEAN” Algorithm 352
7.2.1.2 Reconstruction in the Image Domain 355
7.2.2 Fourier Domain Formulation 362
7.2.2.1 Extraction in the Fourier Domain 362
7.2.2.2 Reconstruction in the Fourier Domain 364
7.3 Matlab Codes 368
References 382

8 Motion Compensation for Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar 385

8.1 Doppler Effect Due to Target Motion 386
8.2 Standard MOCOMP Procedures 388
8.2.1 Translational MOCOMP 389
8.2.1.1 Range Tracking 389
8.2.1.2 Doppler Tracking 390
8.2.2 Rotational MOCOMP 390
8.3 Popular ISAR MOCOMP Techniques 392
8.3.1 Cross-Correlation Method 392
8.3.1.1 Example for the Cross-Correlation Method 394
8.3.2 Minimum Entropy Method 398
8.3.2.1 Definition of Entropy in ISAR Images 398
8.3.2.2 Example for the Minimum Entropy Method 399
8.3.3 JTF-Based MOCOMP 402
8.3.3.1 Received Signal from a Moving Target 403
8.3.3.2 An Algorithm for JTF-Based Rotational MOCOMP 404
8.3.3.3 Example for JTF-Based Rotational MOCOMP 406
 Contents xiii

8.3.4 Algorithm for JTF-Based Translational and Rotational MOCOMP 408

8.3.4.1 A Numerical Example 410
8.4 Matlab Codes 415
References 436

9 Bistatic ISAR Imaging 440

9.1 Why Bi-ISAR Imaging? 440
9.2 Geometry for Bi-Isar Imaging and the Algorithm 444
9.2.1 Bi-ISAR Imaging Algorithm for a Point Scatterer 444
9.2.2 Bistatic ISAR Imaging Algorithm for a Target 448
9.3 Resolutions in Bistatic ISAR 449
9.3.1 Range Resolution 449
9.3.2 Cross-Range Resolution 450
9.3.3 Range and Cross-Range Extends 451
9.4 Design Procedure for Bi-ISAR Imaging 452
9.5 Bi-Isar Imaging Examples 455
9.5.1 Bi-ISAR Design Example #1 455
9.5.2 Bi-ISAR Design Example #2 457
9.6 Mu-ISAR Imaging 465
9.6.1 Challenges in Mu-ISAR Imaging 467
9.6.2 Mu-ISAR Imaging Example 468
9.7 Matlab Codes 472
References 483

10 Polarimetric ISAR Imaging 484

10.1 Polarization of an Electromagnetic Wave 484
10.1.1 Polarization Type 485
10.1.2 Polarization Sensitivity 486
10.1.3 Polarization in Radar Systems 487
10.2 Polarization Scattering Matrix 488
10.2.1 Relation to RCS 490
10.2.2 Polarization Characteristics of the Scattered Wave 491
10.2.3 Polarimetric Decompositions of EM Wave Scattering 493
10.2.4 The Pauli Decomposition 494
10.2.4.1 Description of Pauli Decomposition 494
10.2.4.2 Interpretation of Pauli Decomposition 495
10.2.4.3 Polarimetric Image Representation Using Pauli Decomposition 496
10.3 Why Polarimetric ISAR Imaging? 497
xiv Contents

10.4 ISAR Imaging with Full Polarization 497

10.4.1 ISAR Data in LP Basis 497
10.4.2 ISAR Data in CP Basis 498
10.5 Polarimetric ISAR Images 499
10.5.1 Pol-ISAR Image of a Benchmark Target 499
10.5.1.1 The “SLICY” Target 499
10.5.1.2 Fully Polarimetric EM Simulation of SLICY 499
10.5.1.3 LP Pol-ISAR Images of SLICY 500
10.5.1.4 CP Pol-ISAR Images of SLICY 502
10.5.1.5 Pauli Decomposition Image of SLICY 503
10.5.2 Pol-ISAR Image of a Complex Target 507
10.5.2.1 The “Military Tank” Target 507
10.5.2.2 Fully Polarimetric EM Simulation of “Tank” Target 508
10.5.2.3 LP Pol-ISAR Images of “Tank” Target 508
10.5.2.4 CP Pol-ISAR Images of “Tank” Target 510
10.5.2.5 Pauli Decomposition Image of “Tank” Target 512
10.6 Feature Extraction from Polarimetric Images 515
10.7 Matlab Codes 515
References 529

11 Near-Field ISAR Imaging 533

11.1 Definitions of Far and Near-Field Regions 534
11.1.1 The Far-Field Region 534
11.1.1.1 The Far-Field Definition Based on Target’s Cross-Range Extend 534
11.1.1.2 The Far-Field Definition Based on Target’s Range Extend 535
11.1.2 The Near-Field Region 537
11.2 Near-Field Signal Model for the Back-Scattered Field 537
11.3 Near-Field ISAR Imaging Algorithms 540
11.3.1 “Focusing Operator” Algorithm 540
11.3.2 Back-Projection Algorithm 541
11.3.2.1 Fourier Slice Theorem 542
11.3.2.2 BPA Formulation (3D Case) 543
11.3.2.3 BPA Formulation (2D Case) 544
11.4 Data Sampling Criteria and the Resolutions 546
11.5 Near-Field ISAR Imaging Examples 547
11.5.1 Point Scatterers in the Near-Field: Comparison of Far- and Near-Field
Imaging Algorithms 547
11.5.2 Near-Field ISAR Imaging of a Large Object 552
 Contents xv

