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World history:-
READ ARJUN DEV BOOK OF 9th and 10th.
History of the world which will include events from 18th century such as:-
a. Industrial revolution.
b. World Wars.
c. Redrawal of national boundaries.
d. Colonization and de-colonization.
e. Political philosophies like Communism capitalism socialism, etc. Their forms and effect on the society.
- major themes would be covered till 1990.
7 year war(1754-1763) ended the rivalry between france and Britain. Britain became the super power.

Past year questions:-

Lot many questions are asked by connecting the world history from Indian history.

a. Assess the role of British Imperial power in complicating the process of transfer(decolonization) of
power during the 1940s. 2019.
- this question is asking about the transfer of power of India and Pakistan and Israel and Palestine by British
government.
b. Explain how the foundations of the modern world were laid by the American and French Revolution.
2019
c. How indentured labour was taken by the British from India to other colonies? Have they been able to
preserve their cultural identity over there? 2018.
d. What problems were germane to decolonization process of Malay Peninsula. 2017.
e. The anti colonial struggle in West Africa where led by the new Elite of Western educated Africans
examine. 2016
f. Why did the industrial revolution first occur in England? discuss the quality of life of the people there
during the industrialisation and how does it compare with that in India at present? 2015.
g. To what extent can Germany be held responsible for causing the world wars? Discuss critically. 2015.
h. What were the major political economic and social development in the world which motivated the anti-
colonial struggle in India? 2014.
i. What were the events that led to Suez crisis in 1956? how did it deal with a final blow to Britain self
image as a world power?
j. The new economic policy 1921 of Lenin had influenced the policies adopted by India soon after
independence evaluate. 2014.
k. Latecomer industrial revolution in Japan involved certain factors that were markedly different from what
waist had experience. 2013.
l. Africa was chopped into States artificially created by accident of European competition analyse. 2013.
m. American Revolution was an economic Revolt against mercantilism. Substantiate.
n. What policy instruments were deployed to contain the Great economic Depression? 2013.
NOTE:- “History Doesn't Repeat Itself, but It Often Rhymes” – Mark Twain. We can find the similarities in
Historical events that is why study of history is very important.
What is the difference between causation and correlation?
Causation is cause and effect relationship(something lead to something) and correlation(Correlation is a
statistical term describing the degree to which two variables move in coordination with one another).
History is all about choices made by human being and those choices cannot be rational all the time.

During the Cuban missile crisis after the World War 2 the world was divided into blocks USSR and USA.
Somewhere Vasily Arkhipov came to know that USA has fired the nuclear missile and it was the time for
USSR to retaliate. but HE said NO USA has not yet fired and we will wait. if USSR would have retaliated with
a nuclear weapon then World War 3 would have started.
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History is the fiction we invent to perceive ourselves that events are notable and that life has order and
direction. Pessimistic view of studying history.

According to malthusian trap is broken around 17 century. He said that population rice resource crunch
people will die and population stabilizes.
Emergence of global Europe.
Because of globalisation our culture has undergone a change.
In the 17th and 18th century a lot of revolutions has been occurred which has shaped the world history.
In traditional world before 17th century population lived in rural areas but now urban areas.
In traditional world people use natural energy now man made energy.
The traditional society was agrarian society and now Industrial society.
The traditional society was Static and now dynamic.
The traditional society focus was on subsistence but today's world is all about surplus.
The traditional society life was very much unstable due to wars and diseases but communities were very
much stable but in today's world the life expectancy as increased but unstable communities.
Traditional societies faith was very much rigid but in today's world the faith has been diluted and scientific
thought is gradually becoming more important.

We study the world history from European perspective(Euro-centrism) but there is a reason for it because
what happened in Europe that shaped the entire history of the world.
- Gunpowder for the very first time was used in China and was used for fireworks and the gunpowder
which was exported from China to Europe they created artillery.
The most strongest kingdoms in the world during 18th century(1700s) were Manchu Qing empire in China
and Mughal empire in India.
In the 18th century the Western Europe is in different trajectory as compared to rest of the world.
- in all the European countries there was economic system called as feudalism(richness of someone is
decided by how much land they hold).
The feudal Lord hold a lot of land and those land people will work. The entire society is divided two
different sections for example at the lowest strata of society is SERFS(no land rights and work on field and
they are tied to that particular land irrespective of the feudal Lord).
There is no concept of trade as such and clear division of society(inequality in the society).
The kingdoms are not powerful in the feudal setup. In all the European countries there is no Central
authority which is very much powerful because all these are small kingdoms and this all rely on this feudal
Lords.
A king richness depends upon the amount of wealth it gets from the feudal Lords.
In the mediaeval times Church was very much powerful and the church which was supposed to word for
spiritual enrichment became corrupt. The entire focus of the priest was to gather wealth, everything was
monetized.
Anyone who opposed the church at best he was life imprisonment and at worst burnt alive.
There is European trade with Arab merchants also with Indian merchants not directly but through Arabs.
The ancient Silk route which connected Africa China and Europe.
In 13th and 14th century almost all trade was monopolized by Arab merchants and they imposed a lot of
Duty on the trade route. This created a vacuum that Europeans have to find a alternative trade route and
few merchants for example Columbus patronised by Spanish Kingdom did a Voyage reached to North
America and he thought that he has discovered India so he named it as Indies and the people who lived
their he called them Red Indians because of their colour.
Vasco da Gama came to India through Africa at Calicut.
This led to development of a class called as merchant class and secondly the feudalism was started
declining, King suddenly became very much powerful and there was king merchant Nexus.
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In the 14th century started the Renaissance(we have to go back to the ancient glory of Roman empire),
reformation(people started questioning the teachings of Catholic Church which led to formation of
protestant sect of Christianity) and enlightenment.
MAP EUROPE 1700 and EUROPE 1748, 1815, 1871, prusiian empire.

Industrial revolution:-
There was a decline in feudalism as the economic system by 15th and 16th century. In 18th century a
series of changes occurred in European countries especially Western European countries which revolution
arise the mode of production. This became the foundation of industrial economy and industrial revolution.

Capitalism:-
- in feudalism, goods were produced for local use only a minority has the access to luxury and prosperity.
- in capitalism private individuals became owner of countries trade and industry. It enabled anyone with
capital to produce goods for public. This led to mass production and access to variety of goods.
- profit generation was the main motive of this capitalist Enterprises. hence, capitalist reinvested their
earnings.
NOTE:- according to karl Marx religion is Opium of masses. But Max Weber criticized this statement----> he
said religion play a very important role in socio-economic condition of people. He find the Genesis of
industrial revolution in religion. According to Max Weber within protestant itself there was a specific group
called as puritans and they believe that it is pre-written that who will go to heaven but you will find some
indication that if you have a lot of money then you will go to heaven these are the people who started
investing money to make more money.

Stages of capitalism:-
a. Mercantile capitalism(mercantilism/merchant capitalism):-
this mode of capitalism started during 14th century till the 18th century.
- focus is on simply moving goods from the market where it is cheap to the market where it is expensive.
- accumulation of wealth throw maximizing export, controlled production and trade, expansion of slave
trade.
- trade monopolies:- government using regulation subsidies and if required military force to protect
monopolistic cooperations from domestic and foreign competition. Example:- EIC.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France is called as mercantile ideal.

b. LASSIEZ FAIRE(19 century to Great Depression(1929)):- based on the writings of Adam Smith(considered
as father of capitalism) in wealth of nations.
- free market economy without government intervention. This is known as Invisible hand of market.
- characterized by new machines, mass production, compartmentalization of labour(everyone will have fix
job) against minimum wages, duties, trade restrictions and corporate taxes.

c. Keynessian economics(new deal capitalism):- based on the writings of John Maynard keynes.
- this was an attempt to understand the Great Depression. It uses active government policies to manage
aggregate demand in order to address or prevent economic recessions.
- it is highly critical of classical economic arguments that natural economic forces would be sufficient to
help the economy recover.

Q) why industrial revolution started in England?

- 1750 decade.
Reasons:-
a. Imbalance Trade relations with colonies(raw material resources can be extracted from colonies).
b. Technological development such as for the very first time steam engine was developed in England.
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c. Mechanised farming(Industrial Revolution happened after agricultural revolution). Boom in agriculture
that is why agricultural industry does not need a lot of labour.
d. Land enclosure movement(all these lands were consolidated by feudal Lords and these feudal lord had
the influence over what laws to be made so this consolidation became legal and all those small and
marginal farmers became landless who migrated from rural areas to urban areas so no shortage of labour
in urban area).
e. England has political stability(Parliamentary form of Government) and separation of power.

SIR:-
a. Overseas trade:- including slave trade that led accumulation of large wealth which provided necessary
capital good.
b. Colonies:- regular supply of raw material and a destination of finished goods.
c. Stable government:- a stable system of government after the glorious(very few people died monarchy to
Parliamentary form of Government) revolution of Britain from 17th century.
d. Commercial class had more political power and there was very little interference from the government.
e. Plenty of natural resources such as iron and coal, etc.
f. Transportation:-a large shipping industry, Railway networks, well developed inland water transportation
made logistics cheaper.
g. Enclosure movement:- it begin in 18th century where big landowners consolidated their land Holdings
by outsourcing small peasants by unfair means. These small peasants were forced to move into industrial
towns and thus, Industries benefited at the expense of small farmers.
h. Agrarian surplus:- industrial revolution was preceded by agricultural revolution due to new technologies
and methods such as mechanical drill, irrigation, crop rotation, intensive manuring, etc.
i. Rule of law:- enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts.
j. Enlightenment:- the ideas of Adam Smith greatly influenced the policy making and capitalism progressed
and so did industrial revolution.
- no other countries enjoyed these all factors together. Somewhere there was political instability,
somewhere there was lack of capital or raw material. Italy and Germany was not even United.

Consequences of industrialisation:-
a. Population explosion and increase in real income of people.
b. Race of colonies which also caused many international conflicts.
c. Urbanisation:- cities became centre of economic life, high growth which also witnessed problems of
housing health and sanitation. For example:- urban slums emerged.
d. Competition in trade:-Hegemony of England on world trade.
e. Concentration of economic power in few hands which also lead to social inequalities.
f. Expansion of slavery, large number of landless workers, declarable labour conditions. Working condition
with long hours and no job security; there was also a prevalence of child labour in the factories.
g. Efforts to improve the working conditions of the workers which led to rise of socialism.
h. A shift from agrarian handicraft industry to manufactured goods and factories powered by coal and
steam.
i. New inventions, technological developments, Rapid changes in people's life(materialism and
consumerism increased).
j. Pollution and environmental degradation.
h. International consciousness among people:- development in one place started influencing other people.

Spread of industrial revolution:-

a. Machines were introduced in France Belgium Switzerland and Germany
b. By 1850 France was developing iron and steel factory but had to import iron ore and coal.
c. By 1865 Germany became the second biggest producer of Steel and after its unification it made Rapid
industrial progress.
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d. Russia had resources but developed only after the Russian revolution of 1917, USA only after 1870s(after
end of American civil war), Japan progressed in late 19th century after MEIJI restoration.

Second industrial revolution(dated from 1860s to 1914(starting of first world war)):-

With mass production in various part of the world and USA in particular.
a. Factory electrification at large scale, rail roads, huge iron and steel production in Britain Germany USA
France and Japan.
b. New technologies such as internal combustion engine.
c. Communication Technologies such as telegraph, telephone and radio.
d. Development of petro-chemical industry.
e. Development in Maritime Technology.
f. Use of fertilizers on a large scale.
g. Modern business management and development of industrial engineering.
h. Ideas of labour rights became very much important.

NOTE:- French were the last to arrive in India the first by Portuguese then Dutch British then French.

If there is any situation it will provide problems or opportunities and we will come up with some solution
which will lead to another situation and this cycle goes on.
In Americas The plantation system was very much suitable the economic benefits of the colonial power but
Red Indians were not suitable to work in the plantation fields so they started slave trade from Africa. At the
beginning, slave trade was a matter of economic necessity and this slave trade created a problem of
racism.
- the initial colonies which was established by Britishers in United States(USA earlier name). On the eastern
coasts of United States 13 colonies were established for the first time. All the 13 colonies were
independent of each other.
More than 90% of settlers in America at Britishers only and over generation they became prosperous due
to their hard work in trade and production and in return they have to pay the taxes to the colonial power
i.e. British Empire.
At the same time France became very much powerful at there was a conflict between France and
Germany. There was something called Global 7 year war started in 1756 and went upto 1763.
The Anglo Mysore war of India was a part of Global 7 year war.
Britishers suffered a lot of economic drain due to Global 7 year war and their solution was to tax there's
Colonies(arbitrary taxation and without their consent) more and more which led to huge discontent among
the settlers in Americas.
The most famous was Boston Tea Party(tea containers thrown into the sea this infuriated the Britishers),
stamp tax, etc.
The statue of liberty was given by the French king(king Louis 15) to USA.
these 13 colonies became the United States of America. George Washington became the first President of
USA and they adopted the concept of laizzre faire economy propagated by Adam Smith in his book wealth
of nations.
John Locke is the person who inspired the American constitution.
What is social contract theory?
- we are born as a individual and we are going to live as a individual without any cooperation that there
would be Chaos in the society. so, we come to the society and give some rights to the authority in the hope
that the authority will protect our other rights and there will be order in the society.
According to social contract theory the rights which are given by the people. The authority is ruling by
some Law and authority power is limited then only authority is capable to rule.

SIR:-
American Revolution:-
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Pre existing conditions:-
a. Population:-the majority of the population is of whites(migrants from Britain, Dutch, France, Spain). They
form the majority(Red Indians/American(original inhabitants of America) Indians and slaves brought from
Africa either have been killed or they have been forced to withdraw the Western side of the country).
b. Nature of migration:- to avoid persecution, exiled and deported people, to overcome economic
difficulties and opportunities in new colonies.
c. British rule was not exploitative, the initial 13 colonies had some sort of Legislature.

Causes of American Revolution:-

a. 7 year Global wars which were fought here.
Virginia/Jamestown: 1607
Massachusetts: 1620
New Hampshire: 1623
Maryland:
Connecticut:
Rhode Island:
Delaware:
North Carolina:
South Carolina:
New York:
New Jersey:
Pennsylvania:
Georgia:
b. Increasing taxes in the form of heavy duties on private Enterprise to pay the recovery cost of War
c. Mercantilism:-a series of regulations restricted the scope of colonial exports and imports. For example:-
colonists could sell only to English merchants and compete with them. There resorted to smuggling and tax
evasion.
d. Arbitrary acts and rules by Britain:-sugar act 1764(duties was imposed on molasses imported by
colonists), stamp act of 1765(Fee on various legal documents by affexing stamps).
e. Proclamation of 1763:- settlers must not move beyond traditional borders towards west as a truse
measure with American Indians. Businessman have hopped to have land at cheaper prices.
f. No representation in British Parliament:- without any representation, taxes were imposed on colonists.
This was opposed with the slogan of "no taxation without representation".
g. As a compromise taxes on consumer goods were removed except on TEA. Britain wanted to retain the
right to levy tax on US colonies.
h. Boston Tea Party 1773 was organised in protest and some white settlers dressed as American Indians
offloaded the tea containers into the sea.
- Boston Harbour was put under Quarantine(trade embargo-nothing will come in and go out) as a response
under coercive act 1774(called intolerable acts in colonies) also Quebec(province in Canada- people are
more likely to British authority) act of 1774 recognise the territory between Ohio and Mississippi under
governor of Quebec.
This insude that the American war of independence.

- first Continental Congress by the 13 colonies was organised in response to coercive acts.
- demands are made to reduce tariff and trade with other countries.
This was considered as a mutiny by Britishers and colonies were attacked.
- these 13 colonies, declared themselves as independent and came together as THESE United States of
America.
- In 1776 Thomas Jefferson(One of the founding fathers of USA) drafted the declaration of independence
with following important features:-
a. All men are created equal.
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b. Inalienable right(these rights integral part of human being) to life liberty and Pursuit of Happiness.
c. People are the source of authority.
d. these United States are freed from British occupation.
A series of wars has been fought. Britain won several victories but these colonist always regrouped, France
openly entered in 1778, Spain and Dutch also fought British armies.
- in 1793 Lord Cornwallis surrendered before George Washington.
- in Treaty of Paris 1783 these 13 colonies gained independence.

Significance of American Revolution:-

a. American chose Republic in favour of monarchy and built a democratic state.
b. THESE USA became THE USA and hence it was World's first Federal country.
c. This was a blow to monarchy and aristocratic privileges.
d. Bill of rights became the source of many fundamental rights like speech press, religion, etc.
e. Ideas about Liberty equality fraternity rule of law separation of power came into existence.
f. A path towards industrial revolution in USA
g. Territorial expansion. USA bought LOUISIANA from France, Florida from Spain and expanded in western
region after defeating Mexico.
h. Mercantilism was criticized in British Parliament.
i. seeds of revolution in France occurred due to American Revolution.

Q) American Revolution was an economic Revolt against mercantilism. substantiate.

- give a brief introduction about American Revolution and then directly jump onto mercantilism and show
from various examples that how mercantilism was adopted in America(within the colonies) which led to
severe discontent and finally resulted into American Revolution.
ANS:- it was an economic Revolt against mercantilism. It was the economic Revolt because of increasing
taxation be it the sugar tax stamp tax monopolies, etc. Benefit the British Empire at the cost of 13 colonies.

American Civil War(1864):-

It was a Civil War fought in United States from 1861 to 1865 between the north(Union) and the
south(confederacy). Out of the 34 US states 7 southern slave states declared seccession from the country
and a confederate States of America was organised. The confederacy grew to 13 States. However it was
never recognised by any foreign country.
A series of wars was fought between Union and confederacy. The war ended in April 9, 18625 when
general Robert E Lee surrender to general Ulusess S Grant at the battle of court house.
Causes:-
a. Issue of slavery. Confederates Fought the war mainly to protect the southern society of which slavery
was a integral part. Many Southern leaders had threatened cesession if the Republican candidate Abraham
Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election.
b. Protectionism:-slave owners preferred low cost manual labour with no mechanization. Northern states
manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism(because USA Industries were juvenile) while
Southern planters demanded free trade.
c. Constitutional ambiguity:- the confederates argued that the state has the right to secede. It was rejected
as it was considered against the will of founding fathers who said that "they were setting up a perpetual
Union".
d. Abraham Lincoln election:- the election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final Trigger for
cesession
Consequences:-
a. Abolition of slavery.
b. The Emancipation Proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 change the federal legal status of
more than 3.5 million enslaved African Americans in the designated areas of the south from slave to free.
c. After the Civil War under 13th constitutional amendment slave become free.
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d. Stronger Union despite Southern humiliation a stronger Union emerged and immediately reconstruction
of the South started.
e. White supremacist group Sachin's Ku klux Klan and nights of white Camellia emerged.

