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MANAGING AND LEASING
COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES
SECOND EDITION
PROFESSIONAL REVIEW
Aaron M. Bosshardt, CPM®, CCIM
Sam Chanin, CPM®
David Domres, CPM®, CCIM
Carrie E. Woodring, CPM®
Kristine M. Moore, CPM®, CCIM, CPA
Mark Polatsek, CPM®
Jacqueline Harris, CPM®, CCIM
Richard H. Forsyth, CPM®, CCIM
IREM EDUCATION PUBLISHING
Nadia Geagea Pupa
Managing Editor, Publications

Ronald Gjerde
Vice President, Knowledge Center
MANAGING AND LEASING
COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES
SECOND EDITION

Alan A. Alexander
Richard F. Muhlebach, CPM®
©2007, 2016 by the Institute of Real Estate Management of the NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF REALTORS®
All rights reserved. First edition 2007
Second edition 2016.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN-13: 978-1-57203-242-2
Ebook ISBN-13: 978-1-57203-275-0
SKU: 791-2

This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Inquiries should be directed to:

Publishing Department
Institute of Real Estate Management
430 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611–4090

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. Forms or other documents included in this book are intended as
samples only. Because of changing and varying state and local laws, competent professional advice should be sought prior to the use of any document, form, exhibit, or the like. This
publication is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or any other professional service. If legal advice or other expert assistance is
required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Text and Cover Composition:

Nadia Geagea Pupa

Cover photos left to right: © Brus_Rus; © xijian; © zhudifeng; © imaginima; © beijingstory; © lichaoshu; © ivo Gretener; © Maxiphoto / istock photos

IREM® logo, IREM®, CERTIFIED PROPERTY MANAGER®, CPM®, the CPM key logo, ACCREDITED RESIDENTIAL MANAGER®, ARM®, the ARM torch logo, ACCREDITED MANAGEMENT
ORGANIZATION®, AMO®, the AMO circle logo, Income/Expense Analysis®, Expense Analysis®, JPM® and MPSA® are registered marks of the Institute of Real Estate Management.

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IREM is dedicated to supporting real estate management strategies that advance an environmentally sustainable and economically prosperous future

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Muhlebach, Richard F., 1943- author. | Alexander, Alan A., author. | Alexander, Alan A. Managing and leasing commercial properties.
Title: Managing and leasing commercial properties / by Richard F. Muhlebach, CPM(r), Alan A. Alexander.
Description: Second Edition. | Chicago : Institute of Real Estate Management IREM, [2016] | Revised edition of the authors’s Managing and leasing commercial properties, c2007. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016023393 (print) | LCCN 2016033535 (ebook) | ISBN 9781572032422 (pbk.: alk. paper) | ISBN 1572032421 (pbk.: alk. paper) |
Subjects: LCSH: Real estate management. | Real estate management–United States. | Commercial buildings–United States–Management. | Commercial leases–United States. | Building
leases–United States.
Classification: LCC HD1394. M845 2016 (print) | DDC 333.33/87068–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016023393
To my loving wife of 37 years, Jeanne, thank you for your love, support, backing and encouragement in all that I do. You are always there
for me in every way. The accomplishment of writing such books as this is made so much easier when one has someone to share the load and
to provide loving guidance for the betterment of all that I attempt.

Thank you, Alan Alexander

In a few years from the date of this publication, Maria and I will celebrate 50 years in real estate management. Maria, for 50 years you
supported me in my endeavor to change professions, start a career in a field I knew little about, and build a career and a company. While
you served as the COO of our family, you encouraged and supported me through the excitement and challenges of venturing into the
unknown while many nights you waited for me to come home from late meetings, teaching assignments, and business trips. Maria, thank
you for being there for me over and over again!

I also want to thank IREM for serving as my mentor and jump starting my career by providing me with opportunities to network with real
estate professionals, attend incredible courses and education forums, acquire publications that became invaluable desk references, and the
opportunity to serve in leadership positions. Maria and I have made many lasting friendships with people we’ve met at local and national
IREM meetings and conferences.

– Richard Muhlebach, CPM®

PREFACE
Managing and Leasing Commercial Properties, Second Edition provides practical and successful techniques for a proactive approach to
operating, managing, marketing, and leasing commercial properties. This is not a book on the theory of real estate management; rather, it is
a hands-on guide that provides problem-solving methods, procedures, tactics, and tips. The suggested approaches come from the combined
experiences of the authors, who have more than 80 years’ experience in the management, leasing, and marketing of all types of commercial
properties, which include medical office buildings, high-rise office buildings, major industrial parks, regional enclosed malls, and large
mixed-use developments.

In addition, Managing and Leasing Commercial Properties, Second Edition offers the philosophy that managing an income property is
managing a business. Each real estate investment is the business of its investor—whether the property is a 10,000-square-foot strip shopping
center, or one of the tallest office buildings in the world. Effective real estate managers do not manage brick and mortar, steel, and concrete
—they manage people and relationships. These approaches ultimately lead to the long-term success of managing and leasing properties, and
are the foundation which this publication has been written.

This book begins with a historical overview and evolution of commercial properties throughout the years, providing insight into how real
estate management and leasing opportunities were created more than 100 years ago. The introductory chapter also identifies future
opportunities in real estate management and leasing.

The second chapter provides information on managing income-producing real estate as a business, which contains the necessary information
to develop a business plan for each property.

A study by the Institute of Real Estate Management (IREM) found that leasing and retaining tenants are the top concerns of real estate
investors. There are greater opportunities to increase a property’s cash flow and value through leasing compared to any other management
activity. Therefore, a major portion of this book is devoted to the marketing and leasing of commercial properties. The daily responsibility
of real estate managers has an impact on the marketing and leasing efforts and overall success of the properties they manage. Real estate
managers must be proficient in developing an effective and efficient marketing and leasing program for every property they manage, along
with being prepared to negotiate scores of lease provisions.

Effective management techniques for all types of commercial properties are discussed in the chapters on budgeting, maintenance
management, and emergency procedures. Many commercial properties have common approaches to the management process, but where
they differ, those differences are discussed as well. Specific approaches to management and leasing techniques are covered for shopping
centers, office buildings, medical office buildings, and industrial properties.

The final section provides information on the development process and rehabbing commercial properties. The real estate manager has an
important role in each of these development activities and should understand the responsibilities of each professional involved in
developing and/or renovating all types of commercial properties.

The intention of this book is to provide a resource for real estate managers, property accountants, marketing personnel, leasing agents, and
security and maintenance staffs to confront and exploit the opportunities and challenges in today’s complex commercial property
operations, management, marketing, and leasing. Without a doubt, this publication will be your handy reference guide for daily operations,
management, marketing, and leasing of the properties in your portfolio.

– Alan Alexander and Richard Muhlebach

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Professionals in real estate management generously share their expertise and experiences with each other. This has enabled the real estate
management profession to evolve and prosper and enables real estate managers to better serve their clients and the community. We have
been beneficiaries of the generosity of our peers who have shared their knowledge and experiences with us. Without the guidance and
mentoring from several real estate professionals, we would not have been able to write these and other real estate management and leasing
books. We thank Eric Muhlebach of Bond Retail in San Francisco for his invaluable leasing and marketing advice.