11.5.3 Near-Field ISAR Imaging of a Small Object 555

11.6 Matlab Codes 560
References 569

12 Some Imaging Applications Based on SAR/ISAR 571

12.1 Imaging Subsurface Objects: GPR-SAR 572
12.1.1 The GPR Problem 572
12.1.2 B-Scan GPR in Comparison to Strip-Map SAR 577
12.1.3 Focused GPR Images Using SAR 577
12.1.3.1 GPR Focusing with ω-k Algorithm (ω-kA) 579
12.1.3.2 GPR Focusing with BPA 582
12.1.3.3 Other Popular GPR Focusing Techniques 589
12.2 Thru-the-Wall Imaging Radar Using SAR 590
12.2.1 Challenges in TWIR 591
12.2.2 Techniques to Improve Cross-Range Resolution in TWIR 591
12.2.3 The Use of SAR in TWIR 592
12.2.4 Example of SAR-Based TWIR 594
12.3 Imaging Antenna-Platform Scattering: ASAR 596
12.3.1 The ASAR Imaging Algorithm 597
12.3.2 Numerical Example for ASAR Imagery 603
12.4 Imaging Platform Coupling Between Antennas: ACSAR 605
12.4.1 The ACSAR Imaging Algorithm 606
12.4.2 Numerical Example for ACSAR 609
12.4.3 Applying ACSAR Concept to the GPR Problem 611
References 615

Appendix 619
Index 628
xvi

Preface to the Second Edition

In the first edition of the book, I tried to cover most of the aspects of inverse syn-
thetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging starting from Fourier analysis to some
advanced ISAR concepts such as range-Doppler ISAR processing and ISAR motion
compensation techniques. The main goal was to present a conceptual description
of ISAR imagery and the explanation of basic ISAR research topics. Although the
primary audience would be graduate students and other interested researchers in
the fields of electrical engineering and physics, I hoped that colleagues working in
radar research and development or in a related industry might also benefit from
the book.
It has been more than eight years since the publication of the first edition. Since
then, I have been really grateful that I have received positive responses from the
researchers and colleagues that are interested and/or involved in radar imaging,
and especially ISAR imaging. Undoubtedly, ISAR has been gaining more attention
among researchers, scholars, and engineers as emerging new developments in
ISAR research have been reported by various colleagues day by day.
In this second edition of the book, I have tried to include the recent progress
made in ISAR imaging research and also give insights to more advanced concepts.
Therefore, in this edition of the book, I have made the following alterations and
additions:

• All the chapters in the first edition have been revised including all the texts,
equations, and figures with some additions. Typos in the first edition have also
been corrected.

• Chapter 3 that is devoted to the issues of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) has been
extended to include the SAR focusing/processing algorithms such as range-
Doppler algorithm (RDA), back-projection algorithm (BPA) and frequency-
wave number algorithm (ω-kA). The Matlab codes for these algorithms are
being provided with the associated numerical examples. Brief explanations of
 Preface to the Second Edition xvii

other SAR focusing/processing algorithms including chirp scaling algorithm

(CSA) and phase shift algorithm (PSA) have also been mentioned.

• In Chapters 4, 5, 7, and 12 where we handle various aspects of ISAR imaging

technology, new scattered field raw data and the corresponding ISAR images
that are more visually attractive are presented together with the associated
Matlab codes that can be used to generate these images.

• A total of three new chapters have been written to cover the topics that were not
considered in the first edition and also to include more detailed subjects of ISAR
imaging to be able to reflect the recent research studies. These are listed below:
– The “Bistatic ISAR (Bi-ISAR) Imaging” concept is covered in Chapter 9. While
the ISAR imaging algorithms presented in previous chapters are based on
monostatic usage of ISAR imaging, we introduce the formulation of ISAR
imaging for the bistatic usages by presenting key aspects such as resolutions
in range/cross-range directions and usage limitations. Also, extension of Bi-
ISAR to multistatic ISAR (Mu-ISAR) imaging is derived with the associated
Matlab examples. A general assessment of Bi-ISAR and Mu-ISAR imaging
to conventional monostatic ISAR imaging is being made throughout the chap-
ter by comparing the outcomes of quantitative metrics and giving the conclud-
ing statements about their advantages and disadvantages based on these
measurable evaluations.
– In Chapter 10, we have added a new and exciting research topic of ISAR called
“Polarimetric ISAR Imaging.” As the traditional ISAR imaging algorithms are
based only on a single polarization of the backscattered electric field, we dem-
onstrate in this chapter that very exciting features of the target can be
extracted with the use of other possible polarizations for the reflected wave.
Polarization decomposition techniques are being introduced and Pauli
decomposition scheme is taken as the tool to be applied to the different polar-
ization ISAR images in this book. The formulation and the usage of Pauli
decomposition technique are presented together with its Matlab codes. Var-
ious realistic simulation examples based on linear polarization, circular polar-
ization, and also Pauli decomposition are given together with obtained
polarimetric ISAR images. It has been demonstrated through the examples
that polarized ISAR images definitely increase the recognition and classifica-
tion of targets by providing increased number of extracted target features.
– Thanks to the recent development in the microwave circuit technology and
antenna design, ISAR imaging algorithms have been started to be used in the
near-field region. Therefore, I have added a new part entitled “Near-field
ISAR imaging” as Chapter 11. The near-field ISAR imaging algorithms are
being introduced. Two of them called “Focusing operator” and the back-
projection based focusing algorithms are given by presenting their theoretical
formulation and algorithm steps together with corresponding Matlab codes.
xviii Preface to the Second Edition

Also, numerical and measured examples based on real scenarios are being
shared.

• In Chapter 12 in which some examples based on SAR/ISAR imaging technol-

ogies are provided, I have previously introduced algorithms called antenna SAR
(ASAR) and antenna coupling SAR (ACSAR) as the unique radar imaging algo-
rithms to image antenna mounted on a platform-to-radar receiver interaction
over the target and to image platform coupling over the antennas mounted
on a target, respectively. In this edition of the book, I have added some new
applications such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and through-the-wall ima-
ging radar (TWIR) that also make use of SAR/ISAR imaging algorithms. Meas-
ured examples of GPR and TWIR radar images are provided to demonstrate how
SAR/ISAR imaging algorithms can be effectively used in some popular radar
imaging applications.
I hope that, with the new edition of the book “Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar
Imaging with MATLAB Algorithms,” the reader would benefit more in terms of
abovementioned new ISAR imaging topics and also from the Matlab codes pro-
vided at the end of chapters.
All MATLAB files may be accessed on the following FTP site: ftp://ftp.wiley.
com/public/sci_tech_med/inverse_synthetic.

