TRANSIENT THERMAL MANAGEMENT USING PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS WITH

EMBEDDED GRAPHITE NANOFIBERS FOR SYSTEMS WITH HIGH POWER

REQUIREMENTS

Amy S. Fleischer#, Kireeti Chintakrinda#, Randy Weinstein* and Carol A. Bessel&

Departments of #Mechanical Engineering, *Chemical Engineering and &Chemistry
Villanova University
Villanova, PA 19085
Phone: (610) 519-4996
Fax: (610) 519-7312
Email: amy.fleischer@villanova.edu

ABSTRACT
Phase change materials (PCMs) exhibit excellent thermal
storage capacity due to their high latent heat of transformation
and have been successfully utilized in small volumes for
transient thermal management of electronics. However, their
low thermal conductivity makes it difficult to utilize large
volumes of PCMs for transient thermal management of larger
systems. To improve the thermal performance, high thermal
conductivity graphite nanofibers are embedded into a paraffin
PCM. The thermal effects of fiber loading levels, measured in
weight percent (0 to 10%) are examined for a system with
power loads between 100 and 700 W. The use of the
graphite nanofiber enhancement is found to double the useful
performance time of the PCM and lower the system operating
temperature.
salts and metal hydrides are also occasionally used. Paraffins
are thermally and chemically stable as well as inexpensive,
leading to their popularity [8, 9].
While PCMS can be easily applied in small systems as
described above, the inherently low thermal conductivity of
paraffin is a barrier to their application in larger mass systems
[2, 3,10-15]], where the low thermal conductivity can lead to
the isolation of the melt process near the heat source [16].
The use of metallic and/or graphite fins, metallic honeycomb
and metal foams have been studied to provide a heat flow path
to the center of the PCM module and alleviate the issue of
isolation of melt process near the source [1, 11, 17-19].
However, these materials take up large volumes, reducing the
quantity of PCM in the module and thus reducing the energy
storage capacity.

KEY WORDS: phase change materials, PCM, transient
thermal management, nanofibers, nanomaterials, graphite,
thermal management of electronics
INTRODUCTION
The benefits of using phase change materials (PCMs) in small
volumes for energy storage and the suppression of temperature
spikes in small portable electronic systems such as wearable
computers and cell phones are well-documented [1-7]. In
systems such as these, the energy given off by the device is
stored in the PCM through the exploitation of the latent heat of
fusion. For these transient applications the operating
temperature of the device can be held constant near the
melting temperature of the PCM. If the PCM containment
module is properly designed, the device will reach the end of
its transient duty cycle without reaching excessive
temperatures and the PCM becomes a modular energy storage
device absorbing heat at a constant temperature during a
transient and rejecting it to the environment at a later time.
Among the more commonly used PCMs are paraffin waxes
such as eicosane, docosane and tricosane, although inorganic
The high conductivity and small volume of nanoparticles
make them an intriguing candidate for conductivity
enhancements without large volume requirements. Weinstein
et al. investigated the use of graphite nanofibers suspended in
paraffin PCM. The thermal performance of systems with
varying fiber loading levels (0 to 5 wt%), and graphite fiber
types are examined for a small volume system with power
loads between 3 and 7 W. It was found that the maximum
system temperature decreased as graphite fiber loading levels
increased and that the results were fiber-structure dependent
[16].
While this work is promising for low power applications,
research needs to be conducted on the effective use of graphite
nanofibers for conductivity-enhancement of phase change
materials for high power loadings. In this project, the thermal
performance and energy storage capabilities of large volume
PCM modules (150 g – 2.8 kg) with graphite nanofiber
enhancement, exposed to high power heat loads (50- 750 W)
will be quantified. Additionally, the effect of aspect ratio on
thermal performance will be explored.
The PCM modules used in this experiment mimic heat loads
and module orientations expected to be used in high power
naval systems. The module designs allow the comparison of