This book would not have been possible without the experience, dedication, patience, and insight of Nadia Geagea Pupa, Managing Editor
of IREM®.

We would also like to acknowledge the insights and experiences of the following CERTIFIED PROPERTY MANAGERS® who served as reviewers of
the book’s manuscript:

Aaron M. Bosshardt, CPM®, CCIM

Sam Chanin, CPM®
David Domres, CPM®, CCIM
Carrie E. Woodring, CPM®
Kristine M. Moore, CPM®, CCIM, CPA
Mark Polatsek, CPM®
Jacqueline Harris, CPM®, CCIM
Richard H. Forsyth, CPM®, CCIM

We would like to acknowledge our long and valued association with the Institute of Real Estate Management® (IREM®). The opportunities
for networking and training from the IREM® publications, courses, and conferences have been invaluable in the development of our careers.

– Alan Alexander
– Richard Muhlebach CPM, CSM, RPA, CRX, CRE
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
ALAN A. ALEXANDER, PRESIDENT OF ALEXANDER CONSULTANTS

Alan A. Alexander is the President of Alexander Consultants for more than 35 years, specializing in the management, leasing, and consulting
for income-producing properties throughout the western United States and South America. He formed Alexander Consultants with a
specialization in commercial real estate management and leasing, as well as involvement in large residential complexes. His company
provided consulting services to the commercial real estate industry and managed and leased grocery-anchored shopping centers, specialty
centers, and enclosed regional malls. He later sold that company to a large local developer.

Alan is the former Senior Vice President of Fox & Carskadon Management Corporation with a responsibility for a portfolio of commercial
and residential properties worth in excess of $900 million dollars in four western states. As Director of Leasing for Fox & Carskadon
Financial, Alan was responsible for the leasing of all shopping centers owned by the company throughout the United States with a total
portfolio in excess of $2 billion dollars.

He was a member of the national faculty of IREM® as a senior instructor for both shopping centers and office buildings. In addition to
classes taught in almost every major city in the United States, he has also instructed in Singapore, Canada, Mexico, Malaysia, Taiwan, Hong
Kong, the Philippines, Poland, China, Thailand, Holland, India, Argentina, Turkey, and Jamaica. He was a frequent speaker for the
International Council of Shopping Center (ICSC) programs including Idea Exchanges, the Annual Convention, Management Institutes,
Maintenance Institutes, and the School for Professional Development. He represented the ICSC at their first three Asian Shopping Center
Schools as an instructor.

Alan has been a moderator and speaker for more than 200 private seminars on developing and leasing of shopping centers, office buildings,
and apartment properties for the Northwest Center for Professional Education. He has co-authored Shopping Center Management (1992,
2005), published by IREM®, and Operating Small Shopping Centers (1996), published by ICSC. He has also co-authored Business Strategies for
Real Estate Management Companies (1997, 2003, and 2014), published by IREM.

He is a contributing author to the books Managing Shopping Centers, Budgeting, CAM Operations and Leasing Shopping Centers, all published by
ICSC in 1998 and 2000. Alan was inducted into the Academy of Authors of the Institute of Real Estate Management in 1984. He is the past
President of the San Francisco Bay Area Chapter of the Institute of Real Estate Management. He was awarded the “Distinguished Service
Award” by the ICSC in 1992 for his contributions to education and publications.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
RICHARD MUHLEBACH CPM, CRE, CSM, CRX, RPA

Richard Muhlebach is a commercial real estate professional with more than 40 years’ experience as an executive with real estate firms that
develop, lease, and manage commercial and residential properties. He served as the vice president of real estate management for two
California developers and the vice president of leasing for a northwest developer. He founded, operated, and served for 19 years as the
president of a real estate management and leasing company. He sold the firm to a national public real estate company, and served as its
senior managing director for nine years.

Richard started a second real estate firm that provides brokerage and consulting services in the Northwest and California with offices in the
Seattle and San Francisco areas. He also assisted his son in creating Bond Retail, a firm located in San Francisco, which acquires retail
properties on great retail streets throughout the United States and provides retail brokerage services. He serves as the firm’s vice president.

Richard has been responsible for the management and leasing of almost all commercial property types including regional open and enclosed
malls, high-rise office buildings, medical office buildings, industrial parks, large multi-anchored strip shopping centers, street retail
properties, and a two million square foot mixed-use development. He also managed, marketed, and leased large apartment developments.

Richard co-authored 23 books on commercial real estate including Business Strategies for Real Estate Management Companies, Managing and
Leasing Commercial Properties, Troubled Properties, Managing Your Maintenance Programs, Shopping Center Management and Leasing, and The
Leasing Process: Landlord and Tenant Perspectives. His books have been published by John Wiley and Sons, Aspen Publishing, International
Council of Shopping Centers (ICSC), and the Institute of Real Estate Management® (IREM®). He has authored more than 130 articles
including articles published in Asia and Europe. He is an instructor for the Commercial Brokers Association, IREM, Building Owners and
Managers Association (BOMA), and the University of Washington. He served as an instructor for the ICSC, Northwest Center for Professional
Education, and Orange Coast College. He’s taught seminars and lectured throughout the United States and in Singapore, China, Taiwan,
Spain, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Bulgaria, and Canada.

Richard served as the national president of IREM and the President of the Washington State Commercial Association of Realtors. He serves
as a member of the Washington State Investment Board and he chaired the Real Estate Advisory Committee for the real estate program at
North Seattle College. Richard is a CERTIFIED PROPERTY MANAGER® (CPM®), Counselor of Real Estate, Certified Shopping Center Manager,
Certified Retail Property Executive, and Real Property Administrator (RPA).

For more information, visit www.RichardMuhlebach.com.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I:
THE PROFESSION OF COMMERCIAL REAL ESTATE MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Commercial Real Estate Management

The History of Commercial Real Estate Management
Contemporary Commercial Real Estate Management
Real Estate as a Global Commodity
Professional Associations
Professional Designations

CHAPTER 2: The Business Plan

Title Page
Table of Contents
Letter of Transmittal
Executive Summary
Identification of the Client and Property Ownership
Purpose of the Study and Client Objectives
Time Frame of the Study
Basic Assumptions and Limiting Conditions
General Environment
Identification of Property
Description of Land and Leasehold Interest
Description of Improvements
Current Economic/Fiscal Condition of the Property
Description of Current Management
Analysis and Statement of the Problem
Methodology
Supply/Demand and Absorption Analysis
Market Rent Levels
Range of Possible Solutions
Analysis and Testing of Solutions
Recommended Solution
Supporting Material
Certification and Disclosures
Qualifications of the Analyst
Definition of Terminology
Appearance and Style
What To Do When Writing the Business Plan
What Not To Do When Writing the Business Plan
Conclusion