Mersin, October 2020 Caner Özdemir

 xix

Acknowledgments

I would like to address special thanks to the people below for their help and sup-
port during the preparation of this book. First, I am thankful to my wife, Betül and
my three children for their patience and continuous support while writing this
book. I am very grateful to Dr. Hao Ling, Emeritus Professor in Engineering of
the University of Texas at Austin for being a valuable source of knowledge, ideas,
and also inspiration throughout my academic carreer. He has been a great advisor
since I met him, and his guidance on scientific research is priceless to me.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to my former graduate students; Dr.
Şevket Demirci, Dr. Enes Yiğit, Dr. Betül Yılmaz, Dr. Deniz Üstün, Özkan Kırık,
and Dr. Hakan Işıker who have helped carrying out some of the research presented
in this book. I would also like to thank my graduate student Rasheed Khankan for
his help in preparing references.
Last but not least, I would like to convey my special thanks to Dr. Kai Chang for
inviting me to write the first and then second edition of the book. Without his kind
offer, this book project would not have been possible.

Caner Özdemir
xx

Acronyms

1D One-dimensional
2D Two-dimensional
3D Three-dimensional
ACSAR Antenna coupling synthetic aperture radar
ADC Analog-to-digital converter
ANN Artificial neural network
ASAR Antenna synthetic aperture radar
ATC Automatic target classification
ATR Automatic target recognition
Bi-ISAR Bistatic inverse synthetic aperture radar
BPA Back-projection algorithm
CAD Computer aided design
CDF Cumulative density function
CFAR Constant false alarm rate
CO Contrast optimization
Co-pol Co-polarization
CP Circular polarization
Cross-pol Cross-polarization
CSA Chirp scaling algorithm
CW Continuous wave
DCR Dihedral corner reflectors
DFT Discrete Fourier transform
DTV Digital television
EFIE Electric field integral equation
EM Electromagnetic
ESM Exploding source model
FM Frequency modulated
FMCW Frequency modulated continuous wave
 Acronyms xxi

FT Fourier transform
GO Geometric optics
GPR Ground-penetrating radar
GPS Global positioning system
GWN Gaussian white noise
H Horizontal
HH Horizontal–horizontal
HSA Hyperbolic summation algorithm
HV Horizontal–vertical
I Inphase
IDFT Inverse discrete Fourier transform
IFT Inverse Fourier transform
IMU Inertial measurement unit
InSAR Interferometric SAR
ISAR Inverse synthetic aperture radar
JTF Joint time-frequency
KB Kbytes
KMA Kirchhoff migration algorithm
L Left
LFM Linear frequency modulated
LFMCW Linear frequency modulated continuous wave
LHCP Left-hand circular polarized
LHEP Left-hand elliptically polarized
LL Left–left
LOS Line of sight
LP Linear polarization
LR Left–right
MB Mbytes
MDA Map-drift autofocus
MFIE Magnetic field integral equation
MIMO Multiple-input multiple-output
MOCOMP Motion compensation
Mu-ISAR Multi-static inverse synthetic aperture radar
PEC Perfect electric conductor
PGA Phase gradient autofocus
P-ISAR Passive inverse synthetic aperture radar
PO Physical optics
PolSAR Polarimetric synthetic aperture radar
PPP Prominent point processing
PRF Pulse repetition frequency
xxii Acronyms

PRI Pulse repetition interval

PSD Power spectral density
PSF Point spread function
PSLR Peak-to-sidelobe ratio
PSMA Phase-shift migration algorithm
PSR Point-spread-response
Q Quadrature
QD Quadradure detection
R Right
RCM Range cell migration
RCMC Range cell migration correction
RCS Radar cross section
RDA Range-doppler algorithm
RF Radiofrequency
RGB Red green blue
RHCP Right-hand circular polarized
RHEP Right-hand elliptically polarized
RL Right–Left
RLOS Radar line of sight
RR Right–right
Rx Receiver
[S] Polarization scattering matrix
SAC Shift and correlate
SAR Synthetic aperture radar
SBR Shooting and bouncing ray
SFCW Stepped frequency continuous wave
sinc Sinus cardinalis
SNR Signal-to-noise ratio
SPU Signal processing unit
STFT Short-time Fourier transform
TCR Trihedral corner reflector
TFDS Time-frequency distribution series
TWIR Through-the-wall imaging radar
TWR Through-the-wall radar
Tx Transmitter
V Vertical
VH Vertical–horizontal
VNA Vector network analyzer
VV Vertical–vertical
ω-kA Frequency-wavenumber algorithm
 1

Basics of Fourier Analysis

1.1 Forward and Inverse Fourier Transform

Fourier transform (FT) is a common and useful mathematical tool that is utilized
in innumerous applications in science and technology. FT is quite practical espe-
cially for characterizing nonlinear functions in nonlinear systems, analyzing ran-
dom signals, and solving linear problems. FT is also a very important tool in radar
imaging applications as we shall investigate in the forthcoming chapters of this
book. Before starting to deal with the FT and inverse Fourier transform (IFT), a
brief history of this useful linear operator, and its founders are presented.

1.1.1 Brief History of FT

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier, a great mathematician, was born in 1768, Auxerre,
France. His special interest in heat conduction led him to describe a mathematical
series of sine and cosine terms that could be used to analyze propagation and dif-
fusion of heat in solid bodies. In 1807, he tried to share his innovative ideas with
researchers by preparing an essay entitled as On the Propagation of Heat in Solid
Bodies. The work was examined by Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, and Lacroix.
Lagrange’s oppositions caused the rejection of Fourier’s paper. This unfortunate
decision cost colleagues to wait for 15 more years to meet his remarkable contri-
butions to mathematics, physics, and especially on signal analysis. Finally, his
ideas were published thru the book The Analytic Theory of Heat in 1822
(Fourier 1955).
Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) was developed as an effective tool in calculat-
ing this transformation. However, computing FT with this tool in the nineteenth
century was taking a long time. In 1903, C. Runge has studied on the minimization

Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging with MATLAB Algorithms: With Advanced SAR/ISAR
Imaging Concepts, Algorithms, and MATLAB Codes, Second Edition. Caner Özdemir.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Basics of Fourier Analysis

of the computational time of the transformation operation (Runge 1903). In 1942,

Danielson and Lanczos had utilized the symmetry properties of FT to reduce the
number of operations in DFT (Danielson and Lanczos 1942). Before the advent of
digital computing technologies, James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey developed a
fast method to reduce the computation time of DFT operation. In 1965, they
published their technique that later on has become famous as the fast Fourier
transform (FFT) (Cooley and Tukey 1965).