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aspect ratio and volume effects on thermal response of an
enhanced PCM system. Five different test cells are used.
Three of these test cells are cubes (sidewalls of 5.08 cm, 10.16
cm and 20.32 cm) and two are rectangles (10.16 cm x 20.32
cm x 5.08 cm and 10.16 cm x 5.08 cm x 20.32 cm). These
modules allow the comparison of the same aspect ratio with
different volumes of PCM (the three cubes) and the same
volume with different aspect ratios (the 10.16 cm cube and the
two rectangles).
The PCM modules are fabricated using aluminum walls and
base with a coldplate lid. The higher power levels used in this
testing plan prohibit the use of the acrylic/PVC walls with
epoxy bonding used in previous studies [16] due to
temperature limitations on the epoxy. While the PVC test
boxes had been used previously to create an insulated
boundary condition at the sidewalls, the metallic boxes used in
this study will more closely mimic actual field designs and the
results will help in design of future modules for
implementation.
Each test cell is mounted to a heater block which uses high
power cartridge heaters to simulate a heat source and provide
the flux to the thermal control module. The modules and the
heater block are design to create a uniform heat flux condition
at the module base and both heater block and thermal control
module are insulated to prevent heat losses. Inevitably, some
heat does travel through the aluminum sidewalls and creates
thermal penetration into the module from the sides, actually
increasing thermal penetration and improving performance.
For these test runs, a copper cold plate forms the top of the test
cell creating a constant temperature boundary condition. A
high flow rate of a 50/50 mixture of water and antifreeze
maintains the cold plate at a constant 5ºC. This is intended to
create a primary heat flow condition from top to bottom of the
module and to improve thermal response in the resolidification
phase.
of 5% and 10% by weight. Each nanofiber was 10 to 25 nm
wide and 20 to 70 m long as measured by TEM.
Solid paraffin wax is melted completely at 54C and the
appropriate weight of GNF is weighed out on an electronic
balance and then carefully added to the liquid paraffin wax.
The liquid PCM/CNF mixture is sonicated for 4 hours using a
SONICS VC505 Ultrasonic Processor with a 0.25 in. stepped
microtip to ensure even distribution of the GNF throughout the
PCM. Following sonication, the liquid mixture is poured into
the module completely filling it. It is cooled to room
temperature before the testing takes place so that the PCM is
in the solid phase. A volume decrease takes place upon
phase transition from liquid to solid, creating a concave ullage
space at the top of the module.
Upon initiation of a test run, power is supplied to the heater
and cooling water flow is initiated to the cold plate. The
system is allowed to come to steady-state while the
thermocouples record the system temperatures. After each
experiment the PCM/nanofiber mixture is re-sonicated if the
test is to be repeated. If re-sonficiation is not completed,
settling of the GNF is observed after multiple
melting/solidification cycle. Future work will focus on the
continued suspension of GNF through multiple cycles.
For each test run, the temperature within the module is
recorded to track the transient thermal response.
Temperatures are recorded at 5 positions within the module as
well as at the base, at the heater location and in the cold plate.
The response of these thermocouples gives insight into the
thermal penetration path of the heat into the module and its
effectiveness in storing energy and controlling the temperature
of the heat source. Temperature monitoring at each location
allows the study of the progression of the melt process. The
melt process is analyzed for duration and uniformity
throughout the module. The thermocouples within the module
are numbered 1 through 5 with positions as given in Figure 1.

PCM volumes used range from 100 g to 2.8 kg, and the
applied power ranges from 50 W to 750 W. Tests are run in
each module for a range of applied powers. In each case, the
effective conductivity of the thermal control module is
enhanced by using either PCM with suspended graphite
nanofibers (GNF) or carbon foam impregnated with PCM.
Pure PCM is used as a control case.