SECTION II:
COMMERCIAL PROPERTY TYPES

CHAPTER 3: Shopping Center Management

Classifications of Shopping Centers
Creating the Best Tenant Mix
The Shopping Center Manual
Retaining Retail Tenants
Creating Solid Communication
Marketing Shopping Centers
Planning for Grand Openings
Customer Surveys
Community Services
Vacant Spaces
Shopping Center Security
Operating Agreements for Shopping Centers
Determining Percentage Rent
Requesting and Analyzing Retail Sales
Auditing Retailers’ Sales
Fixed Common Area Expenses
Determining Square Footage for Retail Space
Performing a Retailer Visual Audit
Expanding a Store Size
Financially Troubled Retailers
Trade Associations and Industry Recognition

CHAPTER 4: Office Building Management

 Management Staffing
Space Measurement
Space Planning
Billing Back Operating Expenses
Grossing Up Operating Expenses
Office Building Grand Opening
Building Maintenance
Move-Ins And Move-Outs
Security
Key Control
Tenant Retention Program
Comparing Leasing Proposals Between Owner and Tenant
Management and Operation Issues
Professional Associations

CHAPTER 5: Medical Office Building and Clinical Facilities Management

Leasing Medical Office Buildings
Marketing Materials
Advertising
Public Relations (PR)
Real Estate Management
Conclusion

CHAPTER 6: Industrial Real Estate Management

Types of Industrial Properties
Measuring Industrial Space
Evaluating the Needs of Industrial Tenants
Self-Service Storage
Management Responsibilities
Tenant Services
Sustainability in Industrial Properties
Conclusion

SECTION III:
MARKETING AND LEASING

CHAPTER 7: Developing a Marketing and Leasing Plan

Developing the Leasing Agreement
Types of Lease Listing Agreements
Finalizing the Leasing Agreement
The Marketing Development Team
The Marketing Budget
Building Analysis
Tenant Mix
Marketing
Conclusion

CHAPTER 8: Preparing to Lease a Building

The Owner’s Goals and Objectives
Assembling the Leasing Team
The Leasing Agents
Space Planning
The Market Survey
Analyzing the Building
Informing the Property Owner of Market Conditions
Break-Even Analysis
Leasing Reports
Leasing Meetings
Responding to a Request for Proposal
The Letter of Intent
The Lease
Lease Restrictions
Working with the Brokerage Community
Commissions
Appraising Prospective Tenants

CHAPTER 9: Preparing for Lease Negotiations

Goals and Objectives of the Property Owner and Tenant
The Pulse of the Deal
Preparing the Team Players to Negotiate
Negotiating Tips
CHAPTER 10: Negotiating the Commercial Lease
The Lease Form
The Components of a Lease

CHAPTER 11: Leasing Opportunities

Leasing When No Vacancies Exist
Negotiating the Pad or Outlot Deal
Pad or Outlot Translation
Adding a Pad Building to an Existing Property
Subletting and Assignment
Lease Renewal Opportunities
Planning Ahead
Preparing to Renew a Lease
Assessment of the Building’s Negotiating Strength
The Cost of Not Renewing a Lease
Documenting the Lease Renewal
Pop-Up Businesses in Shopping Centers
Pop-Up Businesses for Office and Industrial Properties
Maintaining Market Rents
Tenant Buy-Outs
The Benefits of a State-of-the-Art Lease
Leasing Opportunities

CHAPTER 12: Developing a Leasing Program

Benefits of In-House Leasing
Tenant Retention
Training the Real Estate Manager for Leasing
Eight Steps to Successful Leasing
The Lease and Negotiations
Finding Time to Lease
Selecting Properties to Lease
Commission Splits
Negotiating the Leasing Commission Agreement
Lease Administration
Lease Takeover
Additional Transaction Opportunities

SECTION IV:
EFFICIENT AND EFFECTIVE PROPERTY OPERATIONS

CHAPTER 13: Administration and Record Keeping

Procedures, Forms, and Standard Letters
Lease Abstract
Deferred Conditions Report
Tenant Roll
Lease Restrictions Summary
Rental Records and Percentage Rent
Sales Report Form
Security Deposit Log
Operating Expense Bill Backs
Year-End Adjustments
Billing Tenants
Capital Improvements
Administrative Fees
Accounting Considerations
Rent Collection
Lease Files
Insurance
Notice of Nonresponsibility
Real Estate Taxes
Tax Appeals
Utilities
Cash Flow Statement
Marketing Budget for Shopping Centers and Malls
Tenant Requests
Miscellaneous Administrative Items
Conclusion

CHAPTER 14: Financial Analysis for Real Estate Managers

Financial Analysis for Shopping Centers
Financial Analysis for Office Buildings
 Financial Analysis for All Commercial Properties
Conclusion

CHAPTER 15: Budgeting

Types of Budgets
Budget Development and Evaluation
Operating Budgets
Developing the Operating Expense Budget
Analyzing Operating Expenses
Capital Budget
Developing Income Projections
Office Building Example of a Base-Year Model
Reserves for Replacement
Reviewing and Revising the Budget
Additional Budget Schedules
Conclusion

CHAPTER 16: Efficient and Cost-Effective Maintenance Management Programs

Importance of a Maintenance Management Program
Maintenance Inspections, Scheduling, and Work Orders
Computer-Aided Maintenance Management Programs
Coordinating and Communicating with Tenants
Major Maintenance Tasks
Contract Services Versus Employees
The Maintenance Agreement
Contract Negotiating Tips
Unit Pricing
Equipment Control
Reporting Insurance Claims
Hazardous Materials
Conservation and Recycling
Conclusion

CHAPTER 17: Safety, Security, and Emergency Procedures

Conducting the Safety and Security Audit
Security Program
Accident Prevention Plan
Protection Against Bloodborne Pathogens
Emergency Procedures
Responding to Specific Emergencies
Developing and Training the Emergency Team
Developing the Emergency Procedures Manual
Restoration After an Emergency

SECTION V:
COMMERCIAL PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 18: The Commercial Real Estate Development Process

Incentives and Risks
Development Risk
Types of Development Projects
Feasibility Analysis
Financing
Reviewing the Developer’s Plans
Construction
Marketing and Leasing
Conclusion

CHAPTER 19: Renovating, Rehabbing, and Repositioning Commercial Properties

Reasons for Rehabbing
Benefits of Rehabbing
Types of Rehabbing
The Rehab Process
Administration and Management Responsibilities
Shopping Centers
Office Buildings
Industrial Properties
Issues in Rehabbing an Industrial Property
Renovation and Rehab Opportunities
Repositioning Commercial Properties
Case Studies
 The Future of Repositioning Properties

GLOSSARY
SECTION I
The Profession of Commercial Real Estate Management
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Commercial Real Estate Management
The development of every commercial property requires a team of real estate and other professionals to turn a vision into a structure that
will serve the community—whether they are places for commerce, facilities for governmental activities, or venues for entertainment,
dinning, and recreation.

Commercial properties of all types have an economic and physical life of several decades and even centuries, and it is the real estate
manager who guides properties through the economic life and multiple real estate cycles. The real estate manager develops a business plan
for the property consistent with the goals and objectives of the property ownership, and assembles a team of professionals to implement the
business plan. The business plan is explained in more detail in Chapter 2.

