C h a pt er O n e: C o n c e pt u al i z at i o n o f N a t i o n a l i n t e r es t , F o r ei g n P o l i c y an d

D i pl o m acy

1 . 1 . C o n c e pt u al D ef i n i t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l I n t er e s t a n d F o r e i g n P o l i c y
 What is National Interest?

 What it Constitute?

 What is Foreign Policy?

National interest is a set of goals/ national objectives that a particular state aspires
achieve and maintain both domestically and externally. The national interest of the
state will be compatible with the foreign policy objective of the state. National interest
is adopted as a means or device for analyzing fundamental objectives of foreign policy
of a nation - state. It is regarded as those purposes which the nation, through its
leadership pursues persistently through time. National interest is also some ideal set
of purposes which a nation should seek to realize in the conduct of its foreign
relations. By national interest we mean the sum of the goals and objectives of a state’s
foreign policy. Even if the national interests of states vary in that detail, core national
interests
are the same for different courtiers. The minimum essential components of the
national
interest of any state are security, national development and world order.

National interest is a key concept in foreign policy. The making of foreign policy
begins
by identifying the state’s key national interests. Foreign policy cannot be subordinated
to any other principle than national interest. The total task of foreign policy is to
defend
national interests peacefully and rationally. The goals and objectives of any state
foreign
policy constitute national interest as a basis. Accordingly the objectives of any state’s
foreign policy can be broadly classified in to;

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 1. Maintaining the integrity of the state –that is the preservation of its
independence. States normally act to maximize their chances of survival in the
world.

2. Providing for national security- this is related with maintaining integrity. Since
existence for any state is never absolutely certain, each is compelled to arrange
its
relations with the rest of the world so as to maximize its possibilities for
continued existence.

3. Promoting economic interests- the developing countries of the world have a

limited role to play in promoting their economic interests. They seek fair prices
for the commodities they export and import. They demand that economic
assistance programs should be motivated by humanitarian considerations that
they
should be made not for political ends. To the developed countries, economic
interests have a wider application.

4. Protecting national prestige and developing national power-states act so as to

gain status and respect by other states. Such an objective in a foreign policy
helps
a state to have a high national morale.

5. Maintaining world order- in order to maintain inter-state relationship and

promote one’s foreign policy, state’s actions should conform to certain ethical
and moral values acceptable to other state. A minimum state of orderliness is a
precondition of measure of justice. Thus, state need to maintain a world order
with in which they can realize their national interests.

D ef i n i n g F o r e i g n P o l i c y

Foreign policy has no a universal and a single agreed definition. Different scholars try

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to define it in various ways. Some of the definitions by different scholars are listed as
follows. George Modelski (1962) defines foreign policy as, “the system of activities
evolved by communities for changing the behavior of other states and for adjusting
their own activities to the international environment. In the words of Padelford and
Lincoln, “Foreign policy is the key element in the process by which a state translates
its broadly conceived goals and interests into concrete courses of action to attain
these objectives and pressure its interests. In the words of C.C.Rodee, “Foreign Policy
involves the formulation and implementation of a group of principles which shape the
behavior and pattern of a state while negotiating with (contacting) other states to
protect or further its vital interests”. F.S. Northedge considers foreign policy to be
the use of political influence in order to induce other states to exercise their law
making power in a manner desired by the state concerned. It is an interaction
between forces originating outside the country’s borders and those working within
them. Foreign policy is viewed as interplay between the outside and the inside. This
definition suggests that foreign policy is the reaction to the external stimuli while
reflecting on domestic realties. Foreign policy of a state usually refers to the general
principles by which the state governs its reactions to the international environment.

In general a country's foreign policy, also called the international relations policy, is a
set of goals outlining how the country will interact with other countries economically,
politically, socially and militarily, and to a lesser extent, how the country will interact
with non-state actors. Foreign policy is primarily concerned with the boundaries
between the external environment outside of the nation state and the internal or
domestic environment, with its variety of sub-national sources of influence. Foreign
policies are designed to help protect a country's national interests, national security,
ideological goals, and economic prosperity. This can occur as a result of peaceful
cooperation with other nations, or through exploitation. Through their foreign policy,
states endeavor to persuade others in accordance with their own ends. It is primarily in
proportion to its national power that its persuasive power is effective in this regard.
However, even a powerful state cannot afford to enjoy a solo flight in this regard. It
has to take into account, not only its own objectives and interests, aspirations and

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problems, but also those of other states.