French Revolution:-
- King Louis 14 had a lot of wealth and power. After beaten France is the most powerful Kingdom.
In France there exist a very strong King merchant Nexus.
- France has undergone a series of what under Global 7 year war against Britain and France has defeated in
many war and doesn't benefited much after the independence of thirteen colonies.
- the entire society is divided into three estates
a. First estate:- clergy
b. Second estate:- Nobels(aristocrats- people which are in good books of the king).
c. Third estate:-middle class which include merchants, artisians, peasants, labours, etc.
- more than 90% of the population and only the third estate(this taxation is without the consideration of
third estate) is taxed(first 2 estates are not taxed).
- there is a parliament called estates general where all the three groups are represented and all have equal
vote(more than 90% of the population have single vote).
- jacobins were the first people who propagated the ideas of Universal adult franchise i.e. Giving voting
rights irrespective of gender, etc.
- The French Revolution is very much integrated with American Revolution because France participation in
Liberation of America; the outcome of American Revolution is that the 13 colonies were freed from their
government which was inspired by people of France.
- Why the revolution is only in France not in other European Nations then the answer is the enlightenment
thinkers. Many political philosophers in general wrote about how government should be organised,
responsibility of the government, role of the church, how people should behave, etc.

Contribution of enlightenment thinkers:-

a. ROUSSEAU:- he said that, general will of the people is above the individual will and proposed the idea of
a republican government.
EXTRA:- the main characteristics of a republican government is elected head, people are the source of
authority.
- His social contract theory outlined the conditions for legitimate government. The social contract theory is
concerned with the legitimacy of authority of the state over the individual; individuals has consented to
surrender some of their freedom and submit to the authority in exchange for protection of their remaining
rights and maintenance of social order.
b. MONTESQUIEU:- he believed in separation of power into three branches in order to check Tyranny. Who
was the champion of Liberty and believe that government should be set up so that no man is afraid of
another.
c. VOLTIRE:- he attacked the corrupt traditional and religious authorities like Catholic Church and
advocated separation of Church and state. He argued for religious tolerance and freedom of thought.
d. JOHN LOCKE:- he believed inalienable rights of life liberty and property. government has to be
established in order to protect these natural rights. He also formulated the classical reasoning(existing
literature) for religious tolerance. His writings influenced Thomas Jefferson and contributed towards
American declaration of independence.

French Revolution:-
Causes of revolution or pre existing society:-
Social factors:-
- the society was divided into three estates:-
a. First estate:- clergy
b. Second estate:- Nobels(aristocrats- people which are in good books of the king).
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c. Third estate:-middle class which include merchants, artisians, peasants, labours, skilled workers etc.
- 96% of the population comprised of third estate.
- the privileged class i.e. First and second estate controlled most of the administration and were exempted
from the tax. The third estate which constituted more than 96% of the population; they have to pay taxes
which was for the benefit of first and second estate.
The conditions of peasants and labourers were deplorable while there was huge discontent among the
middle class against the privilege classes.
Political factors:-
- the political Regime was despotic and authoritarian. The judicial legal system was arbitrary also the king
and clergy had the right to destroy property during hunts.
Economic factors:-
- the agrarian infrastructure was not sufficient to fulfill the demands of growing population. There was also
the prevalence of guild system. In one guild there was Monopoly of a particular field of trade where no
new players could enter.
- due to undefined laws, merchants suffered as there were disparities in taxation in different parts of
France.
- rich have to pay NO taxes and the burden of taxation was only on unprivileged classes.
Role of enlightenment thinkers:-
Immediate factor:-the immediate factor was economic bankruptcy; after France involvement in American
Revolution; the bread prices were very high; diseases were on Rampage and taxes were only increasing.

What happened?
- prior to 1789, King Louis 16 was the king of France and his reign was centralised aristocratic and
authoritarian.
- He called for Estates general in the year 1789 to get additional funds by raising taxes.
- this was opposed by third estate who demanded more representation in the Assembly but was denied.
- they declared a national assembly of their own and move their meeting to Royal tennis court.
- king sent his Army to Crush the opposition and In response people break the Bastille prison and took
control of arms and ammunition.
- this is considered as starting point of French Revolution.
- the national assembly passed 185 legislations with following agenda:-
a. Destroying Monopoly of first and second estate
b. Proclamation of equality.
c. Destruction of Guild system m.
d. Abolition of Church, tax and hunting rights.
e. Declaration of rights of man and citizen which was influenced by American bill of rights.
-time period of revolution:-
a. Started with liberal phase(1789-92).
b. The radical phase(1792-95).
c. Moderate phase(1796-99).
d. Authoritarian phase(1799-1815).
- radical group named jacobin under the leadership of Robespierre came to power. This period is known as
reign of terror as anyone who opposed the ideas of revolution and dissented was executed by guillotonie.
- king and queen were also executed in 1793.
- soon jacobins turned against Robespierre and he was also executed, Bourgeois(middle class) came to
power and government was called directorate/directory.
- however, France was attacked by other countries to protect the old monarchical order. The Prestige of
Army increased after successive wins against European alliances. The army was led by Napoleon Bonaparte
who soon realised the weaknesses of the directorate and with few loyal soldiers overthrew it. Later, he
crowned himself as Emperor.
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Napoleon Bonaparte:-
- she came from a humble background but was a prodigy. He is considered as the son of French Revolution
and fought series of wars against various European alliances.
- in war of sixth coalition, he was defeated in the battle of Leibzig(1812-14) and attempt of recovery was
falled at the of battle of Waterloo(1815).
Policies of Napoleon:-
Political:-
- strong and stable French state, secular state with focus on equality. however, liberty was curbed. Legion
of honour(based on merit and hard work).
- code of civil justice based on rule of law.
Economic reforms:-
- Bank of France was established.
- 1000 of kilometre of road was constructed.
- land grant was given to peasantry.
Continental system:-
Social reforms:-
- he established new schools and Universities, Polytechnic Institutes.
- the education was controlled by State and main motive was to inculcate discipline and loyalty.
- though France was secular the majority religion was Catholic.
CONCORDAT TREATY:- state control over religion i.e. Church is subservient to the authority of state.

Downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte:-

a. Continental system:- it was adapted to paralyze British commerce. under Continental system,
restrictions were placed on movement of British ships at their debarred from using ports in Europe.
Napoleon thought that not only this will destroy the British economy but also its democracy which will
pave the way for France as a leading power in Europe. However this was a blunder and is described as
monument of misdirected energy.
This became the primary reason for Napoleon Bonaparte downfall because of the following:-
a. England Navy was more powerful and there counter blockade was more effective.
b. The entire Europe was disturbed by this policy and some declared war against Napoleon. For example:-
Portugal and Spain.
c. Napoleon has to wage war against many countries to enforce this policy. for example:- his Russian
campaign of 1812 turned out to be disastrous for France.
d. France could not supply the necessary goods after vacuum created by Continental system and gradually
people mentally opposed this idea.

Impact of French Revolution:-

- The immediate impact was Vienna order of 1815:-this was led by State chancellor of Austria
METTORNICH who wanted to restore the ancient regime prior to 1789. The monarchy was restablished
- The idea of nation state emerged more stronger,
- It inspired the European Revolutionary movement in 1830 and 1848.
- it also inspired the freedom movement in colonies especially in south and Central America. For example:-
HAITI get freedom from France itself in 1804, under the leadership of Simon bolivar many South American
countries were liberated
- the idea of Universal franchise rights came into place(jacobins constitution).
- ideas of Liberty equality and fraternity.
- napoleonic code became famous and some of them exist even today.
- ideas of social equality emerged as Revolution did not bring significant changes to the life of peasants.
NOTE:- Tipu Sultan was the member of jacobin club.
Q) the inherent limitations of Napoleon policy of Continental blockade ultimately resulted in its failure.
Q) explain how the foundation of modern world were led by American and French Revolution.
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Q) though the conditions in France were vastly different from conditions in America. Many of the driving
factors behind both the revolutions were similar. Discuss.

How to approach the third question?

The question is talking about differences. We can state the difference of economy society and Political
situation in France as well as USA. But the underline thing behind Revolution is same such as high taxation,
against authority.
And also state the thinkers that sem thinkers have inspired both the revolutions.
How to answer the second question?
Approach:- very briefly discuss about French and American Revolution and write the ideas of French and
American Revolution.
Separation of power, federalism especially in American Revolution, secularism Liberty equality and
fraternity etc.
Political and historical development such as rise of nation state, emergence of powerful USA due to French
and American Revolution, emergence of Germany and Italy.
It also inspired many anti colonial movement such as in haiti, in South American countries gained
independence under Simon boliver.

European revolution of 1830 and 1848 and emergence of new nation states:-
The ideas of French revolution was mere decremental to the ancient monarchies.

Rise of nation States:-

What define us as a nation?
Europe is considered as a nation on the basis of language but India as a nation in terms of of ancient
culture such as at least three kingdoms had United India which are Mauryan Gupta and Akbar and colonial
legacy, geography(bound by Indian Ocean and Himalayas), idea of tolerance.

Q) if you think of other civilizations(Greek aur Mesopotamia civilization) they were ruined but we are going
to find Unity in Indian civilization. Why?
India has been protected by its geography. so, not much invasions.
This idea of tolerance and acceptance:- Indian people has inherited the new culture of the invaders and a
new culture has emerged and the people who attacked India accepted India as their motherland accept
Britishers due to development in Transportation system.
NOTE:- in the case of Europe the concept of nation is very much clear that people who speak same
language.

SIR:- a nation is a group of people with common culture, a sense of Identity and political aspirations.
Common culture maybe language religion ethnicity customs and history.
Britain and France were the first Nation States to emerge. French Revolution strengthened the idea of
nation state with people at source of authority.
Nationalism led to breakup of Ottoman Empire, austria-hungarian Monarchy, revolt of 1830 and 1848 and
unification of Italy and Germany.

European revolution of 1830:- this was a Revolutionary wave in Europe as a reaction to Vienna order(1858
Vienna order to restore the ancient monarchy). King Louie 18th became the king of France and monarchy
was restored. After his death Charles 10th became the king and wanted to restore the former Glory. To do
that, he issued ordinances, however Revolt broke out in France known as July revolution.
Consequently, a liberal constitutional monarchy was restored. This inspired a series of revolution in
German States, Italy, Spain Portugal Belgium and Poland.
 12
Belgium declared Independence from Netherlands, liberal constitutional monarchy(Monarchy would be
there but there would be check on its powers and at the same time people will have the rights) was
restored in Spain and Portugal.
The Revolt in German and Italian States were suppressed by maternikh the Austrian chancellor.
It was followed by a stronger wave of revolution in 1848.

European revolution of 1848:-

This was the second major challenge to Vienna order of 1858. It also started in France after the new king
Louis Philippe rejected the demand of Universal adult suffrage.
Demonstration for voting rights were fired upon the police leading to mass revolution.
King abdicated(LEFT) his Throne and France became the Republic. This inspired a series of revolutions
among italians, Germans, Hungarian, etc.
Significance of these revolution:-
a. Political domination of middle class weekend.
b. Lower class became stronger.
c. Socialism emerged as a stronger Idea.
d. Attempt to unify Italy and Germany could not succeed.
e. Liberal constitutional monarchy in Denmark and Holland.
Similarities:-
a. Mainly urban phenomena.
b. Inspiration from France.
c. Caused due to economic crisis in these States.
d. Liberalism and nationalism were a strong force.
Differences:-
a. No coordination, separate movements.
b. Common problems but definite solutions.

LECTURE 4:-
the germany is divided into various Kingdoms and the most important Kingdom is the kingdom of prusia.
SIR:-
Unification of Italy:-
After Napoleon rise to power, the Italian Peninsula was conquered by the French. During this period,
Revolutionary ideas, ideals of freedom and equality, concept of nationalism emerged stronger in Italian
society.
After the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814 the redistribution of territory was led by Congress of
Vienna 1815 with majority being part of Austria now.
The entire Italian Kingdom was divided into following:-
a. Sardinia also known as Kingdom of piedmont.
b. Tuscany(under Austria).
c. Parma(under Austria).
d. Papal States(under pope).
e. Kingdom of 2 syicilies(under French control).
hence, Italian unification was a two step process:-
- first to gain Independence from Austria and then uniting the consequent independent Italian States.
Mazzini, Garibaldi and Caver played an important role in unification of Italy.
In 1831, Mazzini founded young Italy and the movement for Italian unification was referred as resurgence.
The revolution of 1848 ignited Italian nationalism. however, failed in its attempts.
Crimean war(1853-1856):-
Britain and France attacked Russia to protect Crimea from Russian expansion. Russian CZAR(king) wanted
to extent protection to the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. However the main motive was to
capturing a Strait which connects Black Sea and Mediterranean sea.
 13
Russia lost the war and austria abstained(did not participated).
Sardinia supported the war effort of Britain and France to advanced Italian unification.
In 1859, sardinia allied with France in a war against Austria which freed many states of Italy from Austrian
rule.
Syicilies and Naples were liberated by Garibaldi and in 1860 the kingdom of Italy was established.
venice was annexed by Italy in 1866 by taking advantage of austro-prussian War.
Rome was under the control of Pope and protection of French Troops. During Franco prussian war of 1870
the French could not support the Pope and rome was annexed in 1871. thus, completing the process of
unification.
Rome was declared the capital of Italian Kingdom, Italy started industrializing. However, the economic
division between north and South Italy remained.

Unification of Germany:-
Napoleon had acquired half of the territory of Prussian empire and after his defeat the German states were
scattered with Russia being the biggest and most powerful of them.
French Revolution enthused German nationalism and demand for German unification started becoming
stronger.
A German Confederation was established in 1815 which included part of Austrian and Prussian Empire and
some German States. However, the Confederation could not work properly because of the revolts in
German States(1830 and 1848 revolts), rivalry between Austria and Russia.
A constituent assembly was found after 1848 revolt with the goal to unite all the German States. However
the Prussian King refused the proposal.
Unification under Bismarck policy of blood and iron:-
This mark was the military commander of Prussia and wanted to preserve the interest of aristocracy and
domination of Army in state affairs. he coerced many German states into UNISON by falling blood and iron
policy.
to implement his policy:-
a. he fought a war in 1864 against Denmark in Alliance with Austria and annexed most of the territory of
German Confederation.
b. Then he allied with Italy in 1866 to defeat Austria and removed it from German Confederation.
c. In 1867 he formed North German Confederation which United 22 German States.
d. The Prussian king was declared as the head of the state.
e. The Franco prussian war of 1870 led to the final unification process in which all south German states
were United and France was humiliated.
Nationalistic jingoism:- extreme form of nationalism.
Q) compare and contrast Italian unification and German unification.
Q) though both Bismarck and Sardar Patel played an important role in unifying their respective countries
YET given the different historical circumstances. The challenges faced by both and the strategies adopted
were different. Discuss.
A brief introduction about Bismark and Sardar Patel and given the different historical circumstances.
Main part challenges they faced and strategies they adopted.
bismark has to unite 26 German States where as Sardar Patel has to unite 562 princely states.
Bismarck of Germany has to unite the people who are speaking only German language but Sardar Patel has
to unite the people who are speaking different languages.
Bismarck of Germany has to unite the people who are of Christian religion but Sardar Patel has to unite
people of all religion.
Germany has a small Geography whereas India is huge in its size.
This strategy was also different such as Sardar Patel very often used with diplomacy accept for a few
conditions such as Hyderabad, in case of Junagarh plebeside occoured and instrument of accession in case
of Kashmir.
 14
Bismarck of Germany started the unification of Germany in 1850s and ended in 1871. It took about 20
years for e Germany to unified where a Sardar Patel just took 2 years.

Colonialism and imperialism:-

Difference:-
There is a very minor difference so minor that these words are used interchangeably.
Imperialism is a bigger term and has always existed. For example:-Just conquesting another country
through direct military conquest and either making subservient to you.
Imperialism idea is to have political military administrative economic control.
Colonialism is one form of imperialism. Colonialism is one of the manifestation of imperialism where few
people of this territory will settle into foreign territory but there elligence will lie to the mother Kingdom.
Settlement is important in colonialism but in imperialism settlement is not important.
In the case of 13 colonies the extent of colonialism is much higher but in the case of India the imperialism
is much higher.

SIR:- imperialism is a policy or ideology of extending a Nations rule over foreign Nation often by military
force or by gaining political and economic control.
It can be both formal(annexation and direct rule) and Informal(indirect Rule By local elites).
Colonialism is a policy or practice of acquiring political control over another country; occupying it with
settlers, subjugation of one people to another and economic exploitation of colonies.
Differences:-
The practice of colonialism usually involved there transfer of population to the new territory where the
arrivals lived as settlers while maintaining political allegiance to their respective countries of origin.
Imperialism means one country exercising power over another weather through settlement, sovereignty or
indirect control.
NOTE:- one can engage in colonialism without imperialism if the territory is uninhabited. Likewise,
imperialism can also occur without establishing colonies. However these two processes often occur
together II and the terms are used synonymously for this reason.
The extent can differ. For example:-in case of USA, Canada South Africa Australia New Zealand. The original
settlers were pushed to margins while in other reasons such as India, Egypt Indonesia, etc. The original
settlers were not displaced. thus, the former involved much more colonialism while the later involved
much more imperialism.

Stages of imperialism:-
a. Mercantilism and early trading Empires:-
growth of Trans Atlantic trade in 16th century.
Spanish and Portuguese were the early explorers soon joint by Dutch, French and English.
Development is science of navigation, cartography, telescope, barometer, new trade routes, etc. Fuelled
the imperialism.
b. Industrial capitalism:- with the advent of industrial revolution in England in mid 18th century a new
phase of imperialism begin, raw materials and new markets fuelled the the colonial ambitions of British
Empire.
Cotton, iron, mining transport and communication were the major development of this stage.
c. Finance capitalism:-
NOTE:- the characteristics of second industrial revolution was emergence of new states such as Germany
Japan USA, etc. Emergence of new industries such as petrochemical electricity fertilizer ,etc. And also
investment in capital goods.
A period after 1860s where many countries were industrialized such as Germany USA Japan.
New industries emerged along with new technologies.
 15
Intermediation of savings to investment became a dominant function of the economy with capital
accumulation on a large scale. However, the exploitation of colonies due to industrial capitalism did not
allow capital investment to takeoff in many such colonies.

Causes of imperialism:-
a. Industrial revolution:-
- money from trade.
- Access for raw materials.
- external markets.
- surplus production.
All these gave thrust to imperialism
b. Nationalism:-
- colonies as a matter of prestige for nation states as well as nationalism as a tool to divert attention from
the ideas of democracy.
c. New trade routes:- accessibility of America India China and Africa.
d. Military power of European States:- sophisticated warfare techniques, strong Navies, etc.
e. Cultural factors:-
- white man's burden:-
- aspiration of Christian Missionaries:-
Legitimacy of colonialism:-in the 19th century, when most political philosophers begin to the defend the
principles of universalism at equality. The same individuals also defended the principles of imperialism and
colonialism. to Reconcile this opposed principles the argument of "civilising mission" was used which
suggested that a temporary period of political dependence was necessary in order for these uncivilized
societies to be capable of sustaining liberal institutions and self government.