This chapter provides an overview of the history of commercial real estate management in the U.S. The details of the last 40 years in the
office building, industrial property, and shopping center industries serve as the backdrop for more in-depth consideration of the cyclical
nature of the real estate industry. Opportunities in commercial real estate management in the U.S. and abroad are also explored in terms of
the various commercial real estate professional associations. These organizations provide education, leadership growth, mentoring, and
networking venues. This chapter also includes information about the various programs and professional designations that these associations
offer.
THE HISTORY OF COMMERCIAL REAL ESTATE MANAGEMENT
The real estate management profession evolved during the 20th century, and continues to evolve into the 21st century. The real estate
management profession changed from that of caretakers of properties in the early 1900s to a profession with the responsibility of managing
properties as businesses to achieve or exceeding the goals and objectives of the property owners.

The history of commercial real estate management and the evolution of the roles and responsibilities of commercial real estate managers
parallel the growth of the U.S. As the country evolved from an agricultural to an industrial society, populations shifted from farms and small
communities to cities and urban areas. The concentration of people living and working in cities and metropolitan areas created development
activities and these buildings needed to be managed. The real estate management industry was created out of necessity and evolved into a
profession.
Early Years
Real estate management in the U.S. began as a service industry after the Revolutionary War when cities grew and new communities were
established. Real estate was considered a good investment, but many property owners did not want the burden of managing their assets. A
few entrepreneurs offered their services to manage those investments, thus, marking the beginning of the real estate management industry.
A construction boom followed the Civil War. The population of the country grew rapidly and businesses prospered. With the development of
office buildings and retail properties, downtown became the center of the community.
Development of Skyscrapers
Skyscrapers changed the field of real estate management; their history spans more than a century. The first skyscraper is reported to be the
180-foot Home Insurance Building developed in Chicago in 1885. Many major corporations built tall buildings that became symbols of their
power, prestige, and status. The following lists in chronological order the tallest high-rise buildings in New York City as they were
developed:

1908: The Singer Building; 612 feet

1909: The Metropolitan Life Building; 700 feet
1913: The Woolworth Building; 793 feet
1930: The Chrysler Building; 1,046 feet.
1931: The Empire State Building; 1,250 feet

In 1853, the invention of the elevator in by Elisha Graves Otis solved the problem of transporting people and materials up and down
buildings. Prior to the use of steel beams, the foundation walls at the ground level of masonry buildings had to be very thick to support
their load, thus, limiting the height of buildings. For example, the 16-story Monadnock Building in Chicago needed a six-foot-thick wall at
its base to support it.

The Great Depression ended the era’s competition to build the world’s tallest building. The Empire State Building held the record for more
than 40 years until the development of the World Trade Center in New York, followed by the 110-story Sears Tower in Chicago. Currently,
the world’s tallest building is the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, United Arab Emirates in 2010, following by the second tallest building, the Tokyo
Skytree in Japan.

Throughout the 20th century, there were many more high-rise buildings created and developed for multiple uses, which also created new
opportunities and challenges for real estate managers.
Beginning of the 20th Century to 1939
From 1900 until the 1920s, residential and commercial property occupancy and demand were high—except for a short period during World
War I. In the 1920s, property owners found that modest real estate investments produced riches beyond their imaginations. The success of
these investments allowed property owners the luxury of travel. Local real estate agents entered the real estate management business by
offering to collect rents and pay the properties’ operating expenses as a means to obtain the leasing and sales listings of the buildings. Even
today, many brokerage firms provide real estate management services to obtain brokerage opportunities.

During the 1920s, private investors who financed their investments with mortgages owned most of the buildings. Unparalleled prosperity,
growth, and a construction boom characterized that era. Financing was available for construction loans, which fueled the development of
industrial properties and manufacturing plants, as well as retail chain store expansion. A strong economy and expanding commercial
development created a need for multifamily housing for the new employees of the emerging industries and commercial growth. During this
period, the real estate management industry experienced growth and recognition.

The age of the automobile and the availability of electricity brought about the development of the suburbs. In 1922, the J.C. Nicols
Company developed the forerunner of the modern shopping center, Country Club Plaza in Kansas City. The nation’s first planned, major
suburban business and retail area, Country Club Plaza was developed with a coordinated architectural style and landscaping, and it was
planned for shoppers to travel to it by driving. It was designed with the concepts of tenant synergism, easy access, convenient parking, and
a pleasant environment that are the foundation of successful shopping centers. Designed to resemble a plaza in Seville, Spain, Country Club
Plaza is still considered by many the most beautiful shopping area in the U.S. and continues to be very successful.

The Great Depression of 1929 brought about the foreclosure of thousands of real estate loans. The ownership of investment properties
changed from investors to banks, insurance companies, saving societies, and trust companies that held the mortgages on the properties.
Believing they could best manage the properties, many lenders created their own real estate management departments. Other real estate
professionals, along with contractors, developers, and architects formed real estate management companies to take advantage of
unprecedented opportunities. At first, the people responsible for the management of those properties believed building management was
limited to rent collection and maintenance. Later, they realized that market research and property administration were required to
effectively manage and lease these assets.

During the recovery years following the depression, the ownership of real estate transferred from the lender back to real estate investors.
Real estate once again became a profitable investment for individuals and partnerships.
1940s and 1950s
In the 1940s, department stores such as Sears Roebuck and Co. and Montgomery Ward continued their expansion into the suburbs and built
freestanding stores with self-contained parking. The expansion of department stores to the suburbs was significant because developers
combined department stores and shop tenants with the concept of a planned retail and business district pioneered by J.C. Nicols at Country
Club Plaza; that combination created the concept of shopping centers. This new type of property needed professional management, and that
provided real estate management opportunities and expanded the real estate management industry.

The recovery period from the end of the depression to the beginning of World War II created a demand for residential and commercial
buildings that caused rents to rise and property values to increase. The prosperity following the war, along with the demand for housing for
the returning soldiers and their families, kept vacancies down and demand for space high. The real estate market remained strong through
the mid-1950s.

Railroad companies were among the first developers of industrial areas. These areas were often developed along existing rail lines to attract
business for the railroads. They were the predecessors of the industrial parks, which first appeared in the 1950s. The advent of industrial
properties created another management opportunity.

The construction boom that followed World War II and continued through the mid-1950s eventually brought about an oversupply of space,
and vacancies began to appear. The postwar period saw several societal changes, including a drop in the birth rate and increases in the
divorce rate, the number of women in the workforce, and the lifespan of the American people. As automobiles became more common, the
country became a mobile society. These changes created demands for new houses and multifamily buildings; high-rise residential buildings
were developed in great numbers. As the economy improved, demand for office space increased.
1960s and 1970s
During the 1960s and 1970s, the growing popularity of two property types created new real estate management opportunities.
Condominiums and cooperatives first appeared in the New York area several decades before they became popular throughout the U.S.
Condominiums were first developed as primary residences and later as second homes in resort and recreation areas. Condominiums required
professional management. Many of the apartment real estate management firms throughout the country added condominiums to their
management portfolios.