No country can live in complete isolation in the present day world. As all nations carry
on some intercourse with other countries every nation must have its foreign policy
apart from its domestic policy. It can further be referred as the process of identifying
the elements which a state considers constitutes its vital national interest and
designing effective strategies to attain and protect them. A country’s foreign policy
and diplomacy is affected by the changing nature of the global politics. Usually new
global phenomena lead to new policy and diplomacy of countries. Constant
modifications or alteration to changing circumstances without affecting the basic
substances of own foreign policy may be an important measure that foreign policy
makers should work about. No static foreign policy is actually desirable since it should
cope-up with changing situations without compromising the core values of a state’s
national interest.

The state has traditionally been viewed as the most important and basic unit in
international relations. Every state is essential to the others at least in one or,
depending on circumstances, in several ways. Therefore, states are necessarily related
with each other in one way or another. It takes place with the purpose of achieving the
goals of a state’s national interest. This is formulated in the form of a state’s foreign
policy. It may be shaped and influenced by different factors depending on time and
circumstances.

Foreign policy may generally be described as the official policy actions taken by one
state to wards other states. It involves the formulation and implementation of a group
of principles which guide the actions of a state while negotiating with other state to
protect or further its national interest. It should, however, be noted that not all
international contacts and relations are associated with foreign policy. Only those
matters that originate with, or are openly or secretly sponsored by the government of
a state may be considered as belonging to its foreign policy. That is, only ‘official’ or
government directed relations between states is included in the concept of foreign

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 policy.

A nation-state perennially faces the question what should the national goals be? The
answer to this question we call foreign policy, and it is at once evident that not
everything that could conceivably be desired is obtainable. The formulation of a
desired foreign policy objective and its proper execution depend to a great extent on
the possession of power. And it is a fact that, national power is limited for all states,
big as well as small. Consequently the formulation of a realistic foreign policy depends
on appraisal of the power reserve and other available resources.
The fundamental task of foreign policy is usually defined as a continuous process of
assessing of one’s own and other nations’ capacities and intentions. This virtually
might mean;
1. Determining one’s own objectives in the light of one’s own and allied power,
that is actually and potentially available for the pursuit of these objectives;
2. Evaluating the objectives of unfriendly, neutral, and friendly nations as well as
their actual and potential capacity to realize them.
Therefore formulation of foreign policy should be preceded by a good deal of
situational analysis in both internal and external to one’s own state. The information
gathering and reporting function of diplomacy is of greater importance in providing
input to the formulation of foreign policy.

O b j ec t i v es o f F o r e i g n P o l i c y

The objectives of foreign policy are divided in three categories namely, core values and
interests, middle-range objectives and universal long-range objectives.

C o r e V a l u es a n d I n t er e s t s

They are called Core Objectives as well, because these objectives are attained at all
costs. State cannot afford to show any laxity on this count. Among core objectives,

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territorial integrity and political independence enjoys to be the foremost priority of
each and every nation-state. Others are: Self-preservation, defense, ethnic, religious or
linguistic unity, protection of beliefs and values etc. Without any physical unity the state
would cease to remain a state. So it needs to be and it has to be the foremost objective
of a state. The state has to girdle itself to realize these objectives directly, quickly,
forcefully and effectively; it has no luxury of time in case of fulfilling these core
objectives. It cannot afford the threat to magnify. Moreover, it has to deal with the
source of the threat directly i.e. the demand is made on the single state or group of
states who might pose threat to the geographical integrity of the country.