Colonialism in Africa:-
Before 19th century, the settlement in Africa by Europeans was only in coastal areas and slave trade was
the most lucrative business.
In 1869, Suez Canal connecting Red Sea and Mediterranean sea was constructed also gold mines were
discovered in Congo. hence, European interest in Africa expanded.
Britain shoon purchased controlling shares in Suez Canal and established a protectorate over Egypt.
King Leopold 2 of Belgium in 1876 brought Congo under his control and soon after other European powers
entered into a quest for colonies in Africa. thus, the scramble For Africa begin.
By 1914 whole of Africa was scrambled among Britain Belgium France Germany Italy Spain and Portugal
accept for Abyssinia(Ethiopia) and Liberia entire continent was scrambled.
Many overlapping claims over various regions(for example:-French and British interest collided in Egypt
and Sudan), Belgium Britain and Portugal over Congo, etc.) were resolved by Berlin conference(1884-85).
- Niger river valley was divided among British and French and Niger River was made free for ships of all
signatory Nations.
- similarly, freedom of trade and navigation in Congo river valley.
- End slavery by Black and islamist powers(it emerged as a matter of economic necessity).
- steps for welfare and development of Africans.
BOER WARs:- Two wars(1880-81 and 1899-1902) between British Troops and boer States occoured with
British victory, In 1910, British Union of South Africa was created.

Colonialism in China:-
Marco Polo was a Traveller to China.
China had National Unity under Manchu dynasty also known as Qing Empire which rules from 1640s to
1911. In 19th century Britain has became a major trade partner but it it had a huge trade deficit with
China. China was a self-sufficient economy and imported very little from the west.
 16
British merchants purchased Chinese tea, silk, percellion(luxury items) and other decorative items while
Chinese imported British gold silver and jewellery. Because of persistence of trade deficit, British
merchants started smuggling opium into China which soon flourished in many Chinese town.
Qing dynasty banned opium but could not enforce it.
In 1838, a qing commissioner destroyed 20,000 cases of opium which triggered the first opium war
between 1839-1842.
After the war, British took over Hong Kong and extracted trade concessions from China. For example:- MFN
status to Britain, British sovereignty over trading centres, opening of many ports for British trade,
imposition of free trade, stationing a permanent British diplomat in China.
Other European Nations and USA also signed trade agreements with China.
Second opium war started in 1856 after demand of more concessions by British and legalisation of opium.
qing military was defeated again and as a consequence the final barrier to foreign imperialism was
removed.
After the second opium war:-
- the trade Treaties were revised.
- European ships got right to transit in Chinese river.
- China was made to guarantee the life of missionaries and these missionaries could establish churches
anywhere in China.
- opium trade was legalised.
- many more European Nations as well as USA and Japan negotiated with regional officials and warlords to
construct their own sphere of influence. This created a patch work of foreign enclaves that functioned
almost as virtual colonies within China's border.
Q) Africa was chopped into States artificially created by accident of European competition analyse. 2013.

LECTURE 5:-
Japan as a imperialist power:-
How the industrial revolution in Japan is very much different from the industrial revolution in Europe?
Japan had no colonies but European Nations have.
Industrial revolution in England happened in series of PHASES, . Japan Industrial Revolution is a matter of
decades.

Before 1868, following condition existed in Japan:-

a. Emperor was mere a political head but the real power lied with military generals known as shoguns.
b. A Europe like feudal society existed in Japan.
c. Japan had remained a cutoff Island Nation for more than 200 years.
d. In 1853, USA sent a naval feet and Japan was coerced into opening up of its ports for trade. Similar
treaties were also signed which European powers in coming years.

MEIJI restoration 1868

The emperor took the title of meiji, consolidated his power and the changes he brought upon in Japan is
known as meiji restoration.
From 1868 to 1908, Japan emerged as a industrial Nation.
- the government took up the responsibility of industrial development and invested a lot in heavy
industries.
- later the industries were sold to capitalist who soon emerged as self sufficient.
- the curriculum in school and colleges were changed as per industrial needs.hence, Japan had no shortage
of skilled worker.
- extreme nationalism and worship of Emperor became integral part of education system.
- in 1889, a new Constitution was enacted where the ministers were responsible to the emperor and not
the diet(Japanese parliament).
 17
- an element of election was introduced for diet. However, only about 3% of the population had franchise
right.
- gradually the military generals came to dominate the political affairs of Japan.
- Japan was a Small Island Nation thus, it lacked raw material to feed its industries. hence, it started
exploring regions of China. In this context, two important wars are significant
a. Sino Japanese war 1894 to 1895:- this was fought over Korea which was under the Chinese control.
China lost in the war and after that Korea was recognised as an independent state. Some islands in South
China Sea were annexed by Japan, manchuria came under the economic influence of Japan. However, a
significant part of this region was under Russian control.
b. Russia Japan war(1904-05):- it was fought over manchuria, Japan won the war and acquired more of
Chinese territory. The southern manchurian region came under its influence. It also declared courier as its
protectorate and later in 1910 annexed it.
- Japan also wanted to convert China into its protectorate. However, failed.

USA as an imperialist power:-

In 1823, Monroe doctrine was brought out by USA which emphasizes on two things:-
a. Policy of isolation.
b. Hegemony of USA in both North and South America.
It said that USA would not interfere in European affairs or colonies and it would treat any interference in its
own backyard(i.e. All of America) as an act of aggression. But by the 1890s the notion of its backyard
extended upto Pacific and far east i.e. China.

Socialism:-
IS keynes economy socialist in nature?
According to James keynes economist, government will play a very important role in determining the
aggregate demand of the economy. Government will spend on health education infrastructure, etc. Here
the focus is on aggregate demand but in socialism the focus is on welfare of the policies adopted by the
government minimum wage pension subsidiary, reservation, etc..
What is Fabian socialism?
Social democracy which India adopted.
England and France are the two major centres of socialism.
SIR:- socialism refers to state ownership of common property or means of production, means of producing
and distributing goods are dictated by a centralised government that often plants and controls the
economy.
It has following characteristics:-
a. an egalitarian society(minimum inequality)
b. Fulfillment of basic needs.
c. Common ownership.
- a purely socialist state would be one in which state owns and operate the means of production. However,
nearly all modern Nation States combine the both elements of socialism and capitalism it is only the extent
which varies.
- capitalism shows hierarchy of competence. Socialism tries to break the hierarchy of competence and the
market tries to upheld it. But we cannot deny the fact the practices which are adopted in a free market
society those practices had make sure that those who are on the top will remain on the top at the bottom
people will have very limited opportunity to rise over the economic and social status.
- socialism leads to stagnation. The British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had a very famous line
"socialism is great for other's money"

Evolution of socialism:-
- socialism was a response against various restrictions imposed by the capitalist on the working class.
 18
- after industrial revolution in industries the workers were exploited by the factory owners and
Management, they had unsafe condition of work, working hours were as long as 16 hours, child labour was
Rampant, provisions of social security was lacking and the wages were meagre.
Thomas Penn in his book "rights of man" advocated socialization of land, more taxes, old age pension,
maternity leave, etc.
Robert Owen who himself was a factory owner perhaps used the term socialism for the very first time.
He believed in establishment of cooperative societies, collective ownership of labours in factories but failed
to alter the attitude of factory owners and government.

Few important events:-

a. LUDDITES movement(1811-17 in England):- there were a group of workers in England under the
leadership of LUDD who believed that machines were cause of their misery. They launched a movement to
break the machines in factories.
b. CHARTIST moment(1830s):- the movement began in England for demand of right to vote for workers.
The movement died down by 1850s but had a considerable impact and enthused the workers for
demanding their rights.
Britain moved gradually on the question of right to vote and by 1929 all adults had franchise right.
EXTRA:- it is often criticized that Universal adult franchise is not properly used by illiterate section so we
shouldn't give Universal adult franchise to everyone?
Now see this is a very ill logical argument because right now the illiterate ST SC community is getting a lot
of privileges just because the government feels that it is a major of vote bank.
c. 1848s revolts in Europe:- consequence of French Revolution. In the French Revolution, workers were a
major force who organised themselves and overthrowed feudalism in Europe.
French Revolution also caused European Revolution and emergence of nation States. However, the
condition of peasants and workers did not improve. hence, a lot of labour unions were established in
various parts of Europe who advocated the rights of workers.

Marxist socialism:-
a. Historical materialism:-whatever the economic structure of the society it will determine the social
political intellectual moral aspect of society.
Those who have the control over modes of production would control all aspects of society.
b. Class struggle:- Marx believe that in society there would be always be social stratification.
The concept of nation state that it should be dissolved and the notion of internationalism is also a
manifestation of Marxist socialism.
Marx gave two important ideas which played a very significant role in evolution of socialism:-
a. Materialistic concept of history or historical materialism:-a society mode of production fundamentally
determines its political social intellectual and moral climate.
b. Concept of class struggle:- Two new classes emerged as a consequence of industrial revolution i.e.
BOURGEOISIE(capitalist class) which owned industries and and PROLETARIAT(worker class) who worked for
wages.
Marx believed in inevitability of socialist revolution.
c. Internationalism:- it is the Marxist social class concept based on the view that capitalism is now a global
system and therefore the working class must act as a global class to defeat it. hence, first International was
established in 1864; it stressed International unity of working class and socialist leaders and influenced
workers Movement in Europe and North America.
It arranged aid for for helping the workers of an country by collecting funds from other countries. It also
took anti war stance and against imperialism.
Because of internal conflicts between statist and anarchist(two groups within first International) it got split
and dissolved in 1876.
Second International(1889-1916):- it was much stronger than first International as it had much more
membership, organised social parties and trade unions, spread in Asia also.
 19
So it wanted equality between natives of colonies and colonists.
Demand of limiting the maximum hours per day at 8 hours was declared on 1st may 1890 which is still
celebrated as world Labour Day.
Second international strongly advocated against war and blamed capitalism as root cause of war
imperialism and colonialism.
Weakness of second International:-
a. It was a loose Federation of socialist parties from different countries which was divided on the method
of struggle to bring about socialism.
Some preferred violent revolution while other preferred gradual reform by lobbying with governments.
b. Some section within the second International favoured colonialism their respective countries engaged
in.
c. On the issue of power though there was unanimity. In opposition to it, many socialist parties feared
repression is there opposed the war.
d. When the World War 1 broke out many socialist parties supported their governments which led to the
end of second
International.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Paris Commune is nothing but workers established a parallel government in 1870 in Paris and finally
defeated with the help of Germany.
Paris Commune was supported by first International.
Creation of Paris Commune created a fear among the new emerged Nation states that something like this
can happen in their territory as well. Workers can come and establish their parallel government.

LECTURE 6:-
Major European powers during the first world war England
Germany
France
Spain
Austria-Hungary
Two important stakeholders Serbia and Bulgaria.
what is nationalistic jingoism?
In the interest of nation one can justify any means or ends.
In World War 1 there are two powers; Central power(austro-hungarian Empire Serbia Bulgaria) and allied
powers(Britain France Russia).

A prologue to World War 1:-

- Prevailing condition in Europe:- Europe dominated the world affairs with Germany and Britain as the
leading military and economic power. Other countries such as France Russia Belgium Italy austro-
hungarian Empire were well behind. However USA and Japan has rapidly progressed.
- 2nd prevailing conditions is Imperial expansions. For example:- scramble For Africa, sphere of influence in
China, etc.
- emergence of alliance system:- triple alliance(Germany Austria Hungary and Italy), Triple Entente(Britain
France and Russia).
Friction between countries:-
a. Naval rivalry between Germany and Britain.
b. French loss of Alasce Lorraine region to Germany at the end of Franco-prussian war 1871.
c. Germany accused Britain France and Russia of trying to encircle it. Germany was also disappointed with
their expansionist policy known as weltpolitik as it had few number of colonies and most of them were not
much economically rewarding.
 20
d. Serbian nationalism:- serbian kings traditionally shown loyalty to Austria which was resented by serbian
Nationalist. The Nationalist murdered King Alexander in 1903 and the new government became pro-
Russian. It also tried to to unite serbs(slav ethnicity) and croats into one Kingdom i.e. Yugoslavia. Some
Austrian wanted a preventive war to destroy Serbia to prevent the breakup of Empire.
EXTRA:- server wants some of the regions of Ottoman Empire.
Main events before World War 1:-
a. Moroccan crisis(1905-06):- Germany was wary of increasing French influence in Morocco and it also
wanted to test the recently signed Entente Cordialle(precursor of triple entente) between Britain and
France.
- Germany called for a conference and pledge to maintain Moroccan independence. However, Italy Spain
Russia and Britain supported France in this conference which was a diplomatic humiliation for Germany.
b. Britain Russia agreement(1907):- this happened to end their dispute in Asia(IRAN). though, it was not a
military alliance or an anti- German alliance but Germany feared encircling by Britain and Russia.
c. Bosnian crisis(1908):- Austria Hungary annexed Bosnia(both seebia and austria-hungary wanted this
region) from the weak Ottoman Empire. However, Serbia also wanted this region. Serbia called for Russian
help. However, Austria had German support. hence, no conference was organised on this issue.
d. Agadir Crysis/ second Moroccan crisis(1911):- when France deployed troops in Morocco, Germany got
anxious and sent its warships to the island of agadir near Morocco. this threatened France and as well as
trade route of British. Britain sided with France and finally in a compromise Germany was given a small
strip of land in French Congo.
e. Balkan Wars(first Balkan War in 1912):- the Balkan League(monte janerio Serbia trees and Bulgaria). the
Balkan League attacked Ottoman Empire(this Empire spread in Asia Africa and Europe) and captured their
territories in Europe and ceasefire agreement. Albania became an independent country which serbia
wanted for itself.
f. In 1913 second Balkan what happened where Bulgaria attacked Serbia because it was not happy with the
outcome of first Balkan War. However, Bulgaria was defeated and Serbia emerged stronger. It was more
determined in fulfilling its goals of establishing Yugoslavia.
g. Assassination of Archduke of Austria Franz Fedinand(June 1914):- the Archduke was assassinated in
Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia by a serb terrorist. The servant government knew about the plot but did nothing
to stop it. Austria Hungary presented serbia with a set of demands with the deadline. Most of the demands
except two was accepted by Serbia.
After the deadline, Austria Hungary declared War on Serbia, Russia supported serbs and declared a war on
Austria, Germany declared War on Russia and France and when Germany entered Belgium, Britain
declared War on Germany.
- other countries joined later.

Who was responsible for outbreak of World War 1?

Lack of diplomatic relations.
Colonial rivalry which ultimately to transform itself into a military rivalry(British Navy is small and Germany
is investing heavily in Navy).
Press played a very important role in continuation of the war via fueling the nationalism.
The Germany support to Austria.
Russia is also a lot to blame Because they entered the word despite domestic problems. Perhaps it was
employed used by russian Czar to divert attention from domestic problems and to strengthen the Serbian
nationalism Russia played a very important role.

WHO/WHAT TO BLAME:-
a. Alliances:- dual and triple alliances system lead to mounting suspicions.
b. Economic rivalry:- Marxist historians believe that German Businessman and capitalist class wanted war
with Britain. However this is not a convincing argument as peace would have made Germany more
prosperous.
 21
c. Colonial rivalry/military rivalry:- this was a direct consequence of colonial rivalry, a Naval race between
Germany and Britain started over establishing hegemony in oceans.
d. Extreme nationalism/jingoism:-
e. Role of newspapers:- newspapers enthused public opinion in support of war and were against any pact.
hence, there was immense public pressure on government.
f. German support to Austria without any condition was like giving them a blank cheque also Russian
support to Serbia to enhance its Prestige in balkan region as well as to divert attention from its domestic
problems were responsible for World War 1.
g. World War 1 was the tragedy of miscalculation as no one had envisaged that what will go on for years.
Q) while imperialism was primary an economic phenomena, neo-imperialism was grounded in nationalistic
jingoism which ultimately lead to World War 1. Elaborate.
Q) To what extent can Germany be held responsible for causing World War 1. Critically discuss/Examine.

Course of War:-
Allied power(Britain France Russia USA Serbia Belgium, Italy, Japan) and Central power(this will get
transformed into Axis powers)(Germany, Austria Hungary Empire, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria).
a. The Western front:- As per Schlieffen plan, Germany begin fighting World War 1 on two fronts invading
France from neutral Belgium in the west and confronting Russia in the East. However in the first battle of
Marne, the German advance was checked by allied Troops and allied mounted a successful counter attack.
The defeat meant the end of German plans for a quick victory in France.
After this, both side dug into trenches and trench warfare led to some of the bloodiest Wars such as Battle
of Verdun, battle of Somme.
On the eastern front, Russian forces invaded Germany but were checked by troops of Austria and
Germany. Germans had a series of success against Russia but the Schlieffen plan was ruined as Germany
was fighting on both fronts together.
b. Russian Revolution(1917):-this led to withdrawal of Russia and a setback for the allied powers.
c. Gallipoli campaign:- allied powers tried to score a victory against ottomans. However this was a
complete failure.
d. World War 1 at sea:- the naval rivalry between Britain and Germany occured in ocean. However, the
British Naval superiority was intact during World War 1(Battle of jutland).
e. USA enters World War 1:- Germany wanted to cut off the British supply from its colonies and hence,
started an unrestricted submarine aggression. a US ship carrying passengers was attacked and sunk by
Germany. Germany also was persuading Mexico to attack USA as per Zimmerman plan. hence, USA
declared war against Germany.
f. Second Battle of marne:-
g. Towards Armistice:- by the fall of 1918, Central powers were envargling on all fronts. Germany was
forced to seek an Armistice(until and unless peace agreement is not there it is a kind of truce agreement to
end the war) thus, ending the war in November 1918.

Why the war lasted so long?

a. Two sides were fairly balanced in terms of military power.
b. Other countries joined in to gain new territories and before that waited to see which side is more likely
to win.
c. Many countries were heavily invested in war efforts. For example:- Germany wanted to protect
themselves from encircling, France wanted to take back Alask Lauren region, Britain would never had
allowed Belgium controlled by Germany(because of geographical proximity), austria-hungary wanted to
protect the empire.
d. Trench warfare:-
e. Propaganda via newspaper, posters, films, advertisements, etc. Help to motivate the public and military
on both sides to make them proud of their own country and atrocities of enemy.
 22
Why allied emerged victorious?
a. Failure of Schlieffen plan, it ensured two front war by Germany, Sea power of allied-
b. It caused a deadly blockade and food shortage while allied armies were fully supplied from their
colonies.
c. Germany submarine campaign field and also caused USA to be brought into the war.
d. Entry of USA ensured new resources to makeup for departure of Russia.
e. Allied leadership was more competent and learnt from their mistakes.
f. There was an outpouring of Troops to allied powers from USA and colonies of Britain.
g. An epidemic of Spanish flu caused serious damage to German Troops.
h. Germany was let down by its allies and had to constantly help the austrians and bulgarians.