1.1.2 Forward FT Operation

The FT can be simply defined as a certain linear operator that maps functions or
signals defined in one domain to other functions or signals in another domain. The
common use of FT in electrical engineering is to transform signals from time
domain to frequency domain or vice-versa. More precisely, forward FT decom-
poses a signal into a continuous spectrum of its frequency components such that
the time signal is transformed to a frequency domain signal. In radar applications,
these two opposing domains are usually represented as “spatial-frequency (or
wave-number)” and “range (distance).” Such use of FT will be often examined
and applied throughout this book.
The forward FT of a continuous signal g(t) where −∞ < t < ∞ is described as

G f = gt
∞ 11
= gt exp − j2πft dt
−∞

where represents the forward FT operation that is defined from time domain to
frequency domain.
To appreciate the meaning of FT, the multiplying function exp(−j2πft) and
operators (multiplication and integration) on the right of side of Eq. 1.1 should
be examined carefully: The term exp − j2π f i t is a complex phasor representation
for a sinusoidal function with the single frequency of “fi.” This signal oscillates
with the single frequency of “fi” and does not contain any other frequency com-
ponent. Multiplying the signal in interest, g(t) with exp − j2π f i t provides the sim-
ilarity between each signal, that is, how much of g(t) has the frequency content of
“fi.” Integrating this multiplication over all time instants from −∞ to ∞ will sum
the “fi” contents of g(t) over all time instants to give G(fi) that is the amplitude of
the signal at the particular frequency of “fi.” Repeating this process for all the fre-
quencies from −∞ to ∞ will provide the frequency spectrum of the signal repre-
sented as G(f). Therefore, the transformed signal represents the continuous
spectrum of frequency components; i.e. representation of the signal in “frequency
domain.”
 1.2 FT Rules and Pairs 3

1.1.3 IFT
This transformation is the inverse operation of the FT. IFT, therefore, synthesizes
a frequency-domain signal from its spectrum of frequency components to its
time domain form. The IFT of a continuous signal G(f) where −∞ < f < ∞ is
described as
−1
gt = G f
∞ 12
= G f exp j2πft df
−∞

where the IFT operation from frequency domain to time domain is represented by
−1
.

1.2 FT Rules and Pairs

There are many useful Fourier rules and pairs that can be very helpful when apply-
ing the FT or IFT to different real-world applications. We will briefly revisit them
to remind the properties of the FT to the reader. Provided that FT and IFT are
defined as in Eqs. 1.1 and 1.2, respectively, FT pair is denoted as

gt G f 13
and the corresponding alternative pair is given by
−1
G f gt 14
Based on these notations, the properties of FT are listed briefly below.

1.2.1 Linearity
If G(f) and H(f) are the FTs of the time signals g(t) and h(t), respectively, the fol-
lowing equation is valid for the scalars a and b.

a g t +b h t a G f +b H f 15
Therefore, the FT is a linear operator.

1.2.2 Time Shifting

If the signal is shifted in time with a value of to, then the corresponding frequency
signal will have the form of

g t − to exp − j2πf t o G f 16
4 1 Basics of Fourier Analysis

1.2.3 Frequency Shifting

If the time signal is multiplied by a phase term of exp j2π f o t , then the FT of this
time signal is shifted in frequency by fo as given below

exp j2π f o t gt G f − fo 17

1.2.4 Scaling
If the time signal is scaled by a constant a, then the spectrum is also scaled with the
following rule
1 f
g at G , a R, a 0 18
a a

1.2.5 Duality
If the spectrum signal G(f) is taken as a time signal G(t), then, the corresponding
frequency domain signal will be the time reversal equivalent of the original time
domain signal, g(t) as

Gt g −f 19

1.2.6 Time Reversal

If the time is reversed for the time-domain signal, then the frequency is also
reversed in the frequency domain signal.

g −t G −f 1 10

1.2.7 Conjugation
If the conjugate of the time-domain signal is taken, then the frequency-domain
signal conjugated and frequency-reversed.

g∗ t G∗ − f 1 11

1.2.8 Multiplication
If the time-domain signals, g(t) and h(t) are multiplied in time, then their spectrum
signals G(f) and H(f) are convolved in frequency.

gt ht G f ∗H f 1 12
 1.3 Time-Frequency Representation of a Signal 5

1.2.9 Convolution
If the time-domain signals, g(t) and h(t) are convolved in time, then their spectrum
signals G(f) and H(f) are multiplied in the frequency domain.

g t ∗h t G f H f 1 13

1.2.10 Modulation
If the time-domain signal is modulated with sinusoidal functions, then the fre-
quency-domain signal is shifted by the amount of the frequency at that particular
sinusoidal function.
1
gt cos 2π f o t G f + fo + G f − fo
2
1 14
j
gt sin 2π f o t G f + fo −G f − fo
2

1.2.11 Derivation and Integration

If the derivative or integration of a time-domain signal is taken, then the corre-
sponding frequency-domain signal is given as below.
d
gt 2πf G f
dt
t 1 15
1
g τ dτ G f + πG 0 δ f
−∞ j2πf

1.2.12 Parseval’s Relationship

A useful property that was claimed by Parseval is that since the FT (or IFT) oper-
ation maps a signal in one domain to another domain, their energies should be
exactly the same as given by the following relationship.
∞ ∞
2 2
gt dt G f df 1 16
−∞ −∞

1.3 Time-Frequency Representation of a Signal

While the FT concept can be successfully utilized for the stationary signals, there
are many real-world signals whose frequency contents vary over time. To be able to
display these frequency variations over time; therefore, joint time–frequency (JTF)
transforms/representations are being used.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
lain for years within the thick volume. They might have
been there when Professor Lavers bought the encyclopædia.
Michael knew that he bought many of his books second-
hand. Besides, if he had left the notes there, they would
have been missed, and questions asked and search made.
Evidently no one had missed the money.