In order to maintain one’s geographical integrity, a state must have arms and
ammunitions. Whereas in case of conventional weapons, it has to carry out ‘finite’
deterrence in order to deter the enemy from attacking it, in case of nuclear weapons,
thanks to their expensive and destructive nature, only ‘minimum deterrence’ is enough.
Core value and interest are goals to which states commit their very existence and which
must be preserved or extended at all times or make ultimate sacrifice.

M i dd l e - R a n g e Ob j ect i v es

This particular category is comprised of economic uplift of the people, raising their life
standard, enhancing prestige and status of the nation, and expansion both territorial,
as well as ideological. These objectives are sought to be achieved within a specific time
period, implying that after the expiration the term, the objectives even if attained
would have lost their real value. Here the targets are more than one or two states. A
state has to carry out trade with a number of states and trade blocks. It has to deal
with multiple sources while pursuing these objectives.
Foreign policy aims at achieving economic prosperity, as only an economically
prosperous nation is to play more assertive role in international politics. It is usually
the keen desire of each state to establish, strengthen and widen its economic ties with
other states. Status and prestige of a state can be secured only if the state is
economically stable and prosperous. In the process, the state has to diversify its trade

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and economy in order to make it resilient enough to come up to the challenges of the
competitive world. It has to export its goods, commodities and raw material to more
than one destination i.e. states; it has to strengthen its export base in more than one
commodity or good, so that no state, MNCs, or group could exploit its vulnerability in
this regard.
Expansion of territorial or ideological falls within the purview of middle range
objectives. Expansion through capturing lands is direct sort of expansion which is no
longer in vogue today. What is of greater concern is the ideological expansion i.e.
expansion through the propagation of ideas, ideologies, systems, cultures and values.
The West has successfully launched this type of expansion at the expense of Afro-
Asian and the Third World countries. Capitalism, market economy, English language
and democracy of Western model and style have occupied a place in the international
system just because of hectic and effective propagation of the same by the West.
Courtesy this influence, the West and to some extent India has increased its soft
power.
L o n g - R a n g e O b j e c t i v es

A state while pursuing such type of objectives seeks to gain almost at the expense of
all other states. It is state’s reconstructing of the international system by their way. It
has no time restrictions, as time limit is usually employed in pursuit of core and middle
range objectives. Long Range Objective are not only time consuming, but are also
indefinite and vague i.e. nothing can be ascertained regarding the outcome of the
pursuit, so they are unpredictable as well. Example: Universalization of westernization
by USA at the present global politics.
N a t i o n a l I n t er e s t V S N a t i o n al C a pa b i l i t y

The mere identification of national interest cannot be a guarantee for its achievement.
The capability of the state must take into consideration in national interest
identification and foreign policy formulation. The capability of the state basically
derived from:

 Natural resource

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  Military power

 Technology

 Industrialization

 Population size and skill

 Economic power

 Leadership skill

 Population(skill and size)

 Geo-strategic location…and so on.

But all states have the same understanding for their short range foreign policy
objectives despite their difference in capability.

C o m po n e n t s o f F o r ei g n po l i c y
What are the main components of foreign policy?
The components of foreign policy include foreign policy orientations, objectives and
actions.
A . f o r e i g n po l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n
is a course or strategy states follow/ choose depending on their position in the
international system to attain their foreign policy objectives It can also be defined as
states general attitudes and commitments towards the external environment based
on the examination of global structure of power and influence. State’s foreign policy
orientations could be an outcome of cumulative factors dictated by internal and
external political, economic, environment. Let us see some examples of foreign policy
orientations:
Isolationism: Is none or low level of involvement in most issue areas in the
international system. This is based on the assumption that states can best gain
security and independence by reducing areas of transactions with others. The success
of such policy might depend up on the structure of the international system, where by