The second property type to experience tremendous growth during this period was the shopping center. Developers of neighborhood
shopping centers followed the growth patterns into the suburbs; they built shopping centers anchored by a grocery store and a small
drugstore with several small local and chain fashion, gift, and jewelry stores. As the population in the suburbs continued to increase,
shopping centers grew in size from neighborhood shopping centers to community shopping centers anchored by a supermarket or super
drugstore. A combination of service and retail shops tenanted these shopping centers.

The size of shopping centers continued to increase. The first regional mall, Northgate Shopping Center, was developed in Seattle in the early
1950s. A few years later, the first enclosed mall, Southdale Mall, was developed in Edina, a suburb of Minneapolis. Specialty or theme
shopping centers, such as Ghirardelli Square in San Francisco and Trolley Square in Salt Lake City were developed in the 1960s and 1970s.
In the 1970s, large mixed-use developments (MXD) appeared. MXDs, such as Water Tower Place in Chicago and Newport Center in
California, included three or more uses. Festive shopping centers, such as Faneuil Hall Marketplace in Boston first appeared in the 1970s.
1980s and 1990s
Power shopping centers came onto the scene in the 1980s. The first power center, 280 Metro Center, was developed near a regional mall
just south of San Francisco in Colma. Entertainment was added to the retail experience with the development of the 5.2-million-square-foot
West Edmonton Mall in Edmonton, Canada, in the mid-1980s, and the 4-million-square-foot Mall of America in the Minneapolis area.

In the early 1990s, one of the first lifestyle shopping centers was developed in Shrewsbury, New Jersey. These shopping centers are
anchored by upscale specialty retailers with several fashion and gift stores and table-service restaurants. They have a main street design
with parking in front of the stores. Lifestyle shopping centers are patterned after the first planned retail district, Country Club Plaza in
Kansas City. Entertainment shopping centers first appeared in the 1990s.

Two or more new types of shopping centers were developed in great numbers in each decade from 1970 through 1990: enclosed malls,
specialty centers, and MXDs in the 1970s, power shopping centers and outlet malls in the 1980s, lifestyle shopping centers, and
entertainment shopping centers in the 1990s. By the end of the 20th century, downtown areas and urban neighborhood retailing once again
became popular retail venues for merchants and shoppers. Each new type of shopping center created management opportunities for real
estate management companies.
21st Century
During the early years of the 21st century, power shopping centers evolved into power towns with an expanded tenant mix and more
amenities and landscaping. The lifestyle shopping center continued to evolve—first by adding two to four levels of residential units above
the ground-floor retail and then by adding departments stores. Lifestyle shopping centers were added as a tail to some enclosed regional
malls. Hybrid shopping centers were developed combining two or three types of shopping centers. For example, power centers and lifestyle
centers were developed as one shopping center.

The oldest retail venue in America is making a comeback. Street retailing was the only form of shopping for most of our county’s history.
Today, many of the most dynamic retailing destinations are found on retail streets. These streets include 5th Avenue in New York, Michigan
Avenue in Chicago, and Union Square in San Francisco. These and other retail streets survived the “malling” of America. Since the 1990s,
many retail streets are reappearing stronger than ever. Retail streets that have been neglected for years are becoming the center of their
neighborhoods. Many of these streets offer not only retailing but restaurants and a night life. These are 18-hour-per-day streets that cites
love and communities cherish. As retail streets are reappearing across America, new management opportunities are created.

In the 21st century, the consumer has the choice of several retail venues. The shopping center industry consists of large strip shopping
centers anchored by supermarkets; outlet, power, lifestyle, and entertainment shopping centers; ethnic malls, specialty, and festive shopping
centers; and regional and super regional malls and hybrid shopping centers. Downtown and street retailing became the retail and
entertainment choice for many urbanites.

Retailers must respond to the needs and wants of the consumers. Successful shopping centers must meet the ever-changing needs of retailers
and be able to accommodate new retailing concepts. As new retailing concepts were created and new types of shopping centers developed,
new real estate management opportunities emerged.
Office Building Industry
The office building industry entered the 1980s following a depressed market during the middle and late 1970s. Then, during the early
1980s, the office building market experienced a boom with low vacancies and unprecedented rent increases.

Effects of a Building Boom

Class A office building rental rates that nationally were in the $6- to $12-per-square-foot-per-year range in the mid-1970s doubled, tripled,
and even quadrupled in many cities in the early 1980s. Vacancy rates that were high in most areas of the country in the second half of the
1970s dropped to well below five percent nationally in 1980. Cities as diverse as Anchorage, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C.
experienced vacancy rates below two percent.

During the first two years of the 1980s, construction cranes became a common sight in every major city and throughout the suburbs. Real
estate journals and other publications highly praised the wisdom of developing and investing in office buildings; every commercial
developer wanted to build them—and many did. Office buildings became the preferred investment property type for many institutional
investors.

Recovery from a Building Boom

The office building boom lasted only a few years, and by 1983, the country was glutted with vacant office space. Construction continued at
a rapid pace due to the three- to seven-year lead time to develop and create mid- and high-rise office buildings.

A development takes on a life of its own, and the developer frequently cannot or will not stop its progress. Halting a project early in its
development stage can have severe consequences to the developer. Land purchases, guaranteed land loans, pre-development costs, and
architectural and other fees are commitments developers cannot avoid. In addition, development and other fees are often essential to the
continued operation of the development firm. Many developers took a chance by continuing the development process when the market was
already overbuilt, hoping that the market would turn by the time their office buildings were ready for occupancy; others believed their
buildings were special and would outperform the other buildings. These buildings added to an already overbuilt market.

Vacancy rates in office buildings in the mid-1980s exceeded 10 percent in most areas. Many cities, especially those in oil-producing states,
experienced vacancy rates ranging from 25 to 35 percent. When the price of oil plummeted from over $30.00 per barrel to less than $10 per
barrel in the mid-1980s, vacancy rates skyrocketed in oil-dependent cities such as Houston, Dallas, Denver, Anchorage, and other cities in
Texas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana.

By the early 1990s, the supply of office space slowed because of limited new construction. In 1990, the national vacancy rate was just under
20 percent. By 1991, office building vacancy rates began to slowly diminish, rental rates gradually increased, and concessions were reduced.
At the same time, the demand for office space continued to drop in many areas of the country. The imbalance in the supply and demand for
space had three main effects: (1) rents dropped below most buildings’ pro forma rents; (2) concessions increased to entice tenants to move
to other buildings; and (3) vacancy rates continued to climb into the low double-digit range. There was also concern that in some areas of
the country the office building market would not improve during the remainder of that decade.

Rental rates were still substantially below the rates necessary to support new development activities. Limited construction activities through
the first half of the 1990s and a strong economy fueled in many areas by the new high-tech and dot-com industries caused the office
building market to rebound by the end of the decade, just as limited construction of new buildings during the mid- and late-1970s was a
major factor that created a strong office building market in the early 1980s.