LECTURE 7:-
Legacy and consequences of World War 1:-
a. the loss of human life:- the World War 1 took the lives of more than 9 million soldiers, 20 million more
where Wanted
b. It is known as Total War because not just Armies and navies but the entire population was engulfed in
war in one way or another.
c. Conflict between industrialized Nations led to new methods of warfare and development of new
weapons such as tanks submarine, machine guns and mustard gas, etc.
d. Millions of women entered the workforce to support men who went to the war and replace those who
never came back.
e. Spread of global epidemic:- it help to spread one of the world's deadliest Global epidemics the Spanish
flu in which an estimated 20 to 50 million people died.
f. the severe effects of chemical gas such as mustard gas and phosgene galvanized public and military
attitude against their continued use.
- The Geneva conventions agreement signed in 1925 restricted the use of chemical and biological warfare.
g. The political disruption of World War 1 contributed to fall off four Empires:-
- Kaiser Wilhelm 2 abdicated the German throne and weimar Republic was established.
- habsburg Empire disintegrated, Austria and Hungary itself became two countries as well as various
nationalities declared themselves free from the Empire.
- the pressure of the war cost two revolutions in Russia in in 1917 and Czarist rule came to an end.
- the Ottoman Empire disintegrated, its middle Eastern territory were divided between United Kingdom
and France(Sykes-Picot agreement).
h. New states that created for example:- Czechoslovakia Poland Lithuania Estonia Latvia. Serbs also fulfilled
their dream of uniting Serbs and Croacts in a nation state known as Yugoslavia. Though, Italy was on
winning side its suffered economic hardship which was utilised by Mussolini to capture power.
i. Japan China and USA expanded their trade. During 1920s, USA enjoyed great economic prosperity till
economic crisis of 1929.
j. League of nations was formed as many politicians were determined that such war should never be
repeated.
k. Peace treaties were signed which were humiliating for the losing side.

Russian Revolution(1905 revolution):-

Russia was ruled by Nicholas two who was autocratic ruler
There was a huge public dissatisfaction, working conditions in factories were poor, peasnts were under lot
of stress, there was no freedom of press and freedom of speech and expression and people decide for an
democratic government.
After defeat of Russia in Russia Japan war(1904-05) the Russian economy further degraded and eroded
public confidence in Czar regime.
In the public responded with a general Strike and attempted a revolution to overthrow Czar and establish a
democracy. However the revolution failed due to following reasons:-
 23
a. the Army remained loyal to the Czar.
b. It was a spontaneous movement without Central leadership and Unity.
c. Czar made concessions in the form of October manifesto(1905) under this, a parliament was established
known as "Duma" and freedom to the press, freedom of assembly and Association was promised.
Further, to win over peasants the process of Land Reforms under Prime Minister Peter Stalypin was
started, factories came under inspectors, sickness and accident insurance was introduced, Universal
education program was started, etc.

Revolution of 1917:-
Causes of February revolution:-
a. Fate of Duma:-first Duma in 1906, 2nd Duma in 1907 abolished by Czar after their perceived radical
demand on the lines of Democratic Republic.
the 3rd Duma(1907-12) and 4th Duma(1912-17) lasted long as they were much more conservative.
b. Failure of Land Reforms:- the pace of Land Reforms could not cope up with the growth rate of
population.
- in 1911 the Prime Minister Peter Stolypin was assassinated who introduced Land Reforms.
c. Industrial unrest:- not enough reforms occurred to check the grievances of workers. For example:- more
than 4000 Strikes happened in 1914 only.
d. Government repression:- secret police killed many revolutionaries who were deemed to be anti Czarist.
e. Revival of Revolutionary parties:- parties like Bolsheviks mensheviks revived who were inspired by the
writings of Karl Marx.
Differences between the two:- the two parties were divided on the issue of peasants participation.
Lennin(member of Bolsheviks party) wanted participation of peasants as workers were in minority while
mensheviks Wanted election first and revolution later when workers will become majority and they also
believe that peasants were the most conservative section of the society.
Social revolutionaries were third set of party who were not Marxist and wanted an agrarian society based
on collective farming.
f. Scandals in royal family:- Czar was suspected In The Assassination of Peter Sotlypin also a self professed
Holy man known as Rasputin had huge influence over Queen Alexandra and the king who ignored a series
of scandals in which Rasputin was directly involved.
g. War failures:- it revealed the king Incompetence and corruption within the Czar regime.
Why people get trapped with thes godman?
- they are afraid of the real life.
- lack of control on the outcome so they need some sense of belongingness or balance.
- life is chaotic and people want to make some sense of it.
- godman are a charismatic personality and had a moral authority of what they are doing.

The February revolution was an spontaneous outburst where rioters broke out in Petrogarel(seat of Czar)
and troops refused to fire on unarmed civilians. Senior army generals convince the king Nicholas two to
abdicate Throne. He agreed and his next Heir(Czar brother) also refused The Throne. thus, monarchy came
to an end and a Democratic Republic with an elected Parliament was setup.
Alexander kerensky became Prime Minister but the new government was perplexed by enormous
problems.

October revolution(1917):-the failures of provisional government led to the October revolution where the
Bolsheviks did a coup and overthrew the government.
Following are the failures of provisional government:-
a. It did not withdrew Russia from the World War 1. The moral of the army was an all time low because of
losses in different battles.
b. It did not fulfilled to important promises:-
- land redistribution.
 24
- immediate election for a constituent assembly that would frame a new constitution.
c. There was increasing economic chaos with high inflation lagging wages, shortage of raw material and
fuel.
d. The rise of Soviets(committee to form City governance- workers as well as military personnel; parallel
set of government in city themselves and the loyalty of the Soviet Union was towards Bolsheviks party and
not towards government which was formed) degraded the authority of government. a Soviet was a name
given to an elected committee of Soldier and workers forms for City governance. The loyalty of the soviets
lied with the Bolsheviks party and not with the provisional government.
e. Kornilov Affair:- general Kornilov considered soviets as traitors and deployed troops against them. Many
of his troops did mutiny and the public opinion swung further against participation in World War 1.
f. Lennin offered attractive reforms for bringing the masses on his side. Germany had helped Lennin
returned from exile.
Q) the emergence of the revolution led by Lenin had its roots in the failure of February revolution.
Comment.
Q) While the impact of French Revolution was largely limited to European countries the Russian Revolution
had a much wider impact across the globe. Critically analyse.
- brief introduction of French Revolution; impact of French Revolution such as Nation state, Liberty equality
fraternity, Universal adult franchise; feudalism to capitalism; ideas of enlightenment thinkers spread after
French Revolution. Most of this impact is limited to Europe.
- brief introduction of French Revolution discuss its impact and then introduction of Russian Revolution
again discuss its impacts and finally in conclusion right that it would be wrong you say that French
Revolution is limited to Europe because take the example of our Preamble the ideas of Liberty equality and
fraternity are inspired from French Revolution.
many Asian countries get motivation from the French Revolution.
What are the impact of Russian Revolution:- Communism as a major ideology which is not limited to Russia
but it is a logical basis for many other countries; Communism inspired against imperialism movements and
inspired a series of developments which led to decolonization; emergence of Communist Party across the
globe; labour parties and ILO(International Labour Organisation) consequence of Russian Revolution; cold
war can also be attributed to Russian Revolution-division of country based on ideology happened because
of Russian Revolution.
In the Russian Revolution itself the idea of republican government was a direct consequences of French
Revolution.

Bolsheviks and Lenin:-

Main stakeholders are bolsheviks mensheviks social Revolutionary and apart from that people who want
Republican form of government, Czar loyalist who wanted to re-establish the monarchy. The biggest
support is with social revolutionaries.
the mensheviks social Revolutionary and apart from that people who want Republican form of
government, Czar loyalist who wanted to re-establish the monarchy collectively known as whites(the
Russian revolution after this is called as White Revolution)
Lennin Knew that bolsheviks will not able to get the majority in elections. However, elections were the
major agenda of October revolution. hence, elections occurred bolshevik party came second; social
revolutionaries became the largest party.
The bolsheviks were criticized alot in constituent assembly and after this Lennin ordered his red guards to
disband the Assembly. This led to Russian civil war 1918-20. It was fought between bolsheviks and White's.
Britain USA France and Japan sent troops in the favour of whites because they feared the spread of
communism outside Russia and also they wanted Russia to re-enter in World War 1. However the
bolshevik seems victorious because of following factors:-
a. whites were not well organised and lacked central leadership.
b. The red Army had more Troops and able leaders such as lenin and Trotsky.
c. Lennin was able to present bolsheviks as a Nationalist fighting against a foreign Army.
 25
d. the whites lost support of peasants because of the brutalities they engaged in during the Civil War.
e. The war communism held the bolsheviks to save resources for fighting the war.

LECTURE 8:-
Consequences of Russian Revolution:-
a. A communist state came into existence.
b. Spread of communism.
c. De-colonization.
d. Communism by its virtue is against exploitative i.e. Inspired Nationalist Movement in colonies.
e. Peasants and workers who were generally perceived due to some inherent conditions which are beyond
human control. Communism directly questioned this very Paradigm. Communism idea is that the existing
institutions, structures make sure that the social stratification remain in the place(mobility is very
restricted).
f. Economic planning based on socialist ideas(socialist model of economic planning).
g. Ideological division:- the emergence of communism was perceived as a direct threat to all other
capitalist and imperialist countries(emergence of two ideological blocs-cold war in future).

SIR:-
a. A communist state was established for the very first time in the world. It ended the Czar rule as well as
aristocracy in Russia.
b. Treaty of brest-litovsk:- immediate cause of Russian Revolution. it ended the russia's participation in
World War 1. However, the terms of the treaty was very harsh on Russia. It Lost Ukraine, Estonia Latvia,
parts of Poland, etc.
- Russia lost its one third of farming land, two third of coalmines, and half of heavy industries.
EXTRA:- Britain and France were playing the appeasement policy because they thought Communism is a
bigger problems and nazizm of Hitler.
c. Division of the world into two ideological blocs:- efforts were made by Lennin as well as his successor
Stalin to propagate the Communist ideas to the rest of the world which was seen with fear and anxiety by
capitalist blocs. This later transformed into cold war.
d. Inspiration for freedom fighters in colonies across the world.
e. Emergence of Russia as a world power.
f. Despite industrial progress, civil liberties were suppressed in Russia.
g. a communist state inherently is anti-religion i.e. The credentials of secularism got strengthend due to
Russian Revolution.
h. Peasants and workers emerged as a strongest force in society not only in Russia but in other countries as
well.
i. Condition of women improved in Russia.
j. The concept of secularism strengthend.

Economic reforms undertaken by Lenin:-

New economic policy of 1921:-departure from Marxist ideas(such as marx does not believe in private
property but according to Lenin complete abolition of private property would be detrimental for Russia).
Nationalisation of heavy industries but small and medium industries would be owned by private players.

Economic policy of Lenin:-

Extra:- China is not Communism but it is a state capitalism. Market is subservient to the Government of
China.
After the end of civil war, Lenin had two difficult task ahead of him:-
a. Economic recovery.
b. Winning the supports of peasants.
He introduced the new economic policy in 1921-1927 with calling features:-
 26
a. It focuses on peasant welfare and boosting growth.
b. It allowed private ownership of land and using capitalist incentives to increase production of food. For
example:- peasants were allowed to keep surplus production after payment of tax.
c. Private ownership of small scale industries while heavy industries like coal iron steel chemicals came
under state ownership.
d. Private ownership in trade of goods produced by small factories.
e. Lenin allowed capitalist measures such as bonus, incentives, etc.
Long-term solution was state control of economy and collectivisation of farms which could only be brought
after his death.
Q) the new economic policy of Lenin had influenced the policies adopted by India soon after
independence. Evaluate.
Write about the new economic policy of India at similarities and differences.
Minimum 18 questions must be attempted in mains to clear it. If it is 150 word question then it must be
completed within 7 to 8 minutes and if it is 250 words question then we must complete it in 10 to 11
minutes.

Difference between Marxism and leninism:-

a. When to start the revolution:- according to Karl Marx, he argued that there will be a communist
revolution once the country is fully industrialized as the workers will have numerical superiority.
Lenin was against this rigid notion that full industrialisation is a prerequisite for revolution. He
compensated the lack of workers majority by including peasants in communist revolution.
b. New economic policy:- Lenin favoured private ownership of land and agriculture produce, temporary use
of capitalist methods and private Enterprise which Marx had never envisaged.
c. State institutions:- Marx was against the state and its institutions such as Army Judiciary bureaucracy.
lenin on the other hand, used state machinery for protecting communism.
EXTRA:- For Karl Marx the state institutions the focus is on perpetuating the social division but according to
Lenin it utilised those very state Institutions to hold on to communism. End is more important than means.
Almost all authoritarian regimes work on few common principles.
What is the Orwellian state?
It works on propaganda.
d. The concept of War communism:- this was initiated by Lenin during the Civil War 1918-20 to save and
Garner resources to fight the Civil War. All factories were Nationalised, private trade was banned,
resources came directly to the party. all grains were seized from peasants to feed the troops and the
workers who formed the support base of the bolsheviks. It led to food shortage after the Civil War and loss
of support of peasants to the bolsheviks. This was not envisaged by Marx.

Peace treaties after World War 1:-

Treaty of Versailles:-
a. Whatever colonies of Germany was taken back or either the divided among the winning powers or given
to League of Nations.
b. Germany lost a lot of territories.
c. Limit on German armament.
d. Conscription:- compulsory military practice in Germany was banned.
e. Austria Hungary Empire was divided to many countries. Australia had maximum German speaking
population and there was a very strong demand that Austria and Germany should be united. This was
banned by France because if they both United that they would emerge as a strong power.
f. Germany was blamed for the entire war and Germany had to pay the maximum war repression.
People who signed the Treaty of Versailles was termed as November criminals by Hitler. Hitler had the
power to win the opinion of masses.
Due to lack of military personnel Germany cannot maintain rule of law.
 27
SIR:-
The allied had differing point of view regarding what to do with Germany
- France wanted a harsh treaty to ruin Germany.
- Britain was in favour of less severe settlement but there was use public pressure on government for a
harsh settlement.
- USA wanted a lenient peace based on Woodrow Wilson(president of USA) 14 points.

Treaty of Versailles was signed with Germany with following features:-

a. Germany lost territory in Europe. Alasac Larraine and was given back to France.
b. New countries such as Yugoslavia Czechoslovakia as well as Poland was carved using German territories.
c. The control of SAAR(resource rich region) went to League of Nations and the League give the right of
coal mining to France for 15 years.
d. Union between Germany and Austria was forbidden even though Austria has huge German population.
e. The African colonies of Germany were taken away and were converted into mandates under League of
Nations.
f. Disarmament of Germany- it was barred from introducing conscription(compulsory military service). It
was only allowed to have 6 battleships and at maximum 1 lakh soldiers. It could have no planes, no tanks
and no submarines.
RHINELAND was made a buffer zone between France and Germany by de-militarizing it permanently.
g. War guilt clause:- the entire blame for World War 1 was solely placed on Germany and its allies.
h. War repression:- Germany was to pay 6.6 billion Pounds. However this was decreased to 2 billion
pounds later(1926). The aim of the repressions was to ensure that German economy would never recover
and never be a threat for Britain and France for foreseeable future.
Treaty of Versailles was considered as a dictated peace(THOPNA) and caused huge resentment in Germany
which was later utilised by Hitler to consolidate power.

b. Treaty of Saint Germain(with Austria) and Treaty of Traianon(with hungary):-

It was signed by Austria and Hungary respectively. They were reduced to very small size compared to the
habsburg empire. The territories of these countries(habsburg Empire) was distributed among other
European Nations on the principle of self determination.
c. Treaty of sevres with ottomans:- it was signed with Turkey. It lost huge territory to Greece. Italy also got
some of the territory while its colonies in Asia were distributed between Britain and France.
d. Treaty of neuily with Bulgaria:- Bulgaria lost its territory to Greece, Yugoslavia(Union of serbs and
croacts) and Romania.

League of Nations(LoN):-
Britain France and Japan Italy where the permanent members and 8 non-permanent members.
ICJ(International Court of Justice) was an integral part of League of Nations.
3 main organs of League of Nations:- Security Council, general assembly and ICJ.
League of nation came into existence after World War 1 on the same day when Treaty of Versailles was
came into effect(January 1920).
It had two major aims:-
a. Principle of collective security:- All the member Nations were to collectively act against the Nation wwho
try to wage a war.
b. To encourage International Corporation to solve social and economic problems of the world.
the league covenant were list of rules through which the league was to orporate.
Its organisational structure is as follows:-
a. Membership:-there were 42 countries to begin with which became 55 by 1926.
b. Security Council:- it had four permanent and four non permanent members. The permanent members
were Britain France Italy and Japan. Its mandate was to deal with political issues.
 28
c. General assembly:- It constituted All the member Nations and took decisions unanimously. Its main
mandate was to decide on general policy issues, controlled the finances of League of Nations and had the
power to change the peace treaties. It also admitted non permanent members in the security council
d. Permanent Court of Justice:-it is ICJ(International Court of Justice). It was setup in Hague, Netherlands.
Its main mandate was to deal with legal disputes between States and not the political disputes(delt by
Security Council). It continues to function today also as the International Court of Justice(ICJ).
e. Commission and committees:- it included disarmament military affairs health labour women rights,
drugs child welfare, etc.
f. Peacekeeping function:- the security council had the authority to recommend military resources against
an aggressor country. It had no standing Army of its own.

Critical evaluation of League of Nations:-

Success:-
a. It did great economic and social work through its commissions and committees. For example:- ILO fixed
maximum number of working hours and minimum wages. It also ensured that member countries provide
for unemployment benefits and old age pensions.
b. Refugee organisation:- it helped the Prisoners of War in Russia, Jews who were fleeing fron Nazi
persecution.
c. Health Organisation:-it did great work in combating epidemics.
d. Resolving minor International disputes:- for example:- Finland and Sweden over Aaland island, it forced
greece to pay compensation to Bulgaria when the former invaded the latter(Greece had invaded Bulgaria).
EXTRA:- cyprus is a Island country which is claimed by both Greece and Turkey.
The league decided in the favour of Britain when Turkey started claiming the Mosul province(near Iraq
Syria border); It also resolved a territorial dispute between Peru and Colombia.
None of these disputes threatened the world peace also whenever a major power is involved in such
disputes the decision of the league went in their favour.

Failures of League of Nations:-

a. A body which was created by victors to maintain the international order which was viewed as an allies
organisation.
b. The peace treaties signed where against the principle of self determination. For example:- millions of
Germans resided outside Germany in Poland and Czechoslovakia.
c. Membership:- USA rejected both the settlements and the League; Germany was not allowed to join till
1926 and left in 1934. USSR became the member in 1934.
d. Conference of ambassadors:-it was a temporary body to resolve disputes until league is set up and made
fully functional however it continue to exist and undermined the authority of League of Nations. For
example:-in Confu incident 1923 involving Mussolini of Italy and Greece. The league of nation favoured
Greece however the conference of ambassadors favoured Italy.
e. Failure of disarmament:-Under Treaty of Versailles only Germany was to disarm and the league failed to
convince other major powers to disarm.
EXTRA:- world disarmament conference in 1923-33 E and In the conference Hitler demanded equality
disarmament with France. France opposed this and this was utilised by the Hitler as a ploy to leave League
of Nations and Germany started its armament again.
f. Failure of collective security. For example:-Japan invaded manchuria in 1931; Italy invaded Ethiopia in
1935; in Spanish civil war 1936 Mussolini and Hitler militarily intervened and League was unable to do
anything; Hitler annexed Austria in 1938.
g. Economic crisis of 1929:-the league of nations was unable to prevent the economic depression which
became a major cause for consolidation of facist regime in Europe and Japan.
Gradually small states lost all faith in League of Nations, Facist regimes got encouraged and thus, league
was unable to prevent World War 2.
 29
Q) weakness inherent in the structure and functions of the league of nations were a decisive factor in its
ability to maintain world peace. Comment.
Under the structure we have to mention that three major countries are not the members, no
representation from the colonies, no standing Army, mockery of the collective security pact.
Q) critically discuss the success and failures of League of Nations in removing the major obstacles to peace
after first world war.
Q) compare and contrast League of Nations with United Nations.