Why, then, Michael asked himself, need he proclaim what he

had found? If a man found a sum of money, he had a right
to keep it till some one claimed it, and could prove that it
was his. If Mrs. Lavers came and told him that she had lost
this money, he would restore it to her at once. But till then
he had a perfect right to retain it. At any rate, he would do
nothing hastily. He would wait and see what happened. So
Michael locked the notes within his desk and tried to go on
with his work as usual. But this was not easy. He could not
forget that the notes were there, though he tried hard to do
so. Nor, in spite of the many excellent arguments by which
he strove to persuade himself that he was acting rightly,
could he get the better of an uneasy sense that he was
swerving from the path of rectitude.

A week passed by, and the roll of notes remained within

Michael's desk. He was still trying to persuade himself that
he was justified in retaining them, and he still found that
the voice of conscience would not endorse his arguments.
There were moments when that voice would say to him that
his action in keeping money that was not his was little
better than stealing.

One evening Michael Betts, goaded by these irritating

suggestions, started to walk up Gower Street, with the half-
formed intention of calling at Mrs. Lavers' house and asking
to see her, that he might tell her what he had found in the
old encyclopædia. The struggle within him was still so
strong, the love of gain contending so fiercely with the love
of integrity, that it is probable he would in any case have
turned back when he reached Mrs. Lavers' house. But when
he came to the door he found the steps littered with straw
and paper; there was no light in the windows, and when he
lifted the knocker, its fall resounded hollowly through the
now empty house. Mrs. Lavers and her children had gone
away, and the house was no longer a home.

Michael's feeling was one of relief.

"Now there's an end to the matter," he said to himself.

"She's gone away, I don't know where, and it's not in my
power to tell her. It's clear she knows nothing about the
money, and she does not want it. I have therefore a perfect
right to keep it."

And hugging this thought to his heart, and congratulating

himself on the lucky thing he had done when he purchased
the professor's library, Michael turned homewards.

As he approached his shop, he saw a girl standing beneath

the lamp-post at the corner. She was a girl about fifteen
years of age, with bright eyes showing beneath the thick
black fringe which covered her forehead. Her cheeks were
flushed by the cold wind, which, however, she did not seem
to mind as she stood there. A large white apron covered her
dark gown; she wore a violet woollen shawl crossed over
her chest, and a hat with many feathers was on her head.
She turned and looked curiously at Michael as he passed
her, eyeing him so intently that he was conscious of her
scrutiny, and resented it. As he was opening the door of his
shop, she came to the head of the steps and called out in
loud, clear tones:

"I say, are you Michael Betts?"

"That is my name, certainly," replied Michael, with dignity,
"but I cannot see what business that is of yours."

"Maybe not. And yet, p'raps it is my business. Maybe I know

more of you than you think for, Michael Betts."

"Then you know I'm a respectable man, and have nothing

to say to a girl like you," returned Michael angrily.

"Respectable, indeed!" cried the girl hotly. "I don't know

about your being so mighty respectable, but I'd have you
know, other folks can be respectable besides yourself. You
might practise a little civility along with your respectability."

Michael closed his door sharply, cutting short this tirade.

The girl made an angry, defiant gesture in his direction, and
then ran off.

"The hussy!" said Michael to himself. "How did she get my

name so pat, I wonder? I hope none of the neighbours
heard her calling it out. Anyhow, they all know me for a
respectable man."

Suddenly with the thought his face flushed, and a pang of

shame smote him. Was he indeed a respectable man?
Would they respect him if they knew how he had kept the
notes? Could he say that in that instance he had acted
perfectly on the square? Alas! His conscience convicted him.
He was no longer satisfied of his own probity. He had given
his self-respect in exchange for those fifty pounds.

CHAPTER VI
 AN UNWELCOME ENCOUNTER

MICHAEL paid the fifty pounds into his bank, and had the
satisfaction of seeing them entered in his pass-book. He
was so much richer than he had expected to be, yet
somehow he did not feel richer, but poorer. He had rather
the feeling of one who had suffered loss. There was a stain
upon his conscience, and a weight upon his mind; yet, with
the strange perversity of human nature, he would not own
this to himself. He still professed to believe himself justified
in keeping the money he had found. He clung to it, and
liked to think how it had swelled his balance at the bank,
even whilst he knew that he should be filled with shame, if
any one should ever learn how he had come by that money.

In Michael's lonely life there was no one save Mrs. Wiggins,

the charwoman, to observe how he lived, and mark the
variations in his moods. She began at this time to observe a
change in the bookseller. He had never been what she
would call a "pleasant-speaking" gentleman. She had
always found him short of speech, irritable, and disposed to
snub her whenever she attempted to inform him as to the
gossip of the neighbourhood; but now he was positively
surly in his manner towards her, and so quick of temper
that it was almost more than she could "put up" with.

One morning, she thought she was giving him intelligence

in which he could not fail to be interested, when she said:

"I've 'eard where that lady, the professor's widow, as you

bought so many books of, 'as gone to live."

Her words startled Michael, and he turned his eyes on her

without speaking. She took his silence as an encouragement
to proceed.
"She's gone to live in Clarendon Gardens. That's not a very
nice place, is it? And even there, she 'as only part of a
'ouse. It seems she's quite poor now she's lost 'er 'usband.
She's sent away 'er servants, and keeps only a bit of a girl
now. She washes and dresses the children 'erself, and does
most of the cooking—and she such a lady, too! It's 'ard,
ain't it? I 'eard it all from my cousin, who works for 'er
landlady."

"I wish to goodness your cousin would mind her own

business, or that you would keep her gossip to yourself!"
exclaimed Michael angrily. "How can I help it, if Mrs. Lavers
is poor and has to do without servants? I've done what I
can for her in buying her books. What more can I do?"

"Oh, lor me! Nobody would expect you to do anything for

her," exclaimed Mrs. Wiggins, with unconscious satire. "I
just thought you might like to know about the poor lady.
You need not turn so fiercely on me, Mr. Betts, for giving
you a piece of news."