The graphite nanofibers are fabricated using a process which

allows precise production with the desired thermal
characteristics, particularly fiber style, length and diameter.
This process uses a catalytic decomposition of various
hydrocarbons by a method already well described in a
previous paper [20]. The GNF growth process is a batch
process which takes 7-9 hours per batch. In a previous study Figure 1: PCM module illustrating thermocouple hole spacing.
[16], three different types of graphite nanofibers were Three are in the same place top to bottom at the middle and
investigated and the preliminary results showed that the three in the same plane side to side at the midheight. The
herringbone design exhibited the best thermal enhancement, spacing between thermocouples is uniform and evenly spaced.
thus, this study used herringbone-style GNF at loading levels

562
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 120
Thermocouple 5
With highly localized and intense thermal loads, large Thermocouple 1
100 Thermocouple 2
quantities of PCM are needed to absorb the heat loads, but the
Thermocouple 4

low conductivity material is not able to quickly absorb and
suppress the transient heat loads. Rather, the portion of the
PCM volume closest to the heat dissipating source gains
temperature quickly while the PCM farthest away does not
respond to the applied heat load, or contribute to the thermal
management. Previous results [16] have shown that the low
thermal conductivity of the base PCM material can slow the
thermal response and limit the effectiveness of PCM.
However, by enhancing the effective conductivity, the thermal
control module is expected to exhibit a lower steady state
temperature and a delay to steady state as heat spreads more
effectively through the PCM module. These characteristics
should improve the effectiveness of PCM modules for the
thermal control of large heat loads illustrating that thermal
abatement using PCM is possible with larger modules and
higher powers.
Effect of higher power conditions
Tests were conducted in the five different modules with
powers from 50 W to 750 W. Without conductivity
enhancement, the smallest module (5.08 cm cube) could
handle powers up to 300 W for only very brief transients of
less than a minute. As seen in Figure 2, the thermocouple
closest to the heat source (Thermocouple #1) responds very
quickly surpassing 80C in 5.5 minutes and 100C in 20 more
seconds . With conductivity enhancement of 10% herringbone
GNF (Figure 3), the same module maintains an operating
temperature below 80C, the limit in many cases for
electronics, for up to 8 minutes and below 100C for 10
minutes, a 40% improvement in effectiveness. Due to the
rapid response of this small module to the 300W of power, it
was not tested at higher power loads. However, the larger
modules handled the higher power loads quite well.
Temperature(C)
80 Thermocouple 3
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time(min)
Figure 3: 5.08 cm cubic thermal control module with
PCM/10% herringbone fibers and 300 W of applied power
The thermal response of the 10.16 cm cubic module with 750
W of power can be seen in Figures 4 and 5. With pure PCM
(Figure 4) a fast response is again seen from the thermocouple
closest to the heat source with a rapid rise to 100C within 11
minutes. A large temperature differential is seen within the
system due to the poor thermal penetration and isolation of the
heat flux near the source. In contrast, with 10% herringbone
fiber enhancement (Figure 5), the large temperature
differentials within the system have been controlled. The
rapid temperature spike seen in thermocouple 1 occurs when
molten PCM from at the melt front reaches the thermocouple
location. These spikes occur from time to time during the
melting process due to the movement of molten PCM within
the module. A thermocouple which may have been embedded
in solid PCM may have that last bit of solid melt off, suddenly
exposing it to higher temperatures in the liquid phase. These
higher temperatures typically moderate with convective
mixing. It is shown that the PCM/GNF mixture is effective at
controlling the higher powers and is a viable option for
passive transient thermal control modules.

160
140
Thermocouple 5
Thermocouple 5
140 120 Thermocouple 1
Thermocouple 1 Thermocouple 2
Thermocouple 2
Temperature(C)

120 100 Thermocouple 4

Temperature(C)

Thermocouple 4 Thermocouple 3
100 Thermocouple 3 80
80 60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time(min)
Time(min)
Figure 2: 5.08 cm cubic thermal control module with pure
Figure 4: 10.16 cm cubic thermal control module with pure
PCM and 300 W of applied power.
PCM and 750 W of applied power

563
 70 Effect of aspect ratio
Thermocouple 5
60 Thermocouple 1 While the effect of module size is directly related to the mass
Thermocouple 2
of PCM contained within, the effect of aspect ratio is related
Temperature(C)