LECTURE 9:-
ITALY:-
Why fasizam ideology emerged?
Weak opposition, economic nationalism, perceived threat, institutional weaknesses relative deprivation,
romanticization with the past.
After World War 1 Italy felt that it is going to win a lot of territories but after Paris Peace Conference 1919
Italy did not get that much that was a very big source of resentment.
Italy participated in the war and it was on drain of wealth and resources so Italy had its own economic
problems because of this many socialist and Communist has started emerging in Italy.

Fascism in Italy:-
After World War 1, Italy had returned almost empty handed from the Paris Peace Conferences(all the
treaties happened here). After the war there was huge unemployment and a real chance of Communist
revolution.
March on Rome(1922):- it was led by Mussolini and after this King invited him to form the government.
However there was various other reasons which contributed to Mussolini ascenancy to power:-
- disappointment with Treaty of Versailles. Italy was not given all the territories she was promised in 1915
in exchange of entering the World War 1.
- poor economy:-
> War expenditure lead to huge debt from USA
> heavy industries had to cut down their war time production levels which lead to huge unemployment.
> Italian currency Lira had depreciated a lot.
> inflation was at all time high.
> about 2.5 million ex-servicemen were having problems in finding a job.
- political chaos:- because of system of proportional representation a large number of parties came into
parliament and no single party could get the majority. hence, the government were unstable, indecisive
and masses felt that system is incapable of providing a strong government.
- violence by communist:-from 1919 onwards, there was a series of violent strikes, rioting, looting of shops,
occupation of factories by the workers who were backed by communist parties.
There was a fear of Communist Revolution among italians and in such atmosphere Mussolini led March on
Rome.
- popularity of Mussolini:- he was a famous journalist and a former socialist. From 1920 onwards he
became much more radical and his black shirt squads began to attack the socialist headquarters. hence, he
got a lot of support from the industrial class and already he was popular among the conservative and right
wing sections.
EXTRA:- when the stakes are low(very less to lose) then the left wing tendencies would be very much
strong but whent he stakes are high(less employment opportunities political voice, etc.) in such a scenario
right wing emerges.
Idealiy the left and right wing must be issue based.

Consolidation of power by Mussolini:-

a. Acorbe Law:- the party with maximum votes was to be automatically assigned two third seats in the
parliament.
 30
b. Prime Minister would be no longer be responsible to the parliament but only to the king.
c. The electorate was decreased from 10 million to 3 million and now only the wealthy section Had Right to
vote.
d. Lateran treaty:- he entered in a treaty with Church where Vatican City was recognised as a Sovereign
state, Pope was paid large amount of money for his losses which happened after Italian unification,
Catholic faith was accepted as state religion and in return the Church recognised the kingdom of Italy.
e. Cooperative state/corporate state:- It aimed at cooperation between employees and workers. Workers
trade unions and employers were grouped into corporations, they were expected to work together and
amicably resolve their disputes.
Strikes were not allowed and similarly the employers could not enforce lockout of the factories. Only the
fascist controlled trade unions were allowed to negotiate on the behalf of workers.
f. Changes in local government:- elected town councils were abolished and were replaced by officials from
fascist party.
g. Education:- education was closely supervised by the secret police, anti-fascist features were removed,
extreme nationalist ideology was propagated in schools and colleges.
If authoritarian regime has to function for a long time what it required to do?
- economic prosperity, centralised authority and powerful regime, find the opposition and crush it at the
right time, loyalist should be there across the regime, etc.
A good thing about Chinese system is there had integrated the traditional Medicine System with the
modern Medicine System there are a lot of positive things to learn with China but we are not going to
emulate its political system.
The only thing about good of democracy is that there are check and balances and government will change
other than that there are a lot of problems in democracy such as slow phase of decision making, Chaos in
the society, Unstable government.
Successors of Mussolini:-
a. Industry:- production of ciel textile energy, etc. had increased a lot because of Mussolini policies.
b. Agriculture:- Italy achieved self sufficiency in food with huge production of wheat. A lot of incentives
were given for wheat production but it came at the cost of other crops.
c. Land reclamation program:-it under took many activities to bring more land in productive use.
d. Public works programe:- it was an impressive program which tackled the challenge of unemployment
and building infrastructure.
e. Foreign policy success:- Mussolini was initially successful in his foreign policy. For example:-in case of
courfow incident, invasion of Ethiopia, etc. these event raised his Prestige among italians.

Failures of Mussolini:-
a. Economic issues:- Italy continued to have shortage of important raw material like coal and oil.
b. Exports were also hurt because Mussolini pegged Lira too high from its real value. The economic crisis of
1929 had serious negative impact on Italian economy.
c. There was also a regional disparity in Italy as north was industrially prosperous and South had an
agrarian economy.
d. Administrative issues:- the administration was the over-centralised, the Regime was inefficient and
corrupt and money went into officials pocket.
e. Entering into World War 2:- this was Mussolini biggest mistake as Italy could not afford a participation in
another war.
Many italians perceived Italy as a satellite state of Germany and Mussolini popularity further declined
because of introduction of anti-semitic policies(just like Hitler anti jews).
f. During World War 2 Mussolini was captured and shot dead by his enemies.

Nazism in Germany:-
What is social darwinism?
 31
Survival of the fittest Hitler used the concept of Darwin in social Arena. Those races who are superior will
have better chances of survival.
Collapse of weimar Republic:-
a. Treaty of Versailles:- it was a humiliating and Harsh treaty for which the Nationalist never forgive the
weimar Republic.
b. Anti democracy sentiments:- unlike France and Britain democracy as an ideology had not entered the
main consciousness in Germany and the working of weimar Republic did not helped in this regard because
system of proportional representation make sure that no party gets majority, the elected representatives
were inexperienced and there was continuous Chaos in Reichstag(German parliament).
Private Army of political parties fought each other in streets as well as workers organised violent strikes.
c. Threat of communism:- communist wanted a violent over-throw of capitalism while Nationalist were in
the favour of military rule or dictatorship.
d. Economic problems:- due to high war reparations, confiscation of German territories and most
importantly the economic crisis of 1929 led to economic ruin of Germany.
e. Hitler's propaganda:-Hitler constantly targeted the government and referred the politicians who had
signed the Treaty of Versailles as the November criminals. He gained a lot of support among the lower
middle class, landowners and Industrialist as well as workers.
In 1932 elections Nazi party emerged as the largest party(without majority) and Hitler first was offered the
post of vice chancellor. He declined but later agreed upon the chancellorship.

Consolidation of power by Hitler/features of nazism:-

a. Enabling act:- Germany became one party system with all other parties banned.
b. A Nazi special commissioner was appointed in all the states and state legislature were stripped of thier
powers.
c. Trade unions were abolished.
d. Education system was closely monitored for indoctrination(propaganda became the part of mass
psychic) of children, stereotypes about gender, racial superiority, etc.
e. Gestapo closely monitored childrens and teachers, children could complain about anti-Nazi teachers.
f. Slogans like "fuhror is always right" "must obey fuhror", etc. were made popular. Media was controlled
by Ministry of propaganda, religion was brought under state control, Euthanasia campaign(Mercy killing).
- social darwinism theory which seeks to apply biological concept of natural selection and survival of the
fittest to politics and sociology. Using this concept, anyone who is not deemed to be fit such as physically
disabled, mentally handicapped, homosexuals, etc. were euthanized.
How to criticize social darwinism?
Homogenization of society is always problematic. It may lead to genetic diseases.
Evolution does happen but it is a very random process i.e. Mutation is very much random and if that
mutation increases your chance of survival then their offsprings will have better chance of survival.
Using this random mutation and terming it as survival of the fittest and using eating society is completely
wrong.
One cannot control the genetic mutation but one can influence the mutation in hope for better results.
Inbreeding or purity of blood is very much problematic. Genetic pool must be diversified.
This also shows the in capacity of the Civilization to accommodate diversity.
g. Anti semitic policies:- Hitler blamed the jews for every German problems and anti semitism was a central
part of Nazi propaganda. For example:- Jewish children's were taken out of the school, Jews removed from
the jobs, deprived of German citizenship, Marrying between Jews and non-Jews were forbidden.
The final solution was the Holocaust with an aim to exterminate all the Jews by Starving them to death or
put them into poison gas Chambers in the concentration camps.
h. Economic policies:- Hitler's economic policies were governed by Autarky which mean a self sufficient
German economy.
Hitler was successful in eliminating unemployment by 1939 because:-
- large party bureaucracy provided additional employment.
 32
- Jews and Anti-Nazis were remove the from jobs this created vacancies.
- conscription was introduced in 1935 which provided additional jobs.
- Rearmament introduced in 1934.
i. Foreign policy:- his Foreign Policy was governed by "LEBENSRAUM" which meant that living space for the
German Nation should expand. Hitler's Foreign Policy was a brilliant success. For example:- rearmament
and conscription was introduced which was banned by Treaty of Versailles; Union with Austria; Munich
conference, annexation of Czechoslovakia and Non-aggression pact with USSR.
Hitler got support from all the sections be it farmers, workers, Businessman and army. E

Similarities between nazism and Fascism:-

-prevailing conditions are similar i.e. Economic hardship.
- charismatic leadership.
- extreme nationalism.
- hatred against communism.
- common propaganda such as use of education.
- totalitarian regime.
Differences:-
- ethnic cleansing was not present in Fascism.
- religious policies of Mussolini was much more successful.
- fascism was not that violent compared to nazism of Hitler.
- power is shared between King Church and Mussolini but in Germany Hitler is the supreme authority.
- nazism was much more successful compared to Fascism.
SIR:-
Similarities:-
a. Against communism.
b. Extreme nationalism.
c. Single party and charismatic leadership.
d. One party system.
e. Totalitarian regime(state is the supreme authority and people have no civil liberties, opposition will not
be allowed to exist, propaganda plays a very important role)
f. Economic Independence as the national policy.
g. Glorification of War.
Differences:-
a. Racism was much more prominent in nazism. There is no genocide in fascism rule of Italy.
b. Nazism spread much more deeply and widely in Germany than fascism in Italy.
c. Nazy system was more efficient and successful in terms of both economy and foreign policy.
d. Mussolini was more successful in his policy towards Church.
e. Constitutional position of Hitler and Mussolini were different. In Italy monarchy existed, Church was a
strong institution while in Germany there was no authority above Hitler.

Commonalities between nazism and communism:-

Both are at the opposite of the ideological spectrum but it actually forms a circle.
a. One party system.
b. Focus on self sufficiency.
c. Stress on building a great Nation or Rebirth of a nation.
d. Totalitarian regime.
e. aggressive foreign policy.
f. Both are against the democratic ideals.
differences:-
a. Difference in ideology. In fasicm there is a prevalence of charismatic leader but in Communism there is
prevalence of Party.
 33
b. The personality cult is promoted in fascism while in Communism the party is more important.
c. Communism is in principle against war but for fascist war as an unavoidable tool for restoration of
nations Glory.
d. The communist believed in collective ownership while the Fascist were in favour of private ownership of
wealth.

What are the differences between socialism and communism?

The most fundamental difference is socialism is mostly economic system and communism is both political
and economic system. Socialism is not much concerned about how a state should be organised but once a
state is organised what policies state should follow that is a part of socialism.

LECTURE 10:-
Why the stock market will crash:-
Lack of demand, political instability and the immediate cause would be over speculation.
Structural issues such as their is huge over production in USA same for agriculture and the prices are
coming down.
Mal-distribution of income.

Military facism in Japan(1931-1945):-

After win over in China and Russia, Japan fought in World War 1 with allied forces. It defeated Germany in
China and made more inroads(penetration) in the country. Japan greatly benefited from World War 1 as
after the war European powers were economically weak and were involved in quarrels over Treaty of
Versailles. However the Japan relation with USA declined because of following reasons:-
a. Huge Japanese immigration in USA:-
b. Clashing economic interest in China. USA supported open door policy in China which infuriated Japan as
it had heavily invested in manchurian region.
c. USA was also against Japanese aggression in China during World War 1.
d. Dispute over YEP Island in Pacific:-Japan had occupied it. however after America's protest it went to
League of Nations.
The economic boom of japan ended by 1921 because European Nations had recovered and Re-captured
their lost export markets.
The world economic crisis of 1929 served as a turning point in Japanese history because Japanese exports
were hurt badly. The army was against government soft approach towards China as it had failed to take
advantage of civil war in China.
Army started ruthless repression of Communist, assassination of leaders who opposed military, extreme
nationalism and aggressive foreign policy. They Army invaded manchuria in 1931 without government's
knowledge and Japanese Prime Minister was killed in 1932 when he opposed the invasion.
In 1945, it was army which ran the country in fascist lines, the emperor enjoyed high Prestige. However, he
failed to control the Japanese Army because he was afraid of his orders not been followed. thus, it was
Army not the elected government which was responsible for Japanese imperialism in 1930s.

Spanish civil war(1936-1939):-it was caught between right wing and left wing in the country.
During the war Italy and Germany supported the Nationalist led by General Francis Franco; Russia
supported the left wing while Britain and France refused to intervene.
The Nationalist won the Civil War which resulted into a fascist Spain which existed Till death of Francis
Franco in 1975.
though, there are similarities between fasicm in Spain, Italy and Germany(extreme nationalism, ruthless
suppression, against communism) there were differences also. For example:- Francis Franco refused to
enter World War 2 and Spain remain neutral. Also he supported search and restore its power.

Economic crisis 1929:-

 34
It is also known as Great Depression which begin with Wall Street crash in 1929 as people paniced to sell
their shares before crisis fell further its effect spell rapidly, many people rushed to banks to draw their
savings, demand for good fail, factories closed down, unemployment rose, etc.
however, the crash was just a symptom of larger issue which can be explained as follows:-
- domestic overproduction.
- vicious cycle of Agricultural over-production and falling agricultural prices. Industrialist were also
producing too many goods for the home market to absorb.
- Maldistribution of income which resulted into a significant part of population not having in a purchasing
power to buy excess manufactured goods.
- falling Exports:- Americans tarrif barriers to protect their industries were retaliated by counter tariffs and
hence, the exports was continuously declining.
- over speculation:- Promises of quick profits encourage people to spend their savings or borrow money to
buy shares.
The impact of economic crisis was as follows:-
- many other countries were affected as their prosperity dependent to a large extend on USA it was
because USA was indirectly funding the word reparations.
- countries that were dependent on US loans started facing acute financial crisis. In Europe also, major
banks collapsed and so did many European currencies.
- The USA attempted to protect its economy by doubling import duties which delt another blow to World
Trade.
- India was also affected as from 1929 to 1934 Indian imports and exports nearly Halfed, wheat prices fell
by 50%.
- president Hoover of Republican Party was against relief payment to individual families as he believed in
Rugged individualism by self Reliance and hard work all problems can be solved. However, he tried to solve
the problems by lending money to banks, requesting Industries not to reduce wages, saving industrialist
from bankruptcy. These attempts did not provide desired results and in 1932 Frank D Roosevelt(FDR)
became the new President from democratic party.
He won the election on the election plank of new Deal.
NEW DEAL:-
EXTRA;- Russia was immune to the economic recession of 1929 so many of the colonies took inspiration
from Communism in Russia.
New Deal refers to reforms taken by FDR in USA to revive the economy by intervening in economic and
social affairs and spending government cash which was a complete departure from laissez faire economy.
It aimed at relief(direct help to million of poor households) recovery(To reduce unemployment and
stimulate demand) and reform(Take measures any future crisis).
Its main features are as follows:-
a. Emergency legislations:-
- banking and financial system:- government took over banks temporaily, people buying shares on credit
must make a down payment of 50% instead of 10%
- farmers Relief Act for competition of farmers.
- National industrial recovery act for permanent word for people which focus on infrastructure
development.
- social security act:- old age pension, unemployment allowances, etc.
- loan for households who were losing their home.
- building of new houses.
- more tax on wealthy section.
- trade agreements to reduce tariff rates.
- End of prohibition
Tennessee Valley authority- revitalisation of rural America adversely affected by soil erosion.
New Deal can be best set as partially successful because it could not put an end to depression in USA.
Many of the jobs created after new deal was temporary and the growth of economy remained very slow.
 35
It was only after Second World War that USA economy was relieved of depression.
Q) It wasn't the new deal of FDR(Frank D Roosevelt) but Hitler who brought the world out from Great
Depression. Critically examine this statement in context of the role played by new deal vis-a-vis World War
2 in combating Great Depression.

LECTURE 11:-
World in 1920s and 1930s:-
a. Washington conference(1921-22):-
To improve relation between Japan and USA. However one of the outcome of the conference was Japan
remained A Supreme Power in far east as navies of Britain and USA were spread widely.
b. Genoa conference(1922):-
To end the hostility between France and Germany.
It was organised by Britain to end franco-german hostility. the conference failed and following year
Germans refused to pay the due amount after which the French occupied the ruhr region of Germany.
Germans responded with campaign of passive resistance and French occupation was unsuccessful.
c. Dawes Plan(1924) and Young Plan(1929-before economic crisis):-
under Dawes plan foreign loan to Germany as well as annual payment based on its prosperity was
recognised while under young's plan the war reparations were reduced from 6.6 billion pound to 2 billion
pound.
d. World disarmament conference(1932-33):-
This was a complete failure as no agreement was reached. Hitler withdrew from the continents and later
from the league of Nations(Germany became part of League of nation in 1926). Germany wanted parity
with France in terms of armament.

Japan during 1930s:-

a. Invasion of manchuria and other regions in China.
b. Anti comintern pact(against Communism pact) with Italy and Germany.
Italy during 1930s:-
a. Mussolini was a worried about German threat and rivalry from France. We had supported Anti Nazi the
Government of Austria and event sent troops to defeat any German invasion after murder of Austrian
chancellor.
b. Invasion of Ethiopia 1935
c. help to Franco in Spanish civil war.
d. Rome Berlin axis 1936. Alliance between Mussolini and Hitler.
e. Anti comintern pact with Germany and Japan 1937.
f. Full Alliance with Germany i.e. Pact of Steel(1939). If any country attack either Germany Japan or Italy it
would be a collective attack on three of them.

Germany during 1930s:-

a. Withdrawal from disarmament conference and League of Nations in 1933.
b. 10 year non aggression pact with Poland.
c. Re-introduction of conscription in 1935.
d. Union(Anschluss) with Austria was Hitler greatest success.
e. Invasion of Czechoslovakia.