"Keep your news till it's wanted, and mind your own
business," responded Michael crossly.

Mrs. Wiggins took up her dust-pan and brush, and retreated

with much clatter into the back premises, muttering words
which were not complimentary to her employer.

"Do, indeed! I'd like to see 'im ever do anything for anybody
besides 'isself, the close-fisted old curmudgeon. I'd be sorry
for a mouse that had to live on 'is leavings. The idea of 'is
turning on me like that, as if a body couldn't speak about
nothin'."

It was impossible for Mrs. Wiggins to understand how her

words had for Michael the force of an accusation. She did
not know of the secret consciousness which they awakened.
"So, then, it was a poor woman whom he had defrauded,"
said the voice of Michael's conscience.

"Defrauded! What an absurd idea!" the voice of his other

self responded. "There was no fraud in the matter; the
money had never been Mrs. Lavers'. A man had a right to
keep what he found, unless he knew it to belong to some
one else."

But reason as he might with himself, the information

imparted by Mrs. Wiggins had disturbed Michael's mind.
An incident which occurred a few days later further
destroyed its peace.

Business had taken Michael to the south side of the river,

and he was returning late in the evening across one of the
bridges on his way back to Bloomsbury, when his attention
was arrested by the appearance of a man who stood leaning
against one of the parapets and coughing violently. Michael
started, and a thrill ran through him. He had so long
thought of his brother as dead, that the sight of this man,
who bore so striking a resemblance to him, affected him
almost with terror, as though he conceived him to be a
ghost.

To be sure, he had grey hair, and Frank's had been brown

when Michael last saw him, and his form was pitifully bent
and wasted; but still the resemblance was there, and so
strong that Michael involuntarily stood still as he saw him,
whilst his heart began to beat more painfully than was
pleasant. The same instant the man ceased coughing; he
lifted his head and saw by the light of the gas-lamp on the
parapet above him the man who stood at his side. A low cry
of wonder—and was it of pleasure?—escaped him. He
moved a step nearer, exclaiming eagerly:

"Michael! Michael!"

"You don't mean to say it is you?" exclaimed the other, in

tones which expressed no pleasure at the meeting. "You,
Frank, after all these years! I thought you were dead."

"And perhaps hoped that I were," returned the other,

retreating a step or two, whilst an air of hopelessness came
over him again. "Well, it's no wonder. I'm not a brother you
can be proud of."

Michael looked at him for a moment ere he made reply. The

man appeared thin, and cold, and ill; but his was not one of
the most abject-looking of the forms to be seen abroad in
London. His clothes, though worn and threadbare, were
decently tidy.

"You've only yourself to thank for being what you are,"

Michael said. "Drink and gambling and bad company bring a
man to this."

"I've given up the drink, and gambling too, thank God!" said
his brother. "I've been a teetotaler for more than a year,
Michael."

"I'm glad to hear it," replied Michael, his tone implying that
he doubted the statement. "But if that is so, how do you
come to be in such low water? How do you live?"

"I can scarcely tell you how I live," returned the other. "I
shouldn't live at all, if it were not for my little girl."

"Your little girl!" exclaimed Michael. "You don't mean to say

that you've been so foolish as to marry?"

"I married many years ago, and I had one of the best of
wives, though, God forgive me! I was often a brute to her.
It was foolish of her to take me, no doubt, but I could never
regret it. Whilst she lived, things were better with me; but
when she died I went all wrong again. And now, when I fain
would live a different life, I can't find any one willing to give
me a chance."

"You could surely get work, if you exerted yourself."

"Could I? You don't know how hard it is to get work in

London. And who would employ a man like me, when there
are plenty of big, strong fellows to be hired? I haven't the
strength to lift or carry. I'm good for very little now. I was in
the Infirmary for three months. They patched me up a bit
there, but I'm not much the better. If it were not for my
little girl, I shouldn't be living now. She works at the match-
making, and she keeps me more often than I keep her,
bless her!"
A feeling of cold disgust was creeping over Michael Betts.
There was no room for pity in his heart. He was conscious
only of intense annoyance that such a being as this should
be his brother.

"I'm sorry for you," he said loftily, "but it's your own fault.
You made your bed, and you must lie upon it. I did what I
could for you years ago, and ill you repaid me for what I
did. Now I must wipe my hands of you. But here is a shilling
for you."

He held out the coin as he spoke, but the chilled fingers of

the other made no attempt to take it. The shilling fell from
them to the pavement, and the ill-clad man did not pick it
up.

"I don't want your money, Michael," he said hoarsely. "I

could not help speaking to you when I saw you by my side;
but don't think that I should ever have sought you out or
asked you to do anything for me again. I know too well that
I deserve nothing from you."

"That is well," said Michael coldly. "I must confess that had
you come, you would not have found a welcome from me,
since the last time you were at my place, you left me with
good cause to regret your visit."

He turned on his heel without giving another glance at his

unhappy brother.

"Michael, Michael," the weak voice called after him.

But Michael strode on and paid no heed. He did not slacken

speed till he was the length of several streets from the river.
Then he paused and drew a deep breath as he wiped the
heat from his forehead.
"To think that he should turn up again!" he said to himself.
"And I thought he was dead! But no, here he is again, and
in the same deplorable plight. A pretty sort of a brother!"

And Michael knew that in his heart, he wished that his

brother were dead.

"Of course, it's the same old story," he continued. "He's a

sorry scamp, and always will be. It's all gammon about his
becoming a teetotaler and trying to lead a better life. I don't
believe a word of it. No, that won't go down with me. I only
hope he'll keep away from me, as he says!"

Thinking thus, Michael arrived at his shop. It could hardly

be called his home. He drew out his key, unlocked the door,
and went in. He struck a match and kindled a lamp which
he had placed just inside the door. Seen by its dim light the
shop looked gloomy indeed. He passed through to the little
room at the back. This, too, was littered with books. The
fire had fallen out, and the place looked unhomelike and
cheerless. Michael shivered. He became conscious of
weariness and depression. He placed the lamp on the table
and looked about for some means of rekindling the fire. The
flame flickered feebly. Mrs. Wiggins had forgotten to
replenish the oil.