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a multi- polar international system enables states to reduce outside pressure and
regularly shift their alliances. In addition the domestic environment like the socio
economic and political pressure from within, the level of self-sufficiency and stability
do also contribute to the success and failure of such orientation.
Non alignment: is a foreign policy course adopted by states to refrain from alignment
with military and ideological blocs of the cold war. During the cold war period states
either join either of the blocs or remain neutral and the latter is considered as a
strategy pursued to escape the bipolar trap as a gesture of political neutrality. During
the cold war African and Asian nations convened at Bandung (Indonesia) and
proclaimed themselves as a third force in world affairs. In another conference held in
Belgrade (Yugoslavia) in 1961 they agreed to pursue an independent policy based on
peaceful coexistence, not to participate in multilateral military alliance and not to
participate in bilateral military alliance with the great powers.
Neutrality: the international legal status of a state under which it does not participate
in war and does not render military assistance to belligerents. Once a state declared
itself neutral it has the duty to maintain impartiality, refrain from aiding belligerents,
deny the belligerent states for any use of its territory and can exercise rights such as
its territorial inviolability, accept its position of impartiality and recognition of its right
to self-defense.

Non alignment differs from that of neutrality in that, non-alignment is subject to

change with change of government committed to it. It just implies abstention from
existing conflicts and competitions among nation or blocs. On the other hand,
neutrality is mainly result of international agreement and commitment which is not
affected by change of government that remains permanent. It is an agreement to
abstain from existing and potential future conflicts.
B. Foreign policy objectives: are objectives that a state wants to achieve through the
means of its foreign policy.
C. foreign policy actions: Is what governments do to others in order to effect certain
orientations, fulfill roles and achieve and defend objectives.
F o r ei g n P o l i c y B e h av i o r

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Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take towards each other that
might mainly include; formation of alliance, establishment or suspension of diplomatic
relations, threat of actual use of force, giving or withdrawal of foreign aid, voting in
international organizations, conclusion of trade agreements etc…These acts are not
end in themselves but are tied in some way to larger purposes ranging from regional
dominance to aims such as acquisition of territory.
Not all foreign policy acts are called foreign policy and not all foreign policy is called
foreign policy behavior, since the policy might be different from the behavior and vice
versa. In short foreign policy and behavior of foreign policy might not always
correspond to each other. We can know whether policies and behavior correspond to
each other by observing governments’ action or statements or words and deeds which
usually correspond to patterns of friendship and hostility. In a friendly relationship
between countries, statements and actions would show the extent of friendship while
in hostile relationship statements and actions would exhibit them clearly. Sometimes
rhetoric and action diverge. There could be critical statement made against a
government but it might accompany cooperative behavior and vice versa. Occasionally
such discrepancy might reflect conflicting policy priorities.

There are three major patterns of foreign policy behavior that includes;
A. Self-preservation: Maintaining the status quo
B. Self-extension : revising the status quo in one’s favor

C. Self-abnegation: revising the status quo in someone else’s favor or self-

sacrificing

It must be noted that, the behavior of state’s change overtime and with different
sets of leaders and conditions. These changes of behavior could be due to change
of leadership or change of certain other conditions. In general foreign policy
b eh a v i o r ca n b e b r o a d l y cl a s s i f i ed a l o n g t h r ee cr u ci a l d i m en s i o n s :
A. Alignment: Alignment tendencies or the tendencies to choose to ally with some
countries or remaining neutral changes with time in response to changing
circumstances and policy behavior.
B. Scope and Interest: the scope of which a country decides to what extent it

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 engages itself in international affairs or it follows a policy of isolationism.
C. Modus operandi or Method of operation: states exhibit certain characteristics
behavior and patterns to pursue their goals. These set of patterns could be either
Multilateralism or activism. Multilateralism refers to seeking joint solutions to
problems through institutions like the UN than bilateralism. Activism on the on the
other hand is to initiate actions in the international relations or to resist initiatives
taken by others and the resistance can range from protest, threats, warnings and
actual use of force. Activism might lead to intervention in the internal affairs of others.
Intervention through multilateralism is legitimate while without that it is considered as
illegitimate or unilateral.

D et er m i n a n t F a c t o r s o f F o r e i g n P o l i c y a n d N at i o n al I n t e r es t

I. I n t er n a l F a ct o r s

The internal factors can be divided under the following sub-categories.