50 Thermocouple 4
to the size of the heated surface area and the height of the
Thermocouple 3

40 module in the direction of heat flow. A significant aspect ratio

30
20
10
0 but the thermal responses are different. However, they are all
0 5 10
Time(min)
Figure 5: 10.16 cm cubic thermal control module with
PCM/10%GNF and 750 W of applied power
Effect of module size
The effect of module size is directly related to the increased
mass of PCM within the module. With greater mass, the
module can absorb more heat energy and control high power
loads. The choice of mass depends on the length of the
desired transient operation. For instance, Figure 3 shows that
for 10% GNF mixtures the effectiveness of the 5.08 cm cubic
module is limited to about 10 minutes for 300 W of power for
steady-stat loading. In contrast, the 10.16 cm module with
10% GNF mixtures can handle 750 W of power with ease for
any duration transient as it reaches steady-state below 50C
and can be pushed even higher as necessary for shorter
transients.
90
Thermocouple 5
80
effect is found as seen by comparing Figures 6-8. These
figures show the response of the 10.16 cm cubic module, the
10.16 cm x 20.32 cm x 5.08 cm module and the 10.16 cm x
5.08 cm x 20.32 cm module to 750 W of applied power with
the PCM/5% herringbone enhancement. Each of these
modules contains exactly the same mass of PCM and GNF,
15 20 effective at controlling the operating temperature for extended
periods of time. The short flat module (10.16 cm x 20.32 cm x
5.08 cm) exhibits the most difficulty controlling large
differentials throughout the box as the thermocouple closest to
the heat source heats up more rapidly than the others (Figure
6) which is due to the large heated surface area in this case.
The 10.16 cm cubic module exhibits the strongest effect of
developed internal Rayleigh-Benard convection currents with
the melted PCM from the lowest level circulating up to the top
of the module and warming thermocouple 5 (Figure 7).
Despite this internal circulation the module is still extremely
effective at controlling temperatures with a steady-state
situation occurring after 14 minutes and most of the module
remaining in the solid phase, indication that the module can
handle higher power transients. The tall thin module (10.16
cm x 5.08 cm x 20.32 cm) is best at distributing heat within
the module with the thermocouples responding almost
uniformly as seen in Figure 8. It does appear that with limits
of space in some applications that all aspect ratios will be
effective within transient limits.
60
Thermocouple 5
50 Thermocouple 1
Thermocouple 2
Thermocouple 4
Tempearature(C)

Thermocouple 1
40 Thermocouple 3
Thermocouple 2
70 Thermocouple 4
Tmeperature(C)

60 Thermocouple 3 30

50
20
40
30 10

20 0
10 0 5 10 15
0 Time(min)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Figure 7: 10.16 cm cubic module thermal control module with
Time(min)
PCM/ 5%GNF and 750 W of applied power
Figure 6: 10.16 cm x 20.32 cm x 5.08 cm thermal control
module with PCM/ 5%GNF and 750 W of applied power

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 45
40
35
Temperature(C)
30
25
20
Thermocouple 5
15
Thermocouple 1
10 Thermocouple 2
Thermocouple 4
5
Thermocouple 3
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time(min)
Figure 8: 10.16 cm x 5.08 cm x 20.32 cm thermal control
module with PCM/ 5%GNF and 750 W of applied power
CONCLUSIONS
The low thermal conductivity of PCMs can limit their
effectiveness in the transient thermal management of larger
volume systems by creating large thermal differences
throughout the PCM. To improve the performance of paraffin
PCM, high thermal conductivity GNFs and were embedded
into the PCM. It is clearly shown that the addition of GNFs
delayed steady state, reduced thermal differences throughout
the PCM, and improve the thermal response of the PCM. The
PCM/GNF mixture is extremely effective at absorbing large
power loads and maintaining low operating temperatures.
Larger masses of PCM can control higher power loads due to
greater energy storage capability and the module aspect ratio
has an effect on thermal performance although all aspect ratios
were effective.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the support of the Office of
Naval Research which supported this project under grant
N00014-05-1-0863 “An Investigation into the Application of
Conductivity-Enhanced Phase Change Materials for Transient
Thermal Management of Naval Electronics”.
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