As he looked about him in the dim light, Michael's eyes fell

on the old leathern armchair which stood beside the
fireplace. He had known that ancient piece of furniture as
long as he had known anything. His mother, as her health
grew feeble, had sat in it constantly, and now, as Michael
glanced at it in the uncertain light, it suddenly appeared to
him that he saw her form seated again in the old armchair.
Most vividly, he seemed to see her sitting there with her
white muslin cap resting on the dark hair which had been
untouched by silver when she died, her little grey shawl
upon her shoulders, and her hands busied with the socks
she was perpetually knitting for her sons. Only an instant, it
was ere the lamp flame leaped up, and he knew that he had
been deceived by his fancy, but that instant left its
impression. He sank on to a chair, shaken in body and mind.

How his mother would have grieved if she could have

foreseen what Frank's future would be! Her darling son, a
poverty-stricken tramp wandering about in search of a job!
And he, Michael, had promised her that he would always be
good to Frank. Had he kept that promise? Was he keeping it
when he turned away from his brother on the bridge, telling
him that he had made his bed and he must lie on it?

Michael sat for some minutes absorbed in painful thought.

Then, resolutely turning his back on the old armchair which
had awakened such unwelcome reflections, he began to
pace to and fro the floor, for his limbs had grown benumbed
by the chill of that fireless room.

"No," he said, half aloud, "I have not failed in my duty

towards my brother. I have done all that could be expected
of me. No one would do more. I've helped him again and
again, only to be repaid by the basest ingratitude. Now, I
will do no more."

CHAPTER VII
IN THE GRIP OF PAIN
MICHAEL went to bed that night feeling thoroughly chilled in
body and miserable in mind. Sleep would not come to him,
nor could he get warm, though he put all the wraps he
could find upon his bed. As he turned and tossed upon the
mattress throughout the night, unable to find ease, the
form of his brother as he had seen him on the bridge was
ever before his eyes. What a wretched thing Frank had
made of his life! It was all his own fault, for he had had a
good chance when he was young. And then to think of his
marrying, when he had not enough to keep himself! What
improvidence!

Michael wondered what the little girl was like of whom his
brother had spoken. With the thought, the image of the
professor's sunny-faced, winsome little daughter rose
before his mind. But it was not likely that his niece was at
all like her. A girl who worked at match-making! Well, it was
hard on a respectable, hard-working man to have relatives
of such a description. Michael wished that he had taken
another way home than the way that had led him across
that bridge. He had been so much more comfortable under
the persuasion that his brother was dead.

When Michael woke from the brief sleep that visited him
towards dawn, it was past the hour at which he usually
rose. But when he would fain have bestirred himself in
haste, he found it impossible to do so. His back and limbs
seemed to have grown strangely stiff, and when he tried to
move, an agonising pain shot through them. He struggled
against the unwelcome sensations, and did his best to
persuade himself that he was suffering only from a passing
cramp. But the pain was terrible. He felt as if he were held
in a vice. How to get up he did not know; but he must
manage to do so somehow. It was necessary that he should
get downstairs to open the door for Mrs. Wiggins. Setting
his teeth together and often groaning aloud with the pain,
he managed at last to drag himself out of bed and to get on
his clothes. It was hard work getting downstairs. He felt
faint and sick with pain, when at length he reached the
lower regions. It was impossible to stoop to kindle a fire. He
sank into the old armchair and sat there bolt upright, afraid
to move an inch, for fear of exciting fresh pain, till he heard
Mrs. Wiggins' knock. Then he compelled himself to rise, and
painfully dragged himself forth to the shop door, where he
presented to the eyes of the charwoman such a spectacle of
pain and helplessness as moved her to the utmost
compassion of which she was capable.

"Dear me! Mr. Betts, you do look bad. It's the rheumatics,
that's what it is. I've 'ad 'em myself. Is it your back that's
so very bad? Then it's lumbago, and you'd better let me
iron it."

"I'll let you do nothing of the kind!" cried the old man
angrily. "Do for pity's sake keep away from me; I can't bear
a touch or a jar. Make haste and light me a fire, and get me
a cup of tea. That's all I want."

"You ought to be in bed, that's where you ought to be," said

Mrs. Wiggins. "Just let me help you upstairs, now do, and
then I'll bring you a cup of tea, all hot and nice."

"How can I go to bed?" he asked impatiently. "Who is to

look after the shop if I go to bed?"

"Oh dear! That's a bad look out. Have you no one to whom
you could send to come and take your place? Have you no
brother now who would come to you?"

"Of course I have not!" he cried, annoyance betraying him

into a quick movement, which was followed by a groan of
pain. "I do wish you would attend to your business, and not
ask me stupid questions."
"Stupid or not, you're not fit to stand in that shop to-day.
Why, you couldn't lift a book without wincing. Ah me! It's
bad enough to be lonesome when you're well, but it's sad
indeed when you're ill to have no one to do a thing for you."

"Do be quiet," he cried; but Mrs. Wiggins, excited by the

sight of his suffering, was not disposed to hold her tongue
till she had fully relieved her mind. She began to suggest
one patent remedy after another, and showed a remarkable
acquaintance with all the quack medicines of the day. But
Michael refused to try any of them. He had hardly ever been
ill in his life, and he did not in the least know what to do
with himself, or how to bear his pain.

It grew worse as the day wore on, and though Mrs. Wiggins
made him a good fire, and he sat over it, he could not get
warm. It was hopeless to think of attending to business. He
was obliged to give in at last, and allow the shop door to be
closed, whilst he was ignominiously helped up to bed by
Mrs. Wiggins.

"Now you'd better let me send for a doctor," she said.

"No, indeed," he replied with energy. "I want no doctor yet.

You don't suppose I can afford to send for a doctor every
time I have an ache or pain?"

"Maybe not," she said, "but it seems to me you're pretty

bad now."

"Folks don't die of rheumatics," he said.

"Oh, don't they?" she returned. "I've known a many cases

in which they 'ave. Rheumatics is no joke. They're apt to
seize on the 'eart, don't you know?"