Why Hitler and Mussolini was allowed to get away with Such aggressive foreign policy?
-> it was because of appeasement politics. First by Britain and later by French.
Causes of appeasement politics:-
a. Essential to avoid war because of the horrors of World War 1 as well as ongoing Spanish civil war.
 36
b. Many in briten felt that Germany had genuine grievances and Treaty of Versailles was severe. German
speaking population with given to countries like Czechoslovakia(Sudetenland annexed by Germany) and
Poland which goes against the right to self determination and second war reparations are very high.
c. Political division in France between left wing and right wing.
d. Economic cooperation as Britain fat that a prosperous Germany will also benefit Britain.
e. Fear of Communist Russia, Britain and France considered Communism as a greater threat then nazism
and Fascism.
f. Failures of League of Nations:- British PM Chamberlain believed that personal contact between leaders
will improve relations and Hitler can be civilized given that league has failed on many occasions.
g. In any case, Britain and France were not prepared for a full scale war.

A prologue to World War 2:-

a. Czechoslovakia(today Czech republic and Slovakia exist) a propaganda campaign in Sudetenland. In
support of German population living in this region huge protest were organised, French and Britain wanted
to avoid war and Pm of Czech agreed to handover the region to Hitler. Hitler Wanted immediate entry of
German troops in the region which was not acceptable to Czech.
b. Munich conference:-without inviting Czechoslovakia its regions were given to Germany Poland and
Hungary. Czech were had no support by Britain and France in case of War if they disagreed from the fact.
c. Destruction of Czechoslovakia:- encouraged by Germany, Slovakia and ruthenia declared independence
and ask for German protection. German troops occupied rest of the country. Britain and France protested
but took no action.
d. Poland:- Hitler demanded Danzig region(part of Germany lost due to Treaty of Versailles and had
German speaking population) but Poles(people of Poland) that this is precursor to invasion.
- even Britain pressurized poles to comply but they did not.
- Hitler signed a non-aggression pact with Russia in 1939 and reached a secret agreement to divide the
country(Poland) between USSR and Germany.
e. A full-scale German invasion begin and soon after Britain and France declared War on Germany.

Who/what is responsible for World War 2?

a. Hitler and his policy of Lebensraum (German for "living space").
b. Treaty of Versailles:- a Desire for Revenge from Germans.
c. Failure of League of Nations and its principle of collective security(League of nation was only as powerful
as the participation by the member countries. since, the member countries were using appeasement
politics League of Nations was also unable to do anything and that's why 1930s no one took seriously).
d. Economic crisis, 1929.
e. Appeasers:- Too late to take action against Hitler.
f. USSR:- non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany.
Q) To what extent Germany can be held responsible for causing the two world wars? Discuss critically. 200
words.
NOTE:- See in UPSC mains there are 10 marks questions which word limit is of 150 words(5 to 6 minutes)
there are 12.5 marks question which word limit is of 200 words(7 to 8 minutes) and there are 15 mark
questions which word limit is of 250 words(time limit- 10 to 11 minutes).

The course of the war:-

- allied powers(USA, USSR, UK China, France Poland Yugoslavia Belgium) and axis powers(Germany Italy
Japan Hungary Slovak republic and Croatia).
War can be divided into four phases:-
Phase 1(September 1939-December 1940):-
- German blitzkrieg:-German invasion from all sides air water and land.
Germany and Russia occupied Poland in mid September.
 37
- Phoney War:- not a lot happened. However Russia invaded Estonia Latvia and Finland to defend
themselves from West. the Calm of Phoney war was shattered by Germany when she attack and occupied
Norway and Denmark and later Belgium Holland and France(only Dunkirk remind which is a port city in
France in allied hand and British Navy played a vital role in evacuating about 338,000 Troops from Dunkirk)
were invaded which were Swift victories.
- Battle of Britain:- it was fought between German and British Air Force. Germans were checked by the
royal Air Force demonstrating that they are not Invincible.
- Mussolini invaded Egypt and Greece but italians were driven out by Britain and Greece respectively.
Phase 2(1941 to Summer of 1942)
- Hitler's help to Italy in Greece and Egypt both successful.
- Russia was invaded by Germany in 1941 under Operation barbarossa(this was the three-pronged attack
leningrad Moscow and Ukraine the campaign was successful in Ukraine but what happened on other fronts
first because of rain and second because of severe Frost). Hitler attacked Russia because of the policy of
Lebensraum, and Hitler himself hated communism.
- Pearl Harbour attack:- it was a US Naval base in Hawaiian Islands attacked by Japanese Air Force. This led
to US entry in World War 2. After this attack Japan occupied important areas in Southeast Asia.
Hitler also declared war with USA. However, this was a mistake as Germany now was fighting against the
combined resources of USA USSR and UK.
- brutal behaviour by Germany and Japan:- Nazi's treated people of eastern Europe as a Slave and sent
Jews to be exterminated. Japanese were welcomed in Indo-China but people were harshly treated by
Japanese.
- Germany and Japan seemed Unstoppable while Italy was less successful.
Phase 3(Mid of 1942-1944):-
Three major defeats to Axis powers:-
a. Midway Islands(Group of island in Pacific):- USA defeated Japan in Battle of Midway Island in the Pacific
as Japanese radio code was decoded by USA. This was a crucial turning point in Battle for Pacific
b. El-Alamein:- Germany had attacked Egypt to help Italy. However, they also were driven out by Britain
and New Zealand(Britain Colony). Suez Canal remained in the heads of Britain.
c. Stalingrad:-German forces had reached stalingrad by 1942 but struggled against hard winter and their
supplies were dangerously extended and they lost the battle. Russia counter attacked. USA and Britain
were able to curb the German submarine menus.
Phase 4(mid of 1944-45):-
- Italy was the first to be defeated and it provided air bases to bomb German.
- operation overlord(recapture of France):- Britain and USA invaded Normandy(coastal city in France) this
Day is known as D(doom's) Day. The battle resulted in Liberation of France Belgium and Holland.
- Russia invaded Germany via Poland and was able to reach Berlin before USA and Britain.
- USA wanted and unconditional surrender and did not wanted a negotiated peace.
- by 1945 Germany has lost the war.
- To force Japan to surrender USA dropped nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

why allied powers emerged victorious:-

a. Shortage of raw material:- Italy and Japan were dependent on imports and even Germany was shot of
oil.
b. The axis success dependent on quick victories which did not come in the later part of the war mainly due
to British air power.
c. Allied learn the importance of air power and Aircraft carriers at the sea and focused on their production.
Japan failed to understand this importance.
d. The allied had huge resources from USA, USSR and British Commonwealth(including Colony).
e. Axis powers opened a lot many fronts at the same time.
f. Mussolini proved to be an incompetent general and Hitler rescued him twice. First in North Africa and
second in Italy.
 38
h. Hitler had not accounted for Russian winter and did not Retreat from stalingrad at the oportun time.
i. USSR has moved its factories to the east of Ural mountains away from the theatre of the war.
j. Nazi's and Japanese treated the conquered people like slaves. Had they provided decent treatment these
people could have provided them support to fight against allies.

Consequences of World War 2:-

a. Destruction:- more than 40 million people were killed of which half were Russians. Other examples are
holocaust, nuclear bomb in Japan, etc.
b. Balance of power:- the European domination ended with World War 2 and balance of power shifted to
USA and USSR. the world became bipolar which also caused cold war.
c. Third world concept emerged:-the third world meant to be non allied who were suspicious of both
Communism and capitalism.
d. Nuclearization:- World War 2 led to production of nuclear weapons and later nuclear rivalry.
e. Decolonization.
f. United Nation was established in 1945 for maintenance of world peace, rights of individuals and socio-
economic development.
g. Peace settlements:- many separate treaties were signed. Italy lost all its African colonies; Japan
surrender all the territories acquired in past 90 years(complete withdrawal from China after World War 2);
USSR refuse the any settlement over Germany and Austria except that they would remain under
occupation of allied Troops.

LECTURE 12:-
What is Thucidyte's Trap.
There would be a sense of fear in the minds of stronger Nation if a smaller nation is becoming a stronger
Nation.
Cold war:-
After World War 2, to the world was divided into two blocs i.e. Communist bloc led by USSR and capitalist
bloc led by USA. The two superpowers competed for hegemony in domains of economy, Science and
Technology politics and military.
Europe itself was divided into communist Eastern Europe and capitalist Western Europe.
It is called Cold War because USA and USSR did not fight directly and all the wars fought among third
countries remains localised.
Reasons behind cold war:-
a. Ideologies:- Two equal powers with different ideologies of state society and government clubbed with
completing military political and economic interest.
b. Old Suspicions:- during Russian Revolution, bolshevik had tried to spread Communism in rest of Europe
while during Russian civil war the western powers had sent troops to fight on this side of whites.
- During the World War 2, Britain and France delayed opening the second front against the Germany until
1944. Stalin believe that it was a deliberate attempt to destroy USSR.
- the appeasement politics of Britain and France created division between USSR and other European
countries.
c. Clash of interests of classes:- workers supported communism while the propertied class supported
capitalism. thus, many other countries and their population have stakes in one form of economic system
rather than the other.
- USSR and US would not have been able to interfere in internal affairs of third country without local
support(workers supported communism while the propertied class supported capitalism).
d. Domino effect:- US feared that if one country is allowed to become communist then neighbouring
countries will follow the suite.
e. Failure of United Nations:- Lack of power to UN, lack of confidence of major world powers in United
Nations, lack of impartiality.
 39
f. Role of leaders:- Stalin tried to occupy as much as territory possible in Eastern Europe. Roosevelt and his
successor Truman were suspicious of USSR. Marshall plan and Truman doctrine also fuel the cold war.
Vincent Churchill iron Curtain speech did not help the situation.

Yalta and potsdam conference:-

Yalta conference happened in February 1945:-Roosevelt Stalin and Churchill.
- declaration of liberated Europe. The three allied powers were to assit countries of Europe to established
democratic Institutions through free and fair elections.
- United Nations would be formed to replace League of Nations.
- Austria Vienna and Germany would be divided into occupation zones of Britain USA and USSR.
- In Poland there was a polish communist government set up by Russia but there was also a government in
exile in London. Stalin had agreed some members in exile good join the polish communist government.
- Stalin agreed to join war against Japan on the condition that it would get the oil rich Sakhlin Island, Kuril
island and some parts of manchurian. Stalin support against Japan was conditional in nature.

Potsdam conference(July 1945):-

On many issues Disagreement immersed,
- unification of four zones of Germany.
- The polish communist government control in some parts of Germany.
- Stalin was not informed to drop nuclear bombs on Japan which happened two days after the conference.
Q) While the Issues during yalta and postdam conference was same; the good will to overcome them was
different because the big three Nations no longer needed to stick together. Discuss.

Truemen Doctrine and Marshall plan:-

the Truemen doctrine aimed at following:-
a. To contain communism from spreading to the free world.
b. In coming years, it took the form of:-
- Marshall plan.
- NATO.
- military race.
- political interference and Rigging elections in third countries. Examples:- Italy, Iran, Nicaragua, El
Salvador, etc.
- Spy game.
Marshall plan:-
This was called European recovery program. it aimed at helping Europe in quick recovery from devastation
caused by the war. it led to prosperity of West Germany and West Berlin that was in stark contrast with
poverty in East Germany.
As a response, Stalin counter Marshall plan with Molotov Plan and NATO with Warsaw pact.

Berlin blockade and airlift:-

In 1944, USSR closed all links between West Berlin and West Germany. it wanted to starve west berlin and
therefore forced USA and Britain to withdraw and capture whole of Berlin. It took the action because
because of Stark contrast in prosperity between East and West Germany.
Lot of people from east Germany were defecting to west Germany to nullified the blockade US airlfted and
dropped food supplies in Berlin for one year.
The blockade failed and USSR was forced to remove it.
What is mccarthyism(1950-54)?
- McCarthyism (or McCarranism as some scholars have suggested) is the practice of making accusations of
subversion and treason, especially when related to communism and socialism.
 40
- mccarthy was a US Senator who got heavily engaged in anti communist propaganda after World War 2 To
at suspected presence of Soviet Spys everywhere. Anyone who prescribed socialist policies or argued to
caution in foreign policy against communist were branded as a traitor.
By 1954, mccarthy was discredited and today the term mccarthyism is referred to a practice of making
acquisition of disloyalty, Subversion or treason without proper regard of evidence.

KOREAN WAR:-
Between North and South Korea there lies 38th parallel line.
Korea was annexed by japan in 1910 and remained under Japan until World War 2. after which Korea was
divided so that USA and USSR could jointly organised the Japanese surrender and withdrawl of USA USSR
Troops. United Nations and US wanted free election for whole the country as they were sure of their
victory.
US also did not want a revision of Germany Korea. However, USSR opposed these elections and soon after
in 1948 Republic of Korea(South Korea) was created and elections were held under UN supervision. soon
after USSR created a democratic People's Republic of Korea(North Korea) under a communist government
Kim-IL-Sung.
In 1949, both Russian and US troops were withdrawn but leaders of both North and South Korea claimed
the right to rule over whole of the region.
The war started when North Korea(backing of China) had invaded South Korea in a bid to unite the
country. US got alarmed when North Korea was in the verge of victory it(USA) decided to send its troops.
It was a US intervention under the cloak of UN. although, the UNSC Resolution was only to restore the 38th
parallel line USA extracted further approval for invading North Korea.
China had warned US not to invade north because it was threatened by a pro-capitalist neighbourhood(Pro
capitalist Korea).
China intervened militarily and captured Seoul(capital of South Korea).
The UN forces bounce back and finally the Frontier along 38th parallel line was restored.

Consequences of Korean War:-

- The war ended with Armistice(truce agreement- precursor of peace agreement) no peace treaty.hence,
the division between north and South Korea seems permanent.
- An arms race begin which culminated into North Korea becoming a full fledged nuclear power.
- it was the first instance where US intervened militarily during cold war.
- It improved China's image in rest of the world as a military power. Many sections begin to view it as
legitimate claimant of permanent sit of UNSC
- doctrines of MAD(mutually assured destruction), nuclear deterrence, Etc. Came into picture.
Q) the war in Korean Peninsula prove to be disastrous for Korea and missed opportunity for USA and a
winning moment for China. Examine.
Misconception of USA that Korean Peninsula will come under US influence this did not happened.
Because a communist Regime came in existence in Asia other communist government also emerged such
as in Vietnam.
At the same time USA was not able to tackle China where China was not recognised by major Nations.
At that time this capitalist ideology was unable to contain Communism which was a important component
of Truman doctrine.
Role of NAM.

LECTURE 13:-
Vietnam War:-
Indo-China refers to Southeast Asian countries comprising of Laos Vietnam and Cambodia. It was part of
French colonial Empire however came under Japanese occupation during World War 2. communist
organisations started their resistance against Japanese and after Japanese defeat in World War 2 when
 41
French refused to decolonize Indo-China. The communist begin their struggle for independence against
France.
The party was Vietminh under Ho chi minh. This struggle is known as first Indo China war, 1946-54. In this
war, USSR and China supported the Communist Party(Vietminh) while French were supported by USA.
thus, Vietnam became the part of cold war.
French were weak and could not deal with guerrilla war tactics. Finally in 1954, under Geneva agreement
Laos Vietnam and Cambodia were given independence and Vietnam(North and South Vietnam) was
divided along 17th parallel line.
Elections where to be held in 1956 in which Ho Chi minh was confident of victory. thus, the government in
South Vietnam refused to hold election(elections were withheld). This resulted into a civil war in South
Vietnam with a aim of uniting the country.
Because of the fear of Domino effect, USA directly entered into Vietnam and started supporting South
Vietnam. USSR and China also got involved and supported the communist.

USA efforts in Vietnam:-

a. Under John F Kennedy(1961-63):-
He started a safe village policy which entailed moving peasants into safe villages and thus, isolating the
revolutionaries.
He kept US role to a minimum and limited to anti guerrilla campaign.
John F Kennedy was assassinated and he bombed.
NOTE:- John F Kennedy was assassinated during Vietnam War after Cuban missile crisis.
b. Under Johnson(1963-1969):-
He bombed North Vietnam from 1965 to 1968 as he believed that to win war North Vietnam needs to be
destroyed. Under him, USA got heavily involved and sent a million US troops to south Vietnam.
He had to stop bombing due to high public opposition within and outside USA.
c. Under Richard Nixon(1969-1974):-
USA did not send more Troops, in gradual manner US troops were withdrawn. However simultaneously
South Vietnam was armed to resist the communist.
Finally the US failed and it had to withdraw from Vietnam due to following reasons:-
- Huge public support. There was a wide support for Vietcong(the guerrilla division of communist National
Liberation front) and National Liberation front also there a huge public grievance against the Government
of South Vietnam.
- guerrilla attack:- Vietcong was very efficient in its guerrilla campaign and camouflaging. This camouflaging
technique helped the guerrillas to defeat US safe village policy.
- Ho Chi minh trail:-it was a supply route use by North Vietnam to supply Food arms and aid to South
Vietnam. USA was never able to destroy the supply line.
- support from USSR and China:- the support in the form of arms and supplies was crucial for Vietcong
victory.
- resilience of North Vietnamese:-despite high casuality they continued to resist US. The 1973, all US troops
were withdrawn. In 1975, Viet cong brought South Vietnam under its control and the country was
reunited.
Thus, US policy of containment in Southeast Asia had failed.
- the public in USA became more vocal against US participation in Vietnam.

CUBA:-
In 1898, US has helped cuba to gain Independence from Spain. However, resentment against US only
increased which caused Cuban Revolution(1953-59). This was due to following reasons:-
a. Interference in internal affairs:- US troops were deployed in Cuba to restore order.
b. Control over economy:- US companies owned more than 50% land in Cuba. 3/5th of Railways, all
electricity production, controlling share holding in all cuban industries.
c. Cuba was heavily dependent on US for its exports and US aid.
 42
d. Social issues:- there was huge inequality in the society. thus, increasing the social tension.
e. Governance issues:- In 1952, general Batista a former Army Sergeant came to power and began to rule
like a dictator. His Regime was brutal and corrupt and also played in the hands of USA.
Feudal Castro a revolutionary with the support of cheguvera overthrew general Batista and in 1959 came
to power.
Feudal Castro in power:-
USA did not accept castro coming to power in Cuba. Castro introduced a series of economic reforms such
as redistribution of land, subsidised education and health, nationalisation of oil refineries.
In response, USA put sanctions on Cuba and stopped buying Cuban sugar.
Because of this trade embargo Cuba and USSR came closer as USSR promised to buy Cuban sugar.
Bay of pigs invasion:-
It was a US supported invasion of cuba by Cubans in exile in USA. US forces did not participated in the
invasion. However the Attack was foil and cuban defence led by feudal Castro himself won the battle in 72
hours. After this Cuba declared itself as a communist state and cemented the one party system.
Cuban missile crisis 1962:-
Cuba had agreed to keep Soviet nuclear missiles. This was done by USSR because of the following reasons:-
- tensions in Berlin:- Nikita Kruscheva wanted to use this opportunity to pressurise US, Britain and France
to withdraw from West Berlin.
- Vietnam War had begun where US was directly intervening militarily.
- To show solidarity with feudal Castro.
- presence of us missiles in Turkey which was very much close to USSR border.
- this was a time when world reached on the brink of nuclear war. USA begin blockade of Cuba to keep out
Russian ships bringing missiles to Cuba.
Finally in 1963, UN negotiated a compromise between John F Kennedy and Nikita krusheva whereby:-
a. USSR remove the missiles from Cuba.
b. USA removed its missiles from Turkey.
c. A hotline was established between Washington and Moscow.
d. Russia US and Britain signed a nuclear test Ban treaty in 1963.