A . H i s t o r i ca l an d N a t i o n a l V a l u es

The foreign policy is shaped and conditioned by the history alone. The nation inherits
a style and culture which in their turn influence and decide the course of
actions, the nation has to follow in relation to other sovereign states. There is
continuity and change in India’s foreign policy. The element of continuity represents
the legacy of history.

B . G e o g r a ph y a n d S i z e

Geography is the factor that directly determines the national goals and co-
aspirations and hence is one of the most potent factors in influencing the formulation
of the foreign policy. Geographical factors, like the size and the location of a country,
its natural resources and the number of its population contribute to the power of the
nation, which in turn shapes its foreign policy.

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 C . P ub l ic Opin io n

Public opinion shapes the foreign policy, provided it is clear and well-shaped. It could
be significant factor only in developed state. In developing or underdevelopment
states either it does not reflect on foreign policy issues or it is too naive to play a
significant role. Studies of public attitudes conclude that the vast majority of people
even in highly literate societies are unknowledgeable, uninterested and apathetic
with regard to most issues of world affairs. Other studies suggest that
government, university and private programs that have sought to create wider
public knowledge and appreciation of the complexities of international politics have
seldom met with success.

D . N a t i o n a l C a pa c i t y

National capacity means the military preparedness of state, its technological

advancement and modern means of communication. The economic development and
enlightened political institutions are also associated with the national capacity.
National capacity is the pivot of foreign policy. It determines as well as implements it.
In fact, the foreign policy is directly associated with the national capacity. If the state
increases its national capacity its foreign policy will need a big change. It will strive to
achieve a status of distinction in international relations; if it decreases the state
will have to compromise with its poor status.

E . T h e S t r u ct u r e o f S o ci et y

National morale is recognized to be an important element in the power of a state

and, therefore, in the successful conduct of foreign policy. It is evident that a
homogeneous society makes stronger national unity and morale than a
heterogeneous one, sharp division in society-divisions between rich and poor,
divisions on the basis of religion, regional imbalances make it difficult for a
government to count on that immediate and nation-wide cooperation from society
which is so essential for a successful foreign policy.

F . T h e P o l i t i ca l Or g an i z a t i o n

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The internal political structure of a country has an important impact upon the
country’s approach to international affairs, as is evident from a comparison of
the decision-making processes in an absolute monarchy or a dictatorship on the one
hand and in a parliamentary democracy on the other. It is true that as David Hume
puts it, it is an opinion only that government and this maxim extends to the most
despotic and most military governments as well as to the most free and most
popular. A despotic government has greater power, through censorship and the
promulgation of regulations, to prevent the expression of undesirable opinions than
a free government does. Indeed, the distinguishing mark of a free government is the
very freedom allowed the citizens to express their options on public policy, domestic
or foreign.

G . L ea d er s h i p

The government and the leadership play an important role in determining the
role of their country, which it is going to play in the international field. In fact, it is
government and leadership, which convert the potential power of a state into actual
power.
The quality of a government to a large extent depends upon the type of leadership
available
to it. Leaders like Hitler and Mussolini could easily disturb the forward and steady
movement
of the nation; they jeopardize international peace and security as well. Whereas leaders
like
George Washington, Abraham Lincoln and Winston Churchill would serve the nation
most
efficiently and steer the nation’s ship safely from the troubled waters to the safe
shores.

H . I d eo l o g y

Ideology is the basis as well as the goal of foreign policy. The states establish their
political and economic institutions on the basis of ideology and endeavor to translate
those
very principles in the sphere of foreign policy. The ideology prescribes for policy
makers
both national roles and an image of the future state in the world. It establishes the
long-range

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goals of a state’s external behavior, to be promoted through diplomacy, propaganda,
revolution or force. Its relevance to day-to-day problem solving and to the
development of
specific actions in concrete situations, however, may be only very slight. As is obvious,
a
particular ideology has a goal which the state strives to achieve in international
relations. The
ideological division of the world between Soviet bloc and American bloc has focused
two
types of foreign policies. One is communist oriented and the other non-communist. A
sort of
affinity can be traced among the states of identical ideologies while there is feeling of
animosity among the states adhering to contradictory ideologies. This is the root
cause of
cold war and post war tensions.