And with this comforting reflection she left him.

As Michael lay there in pain and misery, he was reminded of
a childish voice, which had said:

"I should think you would cross soon, Mr. Betts, for you are
so very old."

Could it be that he was drawing near to the hour when he

would have to cross that river of death?

The pain grew worse. From shivering, he passed into

burning fever. Mrs. Wiggins felt very uneasy when the time
came for her to go home.

"I don't like to leave you, Mr. Betts, I don't indeed," she
said. "I can't think it's right for you to be all alone in this
house. If you was to be took worse—"

"I shall not be worse," he said hoarsely; "the pain can't be

worse than it is now, and it would not make it any better to
have some one else in the house."

"But I wish you'd let me stay with you," she suggested.

"Just let me go and tell my 'usband, and come back
directly."

"No, no, no," he said, for he was weary of her attentions.

"Take the house key with you, and lock the door on the
outside, and come as early as you can in the morning. But
first bring a big jug of cold water, and set it here beside the
bed. I'm so thirsty, I could drink the sea dry, I believe."

"Ah, you've got fever, that's what you've got," replied Mrs.
Wiggins. "Well, I suppose you must have your way."

So she did what he told her, and then went home.

But she was so impressed with the fact of his being very ill
that she bestirred herself unusually early the next morning,
and was at Mr. Betts' shop quite an hour before the time at
which she generally appeared. She unlocked the door and
let herself into the shop. Already the place seemed to have
a deserted look. The dust lay thick on the books. Mrs.
Wiggins went quickly up the steep staircase and knocked at
the door of the attic, which was Michael's bedroom. She
knocked, but there was no response to her knock. She
knocked again more loudly, but Mr. Betts did not bid her
enter, only she could hear his voice talking in strange, far-
off tones. After a little hesitation she turned the handle and
entered the room. Michael Betts lay on the bed, his face
flushed with fever, his brows contracted with pain, his eyes
wild and dilated. He was talking rapidly and incoherently.

"Well, Mr. Betts," she said, as she approached the bed, "and
'ow do you find yourself this mornin'?"

But he paid no heed to her words. They fell on unconscious

cars. He went on talking rapidly; but she could not
understand what he was saying. As she bent nearer, she
could catch a few words now and then; but there seemed
no connection in them.

"The river—it's cold and deep—there's a little girl on the

other side—Oh, the pain—the awful, burning pain!—Oh,
water—give me water—there's water in the river—I don't
care if he is my brother. Give me water—water, I say. What
are you telling me about the money?—It's mine—I have a
perfect right to it. Oh, this pain! The water—the river."

"Lor' bless me! He's right off 'is 'ead," said Mrs. Wiggins;
"'e's in a raging fever. It's no good speakin' to 'im. I must
just fetch a doctor, whether 'e likes it or not."
A little later, a doctor stood beside Michael's bed. He
pronounced it a severe case of rheumatic fever, made some
inquiries respecting the circumstances of his patient,
prescribed for him and departed, saying that he would send
a nurse to look after him, since he needed good nursing
more than medicine. The doctor showed his wisdom in so
acting, for had Michael been left to the tender mercies of
Mrs. Wiggins, well-meaning though they were, he would
probably never have risen from his bed. As it was, he had a
hard struggle ere the force of life within him overcame the
power of disease. He was very ill, and at one time, the
medical man had but faint hope of his recovery.

He was confined to his bed for weeks, and the little book-
shop remained closed the while, for Michael was far too ill
to give any directions as to what should be done about the
business. After the fever left him, he was as weak as a
baby: too weak to care about anything, so weak that every
effort was painful, and he felt as if he had not the heart to
struggle back to life again. Yet he shrank from the thought
of death, and one of the first questions he asked his nurse,
when he was able to think and speak connectedly, was if
she thought he would recover.

"Yes," she said cheerfully, "you've turned the corner now.

All you need is feeding up. Every day will see a change for
the better now, if you're good and do as I tell you."

"I'll try," said Michael, quite meekly. "You've been very good
to me, nurse."

"I should be a poor kind of nurse, if I hadn't been good to

you," she replied. "It's my business to look after people
when they're ill, and I have to take the greatest possible
care of them, or things would go seriously wrong."
"I never had any one do as much for me as you've done,"
said Betts; "not since I lost my mother, I mean."

"Then you never had a wife?"

"No. I've never had time to think about getting one."

The nurse laughed.

"You're a strange man," she said; "but now eat some of this
jelly."

"It is good," said Michael; "really I don't know as I ever

tasted anything better."

"It's real, strong calf's-foot jelly, and it was made by a lady

on purpose for you."

"That can't be," said Michael, looking at her in surprise;

"there's no lady would make jelly for me. You must be
making a mistake."

"Indeed I am not. You have more friends than you think.

She came here and gave it into my very hands, so I must
know. She said she'd heard from the doctor that you were
ill, and she felt sorry for your being all alone. She said she'd
done business with you, and when she saw the shop shut
up, she asked about you."

"Well, I never!" said Michael. "I can't imagine who it could

be."

"She said her name was Lavers."

"What?" exclaimed Michael in amazement. "What name did

you say?"

"Lavers—Mrs. Lavers."
Michael gave a groan.

"What is the matter?" asked the nurse, turning to look at

him; "have you the pain again?"

"No," he muttered, "not that sort of pain; but I wish she

had not done it."

"Why, you ungrateful man!" exclaimed the nurse.

Michael made no reply. A hot flush of shame was dyeing his

cheeks, and mounting to his forehead. The nurse observed
it with some anxiety. She took his hand to feel his pulse.
Was the fever about to return?

CHAPTER VIII
THE BURDEN MAKES ITSELF FELT

"MR. BETTS," said the nurse, three days later, as she came
into the room, "that lady is downstairs, and she wants to
know if you would like to see her."

"What lady?" asked Michael, though he thought he knew.

"The lady who made you the jelly—Mrs. Lavers, of course."

"Oh no," said Michael, shrinking down and drawing the

bedclothes closer about him, as if he would fain hide
himself; "I don't want to see her. I can't have her coming
here. Tell her so, please."