A Long Recovery
At the end of the 1990s, the high-tech boom turned to a bust, and the economy suffered after the September 11, 2001 attack on the World
Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. Office building vacancy rate percentages climbed into the high teens in
most major cities and even more than 20 percent in some. Rental rates dropped from the sudden jump they experienced during the last few
years of the 1990s and started to stabilize by the second half of the first decade of the new century as vacancy rates started to decline.

The office building market experienced many more difficult years than good years during the 25-year period from 1980 though 2005.
During those years, leasing and tenant retention were real estate managers’ primary responsibilities. During the Great Recession from 2008
through 2014, rental rates plummet and vacancy rates soared. Real estate professionals who experienced three to five difficult markets
during their careers stated that the worst market was during the Great Recession. Many believed this period was the most devastating real
estate market since the depression. The recovery from the Great Recession was uneven geographically and by product type. The commercial
property market in San Francisco and the Bay Area recovered two years before the market recovered in most of the rest of the country.

In less than 40 years, the office market experienced multiple booms and busts. Lessons learned and promises made during a bust were soon
forgotten when the market started booming again. Office building managers approached each phase of the real estate cycle with a business
plan designed to meet the goals and objectives of the building’s investors.
Industrial Property Industry
In the 1980s, the industrial real estate market was overbuilt in most areas of the country. While the situation was serious, the problems
were not as severe as those of the office building markets. The industrial real estate market entered the 1990s with a slow recovery.

A slowing of construction activity from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s brought the industrial real estate market to equilibrium between
supply and demand. During the last half of the 1980s, industrial properties outperformed office buildings. During the early 1990s, industrial
properties were among investors’ preferred choices. By the late 1990s, many of the traditional areas to develop industrial properties had a
shortage of buildable sites. Industrial areas were pushed further and further into the suburbs. The market in the beginning of the 21st
century was between equilibrium and slightly overbuilt for many areas of the country. Rents were stabilized and often flat. Areas that had
high concentrations of high-tech and dot-com companies had high vacancy rates and declining rental rates.

There are several different types of industrial properties to manage. The following industrial properties have evolved as the needs of
industrial businesses evolve: manufacturing buildings, warehouse, distribution centers, truck terminal, flex space, call centers, and multi-
tenant buildings.
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Koonunga cursor, 117;
distribution, 211
Koonungidae, 117
Korschelt and Heider, on neuromeres in Arachnids, 263
Kowalevsky, 513
Kraepelin, 303, 306, 312 n., 428
Kramer, 460
Kröyer, 504, 526

Labdacus, 418
Labochirus, 312
Labrum, of Trilobites, 233
Labulla, 406
Laches, 399
Lachesis, 399
Lacinia mobilis, 114
Laemodipoda, 139
Laenger, on the frequency of human Pentastomids, 494
Lakes, characters of fauna of, 206;
English, 207, 208;
Baikal, 212;
Great Tasmanian, 216
Lambrus, 192, 193;
L. miersi, 193
Lamproglena, 68
Lampropidae, 121
Lamprops, 121
Langouste, 165
Laniatores, 448
Lankester, on Crustacean limb, 9;
on classification of Arachnids, 258, 277;
on Limulus, 274, 305
Laophonte littorale, 62;
L. mohammed, 62
Laseola, 404
Lathonura, 53
Latona, 51
Latreille, 385, 408 n., 412, 504, 526
Latreillia, 185;
distribution, 205
Latreillopsis, 185;
L. petterdi, 185
Latreutes ensiferus, habitat, 202
Latrodectus, 362, 403;
L. 13–guttatus, 364, 403;
L. mactans, 362, 363, 403;
L. scelio, 403
Laura, 93;
L. gerardiae, 93
Laurie, 309 n., 310, 311
Leach, 526
Lecythorhynchus armatus, 535
Leeuwenhoek, on desiccation in Tardigrada, 484
Leionymphon, 534
Lendenfeld, von, 512, 523
Lepas, 87;
metamorphosis, 80;
anatomy, 82;
L. australis, Cypris, 82;
 L. fascicularis, Nauplius, 81;
L. pectinata, pupa, 82
Lephthyphantes, 327, 406
Lepidurus, 23, 24, 36;
heart, 29;
L. glacialis, range, 34;
L. patagonicus, 36;
L. productus, 36;
carapace, 20;
telson, 23;
L. viridis, 36
Leptestheria, 36;
L. siliqua, 37
Leptochela, 163
Leptochelia, 122;
L. dubia, dimorphism, 123
Leptoctenus, 418
Leptodora, 54;
appendages, 42;
alimentary canal, 43;
ovary, 44, 45;
L. hyalina, 54
Leptodoridae, 54
Leptoneta, 393
Leptonetidae, 393
Leptopelma, 389
Leptoplastus, 247
Leptostraca, 111, 242;
defined, 6;
segmentation, 7
Lernaea, 74;
L. branchialis, 74, 75
Lernaeascus, 73
Lernaeidae, 74
Lernaeodiscus, 95
Lernaeopoda salmonea, 76
Lernaeopodidae, 75
Lernanthropus, 68;
blood, 30, 68
Lernentoma cornuta, 72
Leuckart, on Pentastomida, 490, 492;
on development of, 494;
on sub-genera of, 495
Leuckartia flavicornis, 59
Leucon, 121
Leuconidae, 121
Leucosia, 188
Leucosiidae, 188;
respiration, 187;
habitat, 199
Leydigia, 53
Lhwyd, Edward, on Trilobites, 221
Lichadidae, 252
Lichas, 222, 252
Lichomolgidae, 70
Lichomolgus, 71;
L. agilis, 71;
L. albeus, 71
Ligia oceanica, 128
Ligidium, 129
Lilljeborg, on Cladocera, 51 n.
Limnadia, 21, 22, 36;
L. lenticularis, 22, 36
Limnadiidae, 20, 23, 28, 29, 36
Limnetis, 20, 21, 22, 36;
L. brachyura, 21, 24, 36
Limnocharinae, 472
Limnocharis aquaticus, 472
Limulus, 256, 292;
nervous system, 257;
classification, 260, 276;
segmentation, 260, 261, 262, 266, 270, 272;
appendages, 263;
habits, 265, 271;
food, 267;
digestive system, 268;
circulatory system, 268;
respiratory system, 269;
excretory system, 270;
nervous system, 270, 272;
eggs and larvae, 274, 275;
ecdysis, 274;
used as food, 275–6;
affinities, 277;
fossil, 277;
L. gigas, 276;
L. hoeveni, 277;
L. longispina, 264, 274;
L. moluccanus, 264, 274, 276, 277;
L. polyphemus, 261, 262, 264, 271;
L. rotundicauda, 275, 277;
L. tridentatus, 276
Lindström, on facial suture of Agnostus and Olenellus, 225;
on eyes of Trilobites, 228 f.;
on blind Trilobites, 231 f.;
on maculae of Trilobites, 233
Lingua, 459
Linguatula, 488 n., 495;
L. pusilla, 496;
L. recurvata, 496;
L. subtriquetra, 496;
L. taenioides, 489, 492, 493, 494, 496;
frequency of, 489;
larvae of, 489, 494;
hosts of, 496
Linnaeus, 408 n., 502
Linyphia, 406;
L. clathrata, 406;
L. marginata, 406;
L. montana, 406;
L. triangularis, 406
Linyphiinae, 405
Liobunum, 447, 450
Liocraninae, 397
Liocranum, 397
Liphistiidae, 386
Liphistioidae, 383
Liphistius, 317, 383, 385, 386;
L. desultor, 386
Liriopsidae, 130
Lispognathus thompsoni, eyes, 149
Lister, M., 341, 342
Lithodes, 181;
L. maia, 176, 177, 178
Lithodidae, 181;
evolution of, 176 f.
Lithodinae, 181;
distribution, 199, 201
Lithoglyptes, 92;
 L. varians, 93
Lithotrya, 87;
L. dorsalis, 87
Lithyphantes, 404
Littoral region, of sea, 197;
of lakes, 206
Liver (gastric glands), of Crustacea, 14;
of Branchiopods, 29;
of Limulus, 268;
of Arachnids, 304 f., 331
Lobster, distribution, 199;
Mysis stage, 153;
natural history, 154 f.
Lockwood, on habits of Limulus, 265, 271
Loeb, 525 n.
Loman, 331, 514, 525
Lönnberg, 425
Lophocarenum insanum, 405
Lophogaster, 119
Lophogastridae, 113, 114, 119
Loricata, 165
Lounsbury, 456, 461
Love-dances, among spiders, 381
Lovén, on Trilobites, 226
Loxosceles, 393
Lubbock, 375
Lucas, 364
Lucifer, 162
Lung-books, 297, 308, 336;
 origin of, 305
Lupa, 191;
L. hastata, 191;
resemblance to Matuta, 187, 189
Lycosa, 417;
L. arenicola, 357;
L. carolinensis, turret of, 357;
L. fabrilis, 417;
L. ingens, 418;
L. narbonensis, 361, 366;
L. picta, 357, 372, 417;
L. tigrina, 357, 369
Lycosidae, 359, 375, 381, 417
Lydella, 479, 485;
L. dujardini, 477, 486
Lynceidae, 53;
alimentary canal, 43;
winter-eggs, 48;
reproduction, 49
Lyncodaphniidae, 53
Lyonnet, 319, 320
Lyra, 328
Lyriform organs, 325, 422
Lysianassa, 137
Lysianassidae, 137
Lysianax punctatus, commensal with hermit-crab, 172