Development in USSR under Stalin:-

When Stalin came to power, Russia faced food shortages, poor military, poor industry and increasing
influence of capitalist West. He introduced following reforms to deal with these challenges:-
a. Five year plans were introduced with focus on heavy industries.
b. Nationalisation of industries.
c. Abandoning the new economic policy.
d. Collectivisation of agriculture by violet eviction.
e. Re-militarization.
f. Aggressive foreign policy which viewed Western power as hostile.
g. a totalitarian regime which was characterized by greater use of secret police and killing any voice of
decent.
h. Zero tolerance against separatism. Stalin had no sympathy towards demand of autonomy by an non-
Russian part of USSR.
USSR after Stalin:-
Stalin died in 1953 and Nikita Kruschev came to power. his regime is reffered as Destalinization. His
reforms can be summarised as follows:-
- political reforms:-
> primacy of the party was restored and cult of personality was abandoned.
> use of secret police was decreased and relatively more freedom of speech was given.
> cold war continued. However, he tried to reduce tension with the west.
- industrial reform:-
> The five year plans continued but focus shifted to consumer goods.
 43
> decentralization in management of economy was attempted.
> incentives were given to make profit rather than just meeting the Quota's.
- agricultural reforms:-
> cultivation in huge land tracts in which were un-used(virgin land scheme) till now was started. The
scheme failed because of poor quality of the land.

Disintegration of USSR under Mikhail Gorbachev:-

Gorbachev recognised the failures of Soviet economic system and the role played by regressive hardline
communism in public dissatisfaction. He tried to improve this situation by taking following measures:-
a. Improving relationship with the west and China.
b. Glasnost(openness):- this was the policy of openness in the area of politics, human rights and cultural
affairs. It's aim was to publicize the inefficiency and corruption within the Communist Party to the masses.
Important leaders who were exiled were allowed to return to Moscow, ban on anti-Stalin movies and
novels, freedom in media reporting was allowed,
c. Prestroika(socio-economic reforms):- Gorbachev wanted to create competition for the PSUs to improve
their efficiency.
Private MSMEs like family restaurants, family business, handicrafts, etc. were allowed.
Element of election was introduced in factories as well as local soviets.
Gorbachev had hoped for economic prosperity and greater acceptance for the Communist Party. however,
his reforms backfired and people became more critical about the party. There was a huge opposition to
Gorbachev within the party as some demanded more reforms while others were critical of these reforms.
Boris Yeltsin(Leader) used this opportunity to undermine the authority of Gorbachev and soon there was a
split in the party between the left wing conservative(hold onto the existing system) and right wing
liberals(wanted economic reforms).
The Economic reforms of Gorbachev did not yeild quick results. For example:- he provided incentives in
terms of wages which were a function of the output of the factories(more output More money) but the
problem was the output was calculated in the terms of value of goods produced; thus, the factories
focused on expensive goods at the cost of consumer goods. Because of the very same policy the workers in
coal mines were enraised and a series of strikes happened. USSR in general and Siberia in particular.
Russian culture was imposed on bordering states of USSR. these States wanted their own Parliament and
their own party system. Gorbachev was sympathetic to their demand provided that the Communist Party
remained overall incharge. But did small concessions led to a Domino effect into disintegration of USSR.

Fall of communism from Eastern Europe:-

The communist government was first ousted from Poland in 1989 which had a Domino effect and one by
one all communist regimes finally fell. In Hungary free elections were held and communist were defeated.
In East Germany, the communist government was forced to resign. In 1989 the Berlin Wall was breached
and in 1990 Germany was reunited.
In Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, Albania the communist government were overthrown
and multi party elections were held.
Shock Therapy:-
The collapse of Communist regime of USSR resulted into formation of new Nations. It resulted from the
failure of communist regime. Hence, a solution appeared to be the alternative model of capitalism and free
market. The model of transition in these countries form a socialist authoritarian system to a democratic
capitalist system under the influence of World Bank and IMF came to be known as Shock Therapy.
It had following features:-
a. Complete privatisation of state assets and collective farms.
b. Free trade Regime and allowing foreign direct investment(FDI).
c. Deregulating the economy and a free floating currency.
d. Integration of these Economics with the west.
 44
- these measures resulted in unexpected results and rather than boosting the economics the economy
suffered. for example:- the industries of these countries collapsed; the government held public sectors
Were are greatly undervalued and sold to general public. Since public did not had money to buy they
eventually went into the hands of Mafia.
This was called the largest garage sale in history.
It led to rise of oligarchies(group of people ruling) in the countries.
The value of currency declined sharply and rate of inflation was so high that people lost all their savings
and banks and Financial Institutions became bankrupt.
The collective farm system disintegrated generating a food crisis.
The old system of social welfare was destroyed and subsidiaries withdrawn throwing many into poverty
and joblessness.
More attention was given to restructuring economy compared to construction of Democratic institutions. It
resulted into coming of autocratic regions in many of these countries.
Only by 2000s these economics revived when they adopted an independent economic path without
interference from Western countries.
Q) United States entered the Vietnam War incrementally in a series of steps between 1950 and 1965.
Elucidate. Also analyse the reasons for American failure in the war.
Q) the cold war was a Geopolitical, ideological and economic struggle between two worlds superpowers.
discuss what were the factors responsible for the end of cold war.
Q) To what extent reforms taken by Gorbachev be held responsible for breakup of Soviet Union.
NOTE:- Spend 9 minutes in the 15 marker questions.

LECTURE 14:-
Decolonization:- it refers to the withdrawal of colonial powers from their colonies especially in the
Aftermath of World War 2. Between 1945 and 1960 more than 30 States in Asia and Africa achieved
autonomy or outline Independence from their colonial rulers.
Decolonization happened both because of local and global factors.
Local factors:-
a. Nationalist movements:- there was a general feeling in the colony that they are been exploited by the
Europeans. The development and prosperity of the colonies were being held back in the interest of Europe.
For example:- India and Vietnam.
Under neo-colonialism the new countries are still dependent upon colonial countries.
Under neo-imperialism Puppet regime was established.
b. Direct occupation was no longer needed to exploit the resources of other country.
Global factors:-
a. Effects of World War 2:-
> Japanese success in early part of the war showed that it was possible for non Europeans to defeat
European Armies.
> The occupational power did not have enough resources to maintain rule on another country.
> Thevar also not militarily strong enough to hold on to their Empires.
b. European policies during the war encouraged colonial people to expect Independence after World War
2.
c. Asians and Africans became more aware of social and political matters. As a result of their involvement
in the war fought in foreign lands.
d. USSR denounced imperialism and colonialism. Similarly USA pressurized colonizers to speed-up the
Independence process. hence, cold war also played a role in decolonization.
e. UN was firmly against imperialism and demanded a step-by-step programe for decolonization.
f. NAM palyed an important role In decolonization.

Decolonization in Westindies:-
 45
A group of islands in Caribbean Sea. For example the largest island is Jamaica, Trinidad(second largest), etc.
Britain was ready to give them independence but there were problems that has some islands very very
much small and their were doubts whether there will be viable as independent States. For example:- Saint
Vincent, antigua, etc.
Britain proposed a federation for this scattered territories but many of them objected because except
cricket there was no common ground in these Island States.
Federation did not function successfully because larger islands feared that only they will contribute to the
budget while the smaller Islands feared interference form larger Islands.
Britain had to abandon the idea of Federal Nation and Independence was given to them separately.
Later these Island Nations realised the significance of cooperation and formed a Caribbean community and
common market known as caricom.

Decolonization in Malay Peninsula:-

Malaysia and Singapore.
It was liberated from Japanese occupation in 1945. But there were two main problem; Complex area and
multiracial population which included malay's Chinese Indians and Europeans. there were nine States each
ruled by Sultan, two British settlement.
A Federation of Malay Peninsula was set up in 1948 with Singapore as a separate Colony.
Chinese communist guerrilla's wanted to set up a communist government after which Britain declared
emergency. However most of the people in Malay's give little help to communist.
Malay party under Tunku Abdul Rahman won 51 out of 52 seats.
In 1957, region was given Independence and Federation of Malaysia was set up in 1963.
Singapore decided to leave the Federation and Brunei did not joined.

Decolonization in Cyprus:-
It is an island country in Eastern Mediterranean sea. It had a mixed population of greek speaking
Christians(80%) and Muslims of Turkish origin(20%). Greeks wanted to unite with Greece but Turks were
opposed to it. later Britain decided to keep Cyprus as a military base and it had to face huge resistance
from the local population. As a compromise, Cyprus was granted Independence. britain retained two
military bases and President and Vice Presidents were Greeks and Turks respectively. However a civil war
broke out in 1963 between Turks and Greeks. Turkey sent troops establish a separate Turkish state and till
now Cyprus remain divided with Turkey occupying north and Greece South.

Decolonization of Africa over Britain:-

British colonies felt into three distinct groups:-
a. West Africa:- Ghana(Gold Coast), Nigeria Gambia and Sierra Leone.
- In Ghana the Nationalist leader Kwame Nkurmah and his convention people's party organised campaign
for independence. He was educated in London and USA and had support of masses. In 1951, his party won
majority of seats and was invited to become prime minister.
A small group of politicians for next 5 years were trained in administration under British supervision.
- in Nigeria, Azikiwe the leading Nationalist who founded a series of newspapers and organised strikes who
was also educated in USA. A federal system was setup because of the regional differences between tribes.
The country got independence in 1960. However, a civil war broke out in 1967 due to regional differences.
Q) the anti colonial struggle in West Africa were led by the new Elite of Western educated Africans.
Examine.
Q) what problems were germane to the decolonization process of Malay Peninsula.

b. East Africa:-Kenya Uganda and Tanzania.

In Tanzania, Dr. Julius Kambarage Nyerere led the Independence struggle. He adopted a re-conciliatory
approach towards the whites and promised them a fair treatment to them under the black majority rule.
The country became independent in 1961.
 46
NOTE:- those settlers do not returned back to their home country because they were in power in the
Colonial country and Britain cannot absorb more number of settlers.
In Uganda the Independence was delayed due to tribal rivalry as a solution a Federal government was set
up with dr. Obote with the first Prime Minister.
In Kenya British faced the challenge of reconciliation between the whites and the blacks. Kenya was under
the rule of white settlers who violently opposed the black majority rule.
These white settlers also got a lot of support from big business lobby in Britain. Black started a terror
campaign under Mau Mau secret society. Emergency was declared in 1952 and Britain had to sent its
troops to tackle the terrorist campaign.
The highly respected leader of Kenya Jomo Kenyatta, who was a moderate became the first Prime Minister
after the British attitude in Kenya and they granted Independence to the country.
Jomo Kenyatta followed the policy of reconciliation between whites and blacks. However the tribal
differences continued to cause problems.

c. Central Africa:- Malwai, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

The issue of white settlers was the biggest challenge in Central Africa especially in Zimbabwe. White
settlers of Zimbabwe demanded a central African Federation. However, this was seen as a distrust and
many leaders campaign for black majority rule.
The Malwai and Sophia got independence in 1963.
Zimbabwe:- the conservative government of Britain was adamant that Independence will only be given if
black Africans get 1/3rd seat in Parliament and the labour government advocated for black majority.
NOTE:- Zimbabwe was also known as Southern Rhodesia.
Ian Smith(Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia) rejected the idea and declared unilateral independence in
1965.
Britain impose the economic sanctions. However, Rhodesia was able to do trade with many countries such
as Mozambique and South Africa.
Only in 1976, white seems to compromise because:-
a. Mozambique got independence from Portugal in 1975.
b. Many African Nations supported arm struggle of blacks.
c. Nationalist guerrillas controlled large area of countryside.
d. USA urged to make concessions as they feared growing USSR influence in the country.
e. Finally election was organised and Robert Gabriel Mugabe came to power with the sweeping victory.

Decolonization of French colonies:-

French tried to suppress all Nationalist agitation regarding it as high treason as a part of Brazzaville
declaration.
a. Indo China:- during the war, the region was occupied by Japanese forces and after war Ho chi Man
declared Independence which was unacceptable to France. After a 8 year of armed struggle, French were
defeated and at Geneva conference 1954 Vietnam Laos and Cambodia were declared independent.
b. Morocco and Tunisia:- in both these countries, French Troops had to thwart the guerrilla tactics of
Nationalist. also these guerrilla were slowly drifting towards a left wing ideology fearing the cost of a
prolonged engagement and a possible communist takeover. Morocco and Tunisia were given
independence in 1956.
c. Algeria:-
- settler factor had the most serious consequences in Algeria. In 1954, out of 10 million population 1 million
were French settlers. No French government dared Independence to Algeria due to:-
a. Possible backlash by the French settlers.
b. Lobbying groups in France.
c. Division of public opinion.
d. French Army wanted to secure its reputation after losses in Indo China.
e. French government feared a military coup if Independence was given to Algeria.
 47
f. Algerians had started a guerrilla war and French Army pressurized the government to take a hard stand.
When the government refused, it had to resign because of military pressure.
General De gaulle, former military general became the Prime Minister he came to power with a new
constitution and the 4th French Republic came to an end.
After coming to power, De gaulle decided to hold negotiations with algerians which led to a faction of
military starting a terror campaign in both Algeria and France.
deceased power in Algeria and attempted assassination of general De gaulle.
Because of this terror campaign as well as leadership of general De gaulle the French public opinion shifted
in the favour of granting Independence to Algeria. Algeria became an independent Nation with Ben Bella as
their first president. However, after independence algerian Muslims who had remained loyal to France
were executed. thus, algerian independence was one of the most bloody wars of independence.
Q) comparing the process of decolonization in Asia and Africa. Explain why did it take longer for African
countries to gain independence.
- in Asia Britain has much more colonies and in Africa France have a lot many colonies and in Asia the
Independence struggle started very early and in Africa it is only after the World War 2 the Independence
movement started.
Ethnicity issue in Africa and many internal issues such as tribal conflicts in Africa.
White settlers factor in Africa.
Issue of racism, Apartheid.
USA directly participated in Asia but not in Africa.
Asia was economically more prosperous than Africa.
Q) compare and contrast British decolonization with French decolonization.
British was at least accepted the concept of self rule and French were completely against.
Internal difference in France.

Dutch decolonization:-
DUTCH EAST-INDIES(contemporary Indonesia):-
Leaders like doctor Sukarno were leading the Nationalist struggle even before World War 2. Many of the
leaders were arrested. However during World War 2 Japan released Sukarno from jail and gave the natives
a share in administration. japan sought support in the war in exchange of independence.
After the war, Sukarno declared independent Republic of Indonesia but dutch wanted to hold on to their
colonies.
A guerrilla Warfare started, there was pressure from United Nations, pressure from USA and Australia
because of all these factors a Dominion status was given in 1949. However in 1950 Sukarno broke the
Dominion status and got complete Independence.
In 1965, there was a military coup against doctor Sukarno and a military general Suharto came to power.

Belgium decolonization:- Belgium(Rwanda-burundi and congo).

Belgium try to hold on to its colonies by denying any education to natives and to use tribal rivalries.
In Congo there was a sudden protest in 1959 against unemployment and poor standard of living. Congo
was given independence because Belgium feared costly guerrilla War. However after the Independence
Chaos erupted in the country because the natives had no education, no experience in administration and
no doctors , lawyers, engineers, etc.
A civil war erupted in 1960 and continued till 1964.
Rwanda-burundi were given independence in 1962 as two nations both governed by TUTSI Tribe(rich
farmers). Both suffered conflict in violence Hutu and Tutsi with a genocide in Rwanda in 1994.

Spanish decolonization:- Franco had little interest in these colonies. However, he resisted the call for
independence for Spanish Sahara till his death in 1975. This was because Sahara was rich in phosphorus
which was important for Spanish industries.
After the death of Franco Sahara was divided and handed over to to Morocco and mauritania.
 48
the Polisario front was the moment for Sahara independence and they declared democratic Arab Republic
of Sahara as an independent in 1976.
Algeria and Libya had sent their Troops which resulted into mauritania to giving up its parts and similarly
moroccans were also on the verge of defeat. However this was rescued by USA as USA saw the Saharan
question as a part of cold war.
The war continued in 1980s and Morocco occupied the entire Sahara. In 1990 United Nation proposed a
referendum but Morocco rejected this proposal.
Currently Sahrwai Arab Democratic Republic(SADR) control 25% of Western Sahara and rest is under
Moroccan control.

Portugal Decolonization:-
Mozambique Angola and Guinea.
Portuguese followed a policy of brutal repression against Nationalist Movement in their colonies. They
wanted to hold on to their colonies however because of independence of many African Nations. The moral
of Nationalist was boosted. Guerrilla Warfare technique started in on all these colonies.
Dr. Salazar(right wing Prime Minister of Portugal) wanted to maintain its colonies. However, by 1973 40%
of the Portuguese budget went to protecting these colonies. In an armed coup Salazar was overthrown in
1974 and the three countries became independent.

Italian decolonization:- Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea and Somalia.

After defeat in World War 2, the colonies of Italy were given to Britain and France as mandate them to
prepare for independence. United Nations later decided to place them under government which happens
to be aligned with the west.

Problems in Africa after decolonization:-

Many African Nations suffered from common set of problems such as:-
- tribal differences. ex:-Nigeria Congo Burundii Rwanda.
- economic backwardness. No industries, dependence on one or two commodities for export, shortage of
capital and skill, dependence on aid given by USA and Europe, corrupt political problems, corrupt
governments and military coups.
- economic and natural disaster:-because of severe drought, many African Nations have suffered from
famine.
-outbreak of HIV AIDS.

NEO-colonialism:- postcolonial studies have shown extensively that despite achieving independence the
influences of colonialism are still very much present in the lives of most former colonies.
This as an idea was popularised by Kwame Nkurnch in his essay neo colonialism-the last stage of
imperialism.
Methods of Neo colonialism:-
a. Use of foreign aid and loan.
- The rich States used their capacity to give foreign aid and loans as a means for securing a desired change
in the economic policies of poor Nations. For example:-lowering of trade barrier, agreement for economic
cooperation, etc.
b. Using International institutions:-Institutions like World Bank and IMF, etc. Have been controlled by
western countries loan and aid from these institutions come at a cost.
c. Use of multinational corporations(MNCs):- through several Monopoly rights and International patents.
MNCs generate huge profit in poor Nations. International firms like general motors, IBM, standard oil have
more power then most of the sovereign Nations.
d. Through supply of arms and ammunitions:-newly independent States suffered from internal conflicts
and tensions. The powerful state used the supply of weapons and military equipments as the means of
exercising control.
 49
e. Direct interference in internal political matter:- by supporting puppet regime and securing desired
military and civilian coup. For example:-Congo, Nigeria, etc.
- Soviet intervention in Poland Afghanistan Czechoslovakia and the American intervention in Latin
American countries is termed as neo imperialism.
The idea of neo colonialism is also criticized by some scholars as they feel that many African Nations
became independent in haste and for their economic reconstruction loans and aids were necessary also a
lot of development in African countries occoured during Colonial rule.