I . N a t u r a l R es o u r ce

The natural resource of a country also profoundly influences the determination of a

foreign policy. The natural resource apart from minerals, gas and water resources also
include the food grain.

J . E co n o m i c a n d I n du s t r i a l D ev el o p m en t

The level of economic development attained by the country has deep impact on the
foreign policy of a country. One of the middle range objectives of state’s foreign policy
is to expand, diversify and strengthen its economic relations with the external world.

K . M i l i t ar y p o w er

Besides all the preceding factors, the military strength of a country also determines
the effectiveness of its foreign policy. A state possessing sufficient military strength
has greater initiative and bargaining power in the international arena.

L. P o pulat i on

The strength of a nation depends up on the quality and quantity of its human
factor.The enormous population of China enabled it to pursue a forceful foreign policy.

II. E x t er n a l F a ct o r s

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The external factors include international environment, international organizations,
reaction of
other states and world public opinion.

A . I n t er n a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m en t

The establishments of friendly and cooperative relations between nations are the aims
of a sound foreign policy; the complexity of task arises from the very nature of
international politics. The multiplicity of attitudes and their interactions apart the
difficulty of conducting foreign policy arise from the fact that a state has no sure
means of controlling the behavior of other sovereign states. It can persuade, promise
or deny economic and military aid, it can threaten another state with the use of force
and, nevertheless, it cannot be certain the state will act in the way it desires. There is
another source of difficulty. The world is continuously changing, new events and
personalities create fresh foreign policy problems for all concerned. To select
instances at random, the impact of the October Revolution of 1917, the rise of
Communist Power in China in 1949, the rise of De Gaulle to power in France in the
fifties and the emergence of new states in Asia and Africa since Foreign Ministers of
the time. Yet it has been rightly said that there is both
continuity and change in the foreign policies of all states, for every nation also has its
history
and its traditions.

B . I n t er n a t i o n a l Or g a n i za t i o n s

The international organizations have started playing important role in foreign policy
formulation. The states have to take a note of international law, treaties and contracts
so that their violation may not jeopardize the policies. The Communist China, for a
long time, showed utter disregard of these factors and consequently could not secure
its due position in the field of international relations. Only after 1971 she recognized
their importance and that move on the part of Communist China have introduced new
dimensions in international politics.

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 C . R ea ct i o n s o f Ot h er S t at e s

The states have to take notice of the interests of other states while formulating their
policies. They will never endeavor to pursue those interests which are totally opposed
to the fundamental interests of other states. Hitler in 1939 committed a blunder when
he refused to be guided by the British reactions and events ahead with his Polish
invasion. The result is well known. Japan’s failure in assessing American reactions in
Pearl Harbor incident again brought disaster to Japanese policy which had intelligently
avoided offending the USA up to that period.

D . Wo r ld P ub l ic Opin io n

World public opinion is very dynamic element. Like a flicker of

light it influences the foreign policies only too occasionally. Only if the domestic public
opinion supports the world public opinion it becomes an important determinant of
foreign
policy. The establishment of democratic institutions, the increase in the standard of
living,
the scourge of First World War and expansion of education have made the world
public
opinion a significant factor in foreign policy. The States never dare pursue the
interests
contrary to world public opinion. At least they will pursue only those interests which
are not
opposed to world public opinion.

E . P o w e r S t r u ct ur e

The modern state system has been in existence since the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia.
The modern state system includes major, middling and small powers. All states
conduct their own foreign policies. One of the primary objectives of each country’s
foreign policy is to maintain its own political independence and security. In the
traditional multi-polar system, it was easier for states to switch sides and received

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maximum gains from all sides. During the bipolar world system, however the
ideological fault lines were more clearly marked and it was not easy for states to
switch sides frequently. Thus during cold war the countries of Eastern Europe were
under the security umbrella of Warsaw Pact which was under the direct influence of
the former USSR. And the countries of the Western Europe together with the US and
Canada entered in to an alliance known as North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Every type of power structure at international level has its own particular dynamics
and that has its impact on the foreign policies of states.

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