M‘Cook, 334, 339, 340, 346, 350, 352 n., 365 n., 366, 367 n., 369 n.
M‘Coy, F., on facial suture of Trinucleus, 226;
on free cheek of Trilobites, 227
M‘Leod, 336 n.
Macrobiotus, 480, 485;
M. ambiguus, 487;
M. angusti, 486;
M. annulatus, 486;
M. coronifer, 487;
M. crenulatus, 487;
M. dispar, 487;
M. dubius, 487;
M. echinogenitus, 487;
M. harmsworthi, 487;
M. hastatus, 487;
M. hufelandi, 480, 482, 483, 486;
M. intermedius, 486;
M. islandicus, 487;
M. macronyx, 477, 483, 487;
M. oberhäuseri, 486;
M. orcadensis, 487;
M. ornatus, 487;
M. papillifer, 487;
M. pullari, 487;
M. sattleri, 487;
M. schultzei, 480;
M. tetradactylus, 478;
M. tuberculatus, 487;
M. zetlandicus, 486
Macrocheira kämpferi, 192
Macrohectopus (= Constantia), 138, 212
Macrophthalmus, 196
Macrothele, 390
Macrothrix, 37, 53
Macrura, 153 f.
Macula, 233
Maia, 193;
distribution, 205;
M. squinado, 192;
 alimentary canal, 15
Maiidae, 193
Malacostraca, 110 f.;
defined, 6;
classification, 113, 114;
fresh-water, 210 f.
Malaquin, on Monstrilla, 63 n.
Male Spider, devoured by female, 380
Malmignatte, 364, 403
Malpighian tubes or tubules, 12, 257, 311, 331, 427, 434, 460
Mandibles, of Crustacea, 8;
of Arachnida, 319
Mange, 465
Maracaudus, 449
Margaropus, 469
Marine Spiders, 415
Marpissa, 421;
M. muscosa, 420;
M. pomatia, 421
Martins, Fr., 502
Marx, 350
Masteria, 390
Mastigoproctus, 312
Mastobunus, 449
Matthew, G. F., on development of Trilobites, 238
Matuta, 188;
habitat, 198;
M. banksii, 187
Maxilla, 8;
of Decapoda, 152;
 of Spiders, 321
Maxillary gland, 13
Maxillipede, 8;
of Copepoda, 55, 78;
of Malacostraca, 113;
of Zoaea, 180, 181, 182
Mecicobothrium, 391
Mecostethi, 443, 447, 448
Mecysmauchenius segmentatus, 411
Meek, 363
Megabunus, 450, 451
Megacorminae, 308
Megacormus granosus, 308
Megalaspis, 222, 249
Megalopa, compared to Glaucothoe, 180;
of Corystes cassivelaunus, 183
Mégnin, 455, 457
Megninia, 466
Meinert, 522 n.
Meisenheimer, 511 n.
Melanophora, 397
Mena-vodi, 362
Menge, 319, 368, 385
Menneus, 410
Mermerus, 449
Merostomata, 258, 259 f.
Mertens, Hugo, 524 n.
Mesochra lilljeborgi, 62
Mesonacis, 247;
M. asaphoides, larva, 240
Mesosoma, of Arachnida, 256;
of Limulus, 260, 263;
of Eurypterus, 288;
of Scorpion, 302
Mesothelae, 386
Meta segmentata, 408
Metamorphosis, of Cirripedia, 80;
of Sacculina, 97;
of Epicarida, 130, 133, 135;
of Squilla, 142, 143;
of Euphausia, 144;
discovery of, in Decapoda, 153;
of Lobster, 156;
of Crayfish, 157;
of Peneus, 159;
primitive nature of, in Macrura, 161;
of Loricata, 165, 166;
of Hermit-crab, 179;
of Brachyura, 181, 182;
of Dromiacea, 182;
of Trilobites, 239;
of Limulus, 275;
of Pseudoscorpions, 435;
of Acarina, 462;
of Pentastomida, 493 f.;
of Pycnogons, 521 f.
Metasoma, of Arachnida, 256;
of Limulus, 260, 263;
of Eurypterus, 289;
of Scorpion, 303
Metastigmata, 467
Metastoma, of Trilobites, 234;
of Eurypterida, 287, 292
Metazoaea, 182
Metopobractus rayi, 405
Metopoctea, 452
Metridia, 59;
M. lucens, distribution, 203
Metronax, 398
Metschnikoff, 435 n.
Miagrammopes, 411
Miagrammopinae, 411
Micaria, 397;
M. pulicaria, 396, 397;
M. scintillans, 372
Micariinae, 397
Micariosoma, 397
Michael, 460, 461, 462, 466 n.
Micrathena, 410
Microdiscus, 225, 231, 245
Microlyda, 486 n.
Micrommata, 414;
M. virescens, 413, 414
Microneta, 406
Microniscidae, 130
Migas, 387
Miginae, 387
Milne-Edwards, 504
Milnesium, 480, 485;
M. alpigenum, 487;
M. tardigradum, 487
Miltia, 396
Mimetidae, 411
Mimetus, 411;
M. interfector, 368
Mimicry, in Spiders, 372
Mimoscorpius, 312
Miopsalis, 448
Misumena, 412;
M. vatia, 371, 373, 412
Mites, = Acarina, q.v.
Moggridge, 354, 355 n.
Moggridgea, 387
Moina, 37, 52;
reproduction, 46, 47, 48, 49;
M. rectirostris, 46, 47, 52
Mole-crab, 170
Monochetus, 465
Monolistra (Sphaeromidae), habitat, 211
Monopsilus, 54
Monostichous eyes, 301
Monstrilla, 64
Moustrillidae, 63
Morgan, 517, 518, 521
Mortimer, Cromwell, on Trilobites, 221
Mosaic vision, 147
Moseley, 523
Moulting (Ecdysis), 154, 155, 225, 338
Mouth, of Trilobites, 234
Mud-mites, 472
Müller, F., on Tanaids, 123
Müller, O. F., on position of Tardigrada, 483
Munidopsis, 170;
eyes, 149;
M. hamata, 168
Munnopsidae, 128
Munnopsis typica, 127
Murray, 455
Murray, J., on British Tardigrada, 485
Muscular system, in Tardigrada, 481;
in Pentastomida, 490
Mygale, 337, 386 n., 389
Mygalidae, = Aviculariidae, q.v.
Myrmarachne formicaria, 421
Myrmecium, 397
Myrtale perroti, 387
Mysidacea, 118
Mysidae, 113, 114, 119;
habitat, 201;
relation to Nebalia, 112
Mysis, 120;
maxillipede, 10, 11;
resemblance to Paranaspides, 117;
M. oculata, var. relicta, 120, 210;
M. vulgaris, 118
Mysis-larva, of Lobster, 156;
of Peneus, 161
Mytilicola, 68