Apartheid in South Africa:-

The word Apartheid means apartness in Afrikaans. It was a political and economic system of brutal racial
discrimination by the whites against the native South African and other non-white immigrants.
It was an political and economic system of brutal racial discrimination by the whites against the native
South Africans and other non white immigrants.
It was introduced by Dr Malan in 1948(now it is a state policy and before it it also aparthite existed).
The practices under it included:-
a. Racial physical segregation of people.
b. Racial identification card.
c. Provision of interracial marriage or procreation.
d. All the top positions were occupied by whites while Black had menial jobs.
- originally the resistance against Apartheid was of civil disobedience movement based on Gandhian ideas.
However in 1950s, more aggressive campaign started and an armed uprising was called by African National
Congress(ANC) led by Nelson Mandela.
Forums like United Nation(UN), OAU(organisation for African Union), NAM(non aligned movement)
strongly criticised Apartheid. Gradually the white minority government had to face resistance both
externally and internally.
Finally in 1992, elections happened. Nelson Mandela was elected as the President of New South Africa. His
biggest influence on the new South Africa was his personal determination that anger over the crimes of the
past including his 27 years as a political prisoner should not motivate future laws and actions. he envisaged
a rainbow Nation where all races can co-exist in harmony.

China:-
Era after 1911:-
1911 revolution(against centralised Qing Empire):-
Reasons:-
a. Growing population and expanding economic needs.
b. European influence in China and humiliating treaties imposed upon it.
c. Crashing of taipin rebellion(1850-1864) not by Central Army but by provincial Army.
d. Defeat by Japan in 1894-95.
e. Young Western educated Chinese. For example:- Dr. Sun Yat Sen.
f. Defeat by Japan in 1894-95.
Most provinces declared themselves independent of Beijing. The government ruling on the behalf of a
child Emperor called a retired military general Yuan Shikai for help. However he collaborated with
revolutionaries and became military Dictator.
During World War 1, Japan had sought to take advantage and made 21 demands which were humiliating in
nature.
Yuan tried to became Emperor with Japanese help but his was a fatal mistake and army turned against
him.
The country disintegrated in 100s of States is controlled by a war lord and a his private Army. This is known
as warlord era(1916-1928).

MAY THE FOURTH MOVEMNET(1919):-

 50
This was a Huge demonstration by students of Beijing who protested against warlords, demanded boycott
of Japanese goods, modernisation of Chinese culture, etc.
The movement was successful and ministers who have signed 21 demands were sacked.

KUOMINTANG PARTY(KMT)/National people's party:-

Founded by Dr Sun Yat Sen. It had three major objectives:-
a. Nationalism:- To Get rid of foreign influence and make a strong China.
b. Democracy:- rule by people and not by warlords.
c. Land reforms:- Land redistribution.
Dr. Sun Yat sen was a respected leader both as a intellectual Statesman and revolutionary. KMT came to
power after may the force movement. However, until the KMT army were built he had to rely on alliances
with warlords and faced difficulty in achieving his aims.
After his death, CHIANG KAI SHEK became the leader of KMT. It detasted communist and organised two
campaigns; first to destroy the warlords and second to communist. However the Promises of land
distribution and democracy remained a distinct dream.

Chinese Communist Party(CCP) under the leadership of Mao zedong(founded in 1921).

The Communist Party walked to win mass support by peasants in initial years. During extermination
campaign against the communism Mao and supporters spent most of their energy in Survival. However
they gained a lot of support because of the following reasons:-
a. Inefficiency and corruption of KMT.
b. Poor industrial condition and Peasant poverty.
c. A new life movement was started by Chiang who wanted to return to traditional values of confucianism.
This was considered by many as a backward step.
d. KMT put up no effective resistance to Japanese in their invasion to manchurian region of China and
rather it right to destroy communist. though, China was defeated by Japan regions controlled by
communists remained undefeated.
After World War 2, CCP directly challenged KMT Army and successfully defeated them with the help of
USSR. Chiang fled with supporters to Taiwan and people's Republic of China(PRC) established in 1949.
Q) differentiate between colonialism and neocolonialism with examples.
Q) explain the meaning of apartheid system in context of South Africa. Also give a brief account of the
struggle to abolish it.

Lecture 16:-
Hundred flowers campaign.
Great Leap Forward.
Cultural revolution.

China under Mao zedong:-

When Mao zedong came to power the country's economy was crippled and it had just got out of a Civil
War. Mao zedong introduced following reforms:-
- agriculture:- by 1956 95% of the peasants were in collective farm with joint ownership. Land
redistribution happened via valid methods.
- industrialisation:- nationalisation of business, five year plan, focus on heavy industries. However Mao
zedong has doubts regarding China's preparedness of heavy industries.
- hundred flowers campaign:- this was an platform for open discussion and constructive criticism between
new class of technicians and party cadres. However the critics attack the party on Incompetence over-
centralisation and undemocratic practices. Mao zedong called off the campaign and clamped down on his
critics. Mao zedong Felt that there was still opposition to communism and he adopted a great Leap
forward to consolidate communism.
- great Leap Forward:-
 51
a. Establishment of communes:- these communes were units larger than collective farms containing up to
75,000 people.
They work as local governments and carried out collective farms every family e received a share of profit
and small private land.
b. Small scale industry in countryside instead of large scale industries were introduced. For example:-
backyard still furnaces.
c. Communes also took care of other activities such as roads canals dams reservoirs irrigation channels, etc.
Issues with communes:-
a. A series of bad harvest, withdrawn of Russian aid, lack of experience, etc. Because of great Leap Forward
coupled with famine in 1959-60 about 20 million people died prematurely.
However by 1970s, both agricultural and industrial production had increased substantially. China was self
sufficient in grain production. Communes proved to be a successful innovation.
There were other benefits of Commune system:-
> the central government remained in touch with local opinion.
> employment in labour intensive sector.
> spread of education and welfare services.
> improvement of position of women.
- Cultural revolution:- this was because of the backlash of great Leap Forward.
Because of the backlash of the great Leap Forward; Mao zedong introduced cultural revolution. It was an
attempt to keep the revolution alive and great leap on a pure communist course.
This was an attempt to check the over-bureaucratisation of party. Mao zedong appealed to his RED
GAURD(mostly students) who toured the country are going Mao's cause.
Young people were urged to move into countryside and work on Farms. However it brought chaos and
close to Civil War as red guard attacked anybody in authority not limited to critics of Mao.
Many were arrested for committing excesses and by 1969 cultural Revolution ended. However, Mao was a
declared free of all the blame.
Q) whatever it faults the China of today is very much the creation of Mao zedong. In his contacts highlight
the problems that Mao zedong faced after the communist victory in 1949 and steps taken by him to deal
with it.
Q) the cultural revolution in China was an example of cult of personality leading to wide spread
destruction. Comment.

Middle East:-
Israel Palestine conflict:-
Abrahamic religion include Christianity Judaism and Islam.
World zionist organisation(found in 1897) started a campaign for creation of Jewish Homeland. After World
War 1, Britain Got Palestine as a mandate. However in 1917, Britain had favoured creation of
Israel(Balfour(British diplomat) declaration).
In the next decade, the influx of jews population in Palestine increased whitch alerted Palestinians and
other Arab States.
the Zionist terrorism started after World War 2 which targeted Arabs and Britishers who opposed Jewish
influx. When this situation got out of hand, Britain asked for UN help as it was unable to maintain peace. It
also withdrew its troops from Palestine.
In 1947, UN voted to divide Palestine into two half and the state of Israel came into existence. Immediately
after its creation Israel was attacked by Syria, Iraq Jordan Lebanon Egypt.
This was the first Arab Israeli war in 1948.
Result of the war:-
a. Israel captured the Egyptian port of Eilat.
b. It captured three fourth of Palestine more than it was given by UN.
c. Jerusalem was captured by Israel and it was divided as West Jerusalem(under Israel) and East
Jerusalem(part of Jordan).
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d. A lot of Palestinian refugees settled into Refugee camps of Iraq Syria Jordan, etc.

# Suez crisis,1956:-
Suez Canal remained under British control even after independence of Egypt. This foreign control was
resented by Nationalist Egyptian Army.
In 1956, Colonel Naseer Nationalised Suez Canal after which Britain France and Israel attacked Egypt.
Reasons behind Suez crisis:-
a. Naseer anti- west, anti-Israel and Pro-Palestine policies. Fidayeans carried out mortars and bombing in
Israel.
b. Naseer refuse the renewal of lease for the control of Suez Canal to Britain.
c. He also helped Algerian Arabs in their struggle for independence against French.
d. Egypt the growing closeness with USSR was seen as a threat by USA and it cancelled the Grants for the
creation of Awasan dam in Egypt.
e. Because of this economic stress as well as to get rid of Western influence suez Canal was Nationalised.
Result of Suez crisis:-
a. End of British influence:- Britain expected a quick victory but Egyptian Army fought with Velor and
persistence. Both Britain and France were threatened with dire consequences by USSR if they continued
the war.
USA also condemned the Britain effort and demanded withdrawal from Egypt. thus, it was clear that
Britain could not exert its own independent foreign policy post World War 2.
b. Israel captured Sinai Peninsula of Egypt and used it as a leverage in peace negotiations.
c. The oil supply of the world suffered due to this conflict.
d. The Russian influence increased in this region.
e. Naseer emerged as the leader of Arab countries and many Arab countries were United.
Q) what were the events that led to Suez crisis in 1956? How did it deal A final blow to Britain self image as
a world power?
Q) assess the role of British Imperial power in complicating the process of transfer of power during the
1940s. 15 marker question in 250 words.

Six day war(1967):-

Iraq Syria and Egypt Jordan And Lebanon deployed their troops along Israeli border and Israel decided to
attack first rather than waiting to get defeated. This was a spectacular success for Israel as it led to:-
a. Destruction of Egyptian Air Force in ground itself.
b. Captured Sinai Peninsula and Gaza strip from Egypt.
c. Rest of west bank and Jerusalem form Jordan.
d. Golan Heights from Syria.

Yom Kipur war(1973):-

During a Jewish festival, Israel was attacked by Arab countries under the pressure of Palestine Liberation
organisation(PLO) and its leader Yaseer Arafat.
Egypt wanted a negotiated peace settlement involving third party as an outcome of war. Israel hold down
to its territories. USA and USSR intervined and Suez Canal was reopened but not for Israelis, Oil supplies
were threatened by OPEC countries during the war.
Sykes-Picot agreement:-
- the agreement happened in the aftermath of World War 1. It was a secret agreement to divide Ottoman
Arab provinces into areas of British and French control and influence.
- Britain got Palestine, Jordan And Southern Iraq and France got Northern Iraq, Syria and Lebanon.

LECTURE 17:-
Iranian revolution(1979):-
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It refers to a set of events that overthrew the Western supported monarch Mohammad Reza Shah pahlavi
and led to the formation of Islamic Republic under Ayatollah khomeini.
Reasons behind the revolution:-
a. External interference:- In 1953, democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddaq was
overthrown in a Coup orchestrated by secret services of US and UK. This was done after British owned
Anglo Iranian Oil Corporation was a Nationalised(Britishers wanted to secure its oil interest).
b. Domestic policies of Shah:- the Shah launched White Revolution which led to aggressive modernization
in the country. Land redistribution, decreasing influence of land owners and clergy class, disruption of rural
economies, Rapid westernization, etc. were part of white revolution which were viewed as Pro-US and
many Iranian social groups came together against these reforms.
c. Economic factor:- Though the country was prospering the economic growth was not distributed evenly.
In 1970s, Global instability and fluctuations in oil consumption(due to Israel Palestine conflict) threatened
Iran's economy.
d. Political factors:- political repression by Shah regime increased anti-regime protest were brutally
brought down with little regard to human rights.
e. Socio-cultural factors:- the religious scholars were alarmed by the dilution of Islamic values. Also the
increasing number of unemployed and poor Iranians mostly coming from rural areas were disconnected by
the cultural vacuum of modern Urban and industrialized Iran.
Khomeini argued in the favour of establishing an Islamic government and in an public referendum 1979
Iran adopted a theocratic Republic constitution with Khomeini as their supreme leader of the country .

Impact of Iranian revolution:-

a. Widening Shia Sunni conflict:-
EXTRA:-Saudi Arabia is a Sunni dominated country. Same goes for Pakistan. Iran as a Shia majority
population.
It created more division among the leaders in the Islamic world especially between Saudi and Iran. This
conflict can still be seen in Iraq syria and Yemen.
b. Resurgence of political Islam:- inspired by Iran's success many Islamic political parties emerged in the
region.
c. Iran-Iraq war.
d. Iran relation with USA and Israel deteriorated.
e. Iranian society became more conservative especially freedom of movement was curtailed.
Q) Even after 40 years the impact of Iranian revolution resonates in contemporary world. Comment.

Iran Iraq war(1980-1988):-

Reasons:-
a. Saddam Husain was afraid of militant Islam spreading across the border into Iraq after Iranian
revolution.
b. Historical dispute(Khuzestan region and Shatt-el-Arab waterway) between Iraq and Iran.
Iraq expected a quick victory but War dragged on for 8 years and the territorial disputes became racial and
religious conflict.
Repercussions of the war:-
- Entire Arab world got involved in the war with Saudi Arabia Jordan supporting Iraq and Syria Libya Algeria
supporting Iran.
- Israel Palestine conflict took a backstage.
- energy supply of the west was threatened.
- many non-religious Arab government felt threatened because of success of Iran.
UN get involved too as the war went on and succeeded in arranging a ceasefire by 1988 and peace was
agreed by 1990.
First Gulf War(1990-91):-
Even before peace agreement with Iran, Iraq invaded Kuwait and quickly occupied it.
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Motive's of Saddam Husain:-
- Iran war was drain of cash and Saddam had his eyes on wealth of Kuwait.
- Iraq claimed Kuwait as its own historical part.
- Saddam Husain expected no action from Europe and US as they had supplied arms with war with Iran.
Repercussions of the war:-
- US took the lead in taking actions with trade sanctions and cutting off oil Exports
- Operation Desert Storm:- UN Troops led by USA Britain and France Egypt Syria Saudi Arabia attacked Iraqi
Troops. Iraqi's were driven out of Kuwait and a ceasefire was announced.
Saddam Husain was allowed to remain in power and He survived uprisings by Kurds and Shias.
The motive of West became clear as their primary concern was not justice but self-interest as they took
action only when it threatened their oil supplies.
Read about Arab Spring.

Latin America:-
South America Central America and Caribbean Sea.
Spain(most of the colonies under Spain) and Portugal(Brazil) had a large number of colonies in the region.
Extra:- prima facie it seems like it violates Article 14 however the matter is in the hands of judiciary. Let
Supreme Court decide. Both the countries follow the policy of mercantilism and Squeezed these colonies
of their wealth.
- independent struggle in these colonies were inspired by American and French Revolution. they fought for
their Independence separately.
- Haiti(Caribbean Island country) was the first to gain independence from France in 1804.
- Mexico got independence in 1821 from Spain.
- Brazil got independence from Portuguese in 1825.
- Simon Bolivar, a member of rich ruling class played a central role in independence of Venezuela Colombia
and Ecuador Panama Bolivia and Peru.
He wanted South American States to be United like USA. However, he thought that a Federation is un-
workable. he sought to implement a model Centralist government in Grand Columbia. However it was not
successful and because of the internal strikes new countries emerged.
USA played a very important role in evolution of these countries. US Policy towards Latin American
countries can be summarised as follows:-
a. Monroe doctrine(1823):- It opposed European colonization in Americas(North Central and South
America) and US would not interfere with existing European colonies and meddle(interference) in internal
affairs of European countries.
b. Pan Americanism:- the principal of political, commercial and cultural cooperation among all countries of
north and south america.
c. Dollar diplomacy:- USA was able to exercise a huge amount of political economic and military influence
in the region.
- after World War 2, Latin America was tracked into cold war and USA intervened in domestic politics
whenever it feared communist influence. Example:- Gautemala, Brazil, Cuba, Chile, Nicaragua, Panama,
Haiti.
However in Cuba USA failed to remove Castro.
Only in 1998, Venezuela was the first country to throw off US influence when Hugo Chacez was elected
president and survived attempt of military coup. It inspired other countries like Brazil(thrown US influence
in 2002), Argentina(2003) and Chile(2005), Bolivia(2005), Ecuador(2006).
Problems faced by Latin American countries:-
a. Economically underdeveloped.
b. Shortage of capital.
c. Equipment and technical knowledge.
d. Export dependence on limited range of products.
EXTRA:- the term weimar Republic come from South America
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e. Massive increase in population.
f. Urbanization and urban slums.
g. Low tradition of democracy.
h. Massive borrowings from foreign governments.
i. Economic crisis in entire region in 1980s Due to Debt Cisis.
- IMF and World Bank have provided assistance for these countries to recover. However, many countries
are still struggling from hardship.

Western Europe after World War 2:-

Growth of Unity after World War 2:-
You there was a effort for growth of Unity after World War 2 in Europe because:-
a. to recover from war.
b. Unity will ensure or less chances of War.
c. Together they can resist communism.
d. Germans wanted acceptance as a responsible Nation.
e. France thought that unity would enable them to influence German policies and remove long standing
conflicts.
-first organisation of cooperation were organisation for European economic cooperation, NATO(military
organisation) and Council of Europe(economic cooperation).
In 1957, Treaty of Rome(form the basis of European Union) European economic community was
established.
Six founding members France, West Germany Italy Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.
Though Churchil was strong supporter of United Europe, Britain did not joined the Treaty of Rome
because:-
- They would be no longer in complete control of the economy.
- Britain also felt that it would damage their relations with British Commonwealth as well as their relation
with USA.
- economic Unity would lead to political Unity and can lead to loss of British sovereignty.
- however within less than 4 years after Treaty of Rome they wanted to join EEC as it was an outstanding
success(economic prosperity) while Britain was much less successful.
However France under De Gaulle Vetoed their entry as:-
- De Gaulle believe that British economic problems would be Drain on EEC resources.
- Britain believe that France wanted to continue its domination in EEC.
- If Britain joined it would become a serious Rival of France.
- British agriculture was more efficient and highly subsidized.
Only after De Gaulle resignation in 1969. Britain joined EEC.
In 1980 another crisis erupted, when it was found out that Britain contribution to EEC was 1.2 Billion
Pound whereas France has to pay 30 million.
A member country head to hand over a part of import duties received from goods coming to the country
from outside EEC to EEC Budget. Only after some bargaining under Margaret Thatcher(contemporary of
Indira Gandhi) a compromise was reached.
In 1991, under Maastricht Treaty a monetary union was adopted with the common currency(Euro was
introduced in 2002).
More powers were given to European parliament and European community came to be known as
European Union.
Email ID:- abhisek@visionias.in
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