Nanodamon, 313
Nauplius, of Haemocera danae, 64;
of Lepas fascicularis, 81;
of Sacculina, 97;
of Euphausia, 144;
an ancestral larval form, 145;
of Peneus, 159;
compared with Protaspis, 239
Nebalia, 111, 112, 114;
segmentation, 6, 7;
limbs, 10, 11;
relation to Cumacea, 120;
compared with Trilobita, 242;
N. geoffroyi, 111
Nebo, 307
Neck-furrow, 224
Nemastoma, 443, 451;
N. chrysomelas, 452;
N. lugubre, 452
Nemastomatidae, 451
Nematocarcinus, 163
Nemesia, 388;
N. congena, 355, 357
Neolimulus, 278, 279
Neoniphargus, distribution, 216
Neopallene, 537
Nephila, 408;
N. chrysogaster, 380;
N. plumipes, 366
Nephilinae, 408
Nephrops, 154;
N. andamanica, distribution, 205;
N. norwegica, 205
Nephropsidae, 154;
resemblance to Dromiacea, 184
Neptunus, 191;
N. sayi, habitat, 202
Nereicolidae, 73
Nervous system, of Crustacea, 5;
of Branchiopoda, 30;
of Squilla, 142;
of Arachnida, 257;
of Limulus, 270;
of Scorpions, 305;
of Pedipalpi, 311;
of Spiders, 332, 333;
of Solifugae, 428;
of Pseudoscorpions, 434;
of Phalangidea, 445, 446;
of Acarina, 460;
of Tardigrada, 482;
of Pentastomida, 491;
of Pycnogons, 516
Neumann, 470
Nicodaminae, 416
Nicodamus, 416
Nicothoe astaci, 68
Nileus, 229, 249;
N. armadillo, eye, 228
Niobe, 249
Niphargoides, 138
Niphargus, 137, 138;
distribution, 216;
N. forelii, 138;
N. puteanus, habitat, 209, 210
Nogagus, 73
Nops, 315, 336, 395
Norman, A. M., 540
Notaspis, 467
Nothrus, 468
Notodelphys, 66
Notostigmata, 473
Nyctalops, 312
Nycteribia (Diptera), 526
Nymph, 463
Nymphon, 503, 536;
N. brevicaudatum, 507, 536;
N. brevicollum, 511, 521;
N. brevirostre, 503, 504, 506, 508, 509, 541, 542;
N. elegans, 506, 542;
N. femoratum, 541;
N. gallicum, 541;
N. gracile, 511, 541, 542;
N. gracilipes, 542;
N. grossipes, 541;
N. hamatum, 512;
N. hirtipes, 542;
N. horridum, 537;
N. johnstoni, 541;
N. leptocheles, 542;
N. longitarse, 541, 542;
N. macronyx, 542;
N. macrum, 542;
N. minutum, 541;
N. mixtum, 541;
N. pellucidum, 541;
N. rubrum, 541, 542;
N. serratum, 542;
N. simile, 541;
N. sluiteri, 542;
N. spinosum, 541;
 N. stenocheir, 542;
N. strömii, 509, 541
Nymphonidae, 536
Nymphopsinae, 535 n.
Nymphopsis, 534, 535 n.;
N. korotnevi, 534;
N. muscosus, 534

Obisiinae, 436, 437

Obisium, 436, 438
Ochyrocera, 393
Octomeridae, 91
Octomeris, 91
Ocyale mirabilis, 416
Ocypoda, 194, 196;
habitat, 198;
distribution, 201
Ocypodidae, 196
Oecobiidae, 386 n., 392
Oecobius, 392;
Oe. maculatus, 392
Oehlert, on facial suture of Trinucleus, 226
Ogovia, 448
Ogygia, 249
Oiceobathes, 535
Oithona, 61;
O. nana, 203;
O. plumifera, 203
Olenelloides, 247;
O. armatus, 247
Olenellus, 225, 227, 232, 236, 247
Olenidae, 247
Olenus, 232, 247;
O. truncatus, 248
Oligolophus, 450;
O. agrestis, 450;
O. spinosus, 441, 450, 451
Olpium, 436, 437;
O. pallipes, 437
Ommatoids, 310, 311, 312
Oncaea, 69;
O. conifera, phosphorescence, 60
Oncaeidae, 69
Oniscoida, 128
Oniscus, 129
Ononis hispanica, Spiders on, 419
Onychium, 324
Oomerus stigmatophorus, 539
Oonopidae, 336, 393
Oonops, 394;
O. pulcher, 366, 394
Oorhynchus, 507, 535;
O. aucklandiae, 535
Oostegites, of Malacostraca, 114
Operculata, 89, 91
Ophiocamptus (Moraria), 62;
O. brevipes, 62
Opilioacarus, 454, 473;
O. arabicus, 473;
O. italicus, 473;