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Manufacturing
technology
Volume I
Foundry, Forming and Welding
Fifth Edition
About The Author
P N Rao
Professor
Department of Technology
University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls
USA
1 23456789 D101417 22 21 20 19 18
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neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein,
and neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out
of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw Hill Education (India) and its authors are
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DeDicateD to
I am happy to note that the book is getting continuous support from the technical educational community
as a textbook for manufacturing technology among most of the universities in India. As the technology is
changing at a rapid rate, some of these technologies will be percolating into manufacturing at various levels.
The universities therefore make changes to the curricula to reflect these advances. This edition is therefore an
attempt to fulfil all those requirements.
Content Overview
Whenever a process or equipment is described, the practical information, such as specifications, operating
parameters and designing for the process, have all been highlighted. Each process is supplemented with simple
illustrations, numerical calculations for the design process and a discussion of the results so obtained. A large
number of well-labelled illustrations are provided to give the necessary insight into the process and its design.
Chapter 1 introduces the different manufacturing processes and the importance of manufacturing for
humankind. Chapter 2 discusses engineering materials. Chapter 3 is on metal-casting processes. Chapter
4 describes gating systems for casting. Chapter 5 discusses melting and casting quality. Chapter 6 is on
special casting processes. Chapter 7 explains the different types of metal-forming processes, while Chapter
8 describes some sheet-metal operations. Chapter 9 deals with welding processes, and Chapter 10 is on other
fabrication processes. Chapter 11 describes powder metallurgy. Chapter 12 deals with plastic processing.
Chapter 13 deals with ceramics and glass materials processing. Finally, Chapter 14 deals with composite
material processing.
New Features
All the chapters were thoroughly checked to see that written material is in line with the current practice such
that some of the obsolete details are removed. In addition to that, some of the major additions are detailed as
follows:
Chapter 2 – Shot peening
Chapter 3 – Additive manufacturing (rapid prototyping) for pattern making
Chapter 5 – Non-destructive testing
Chapter 6 – Thixocasting
Chapter 8 – Lancing
Chapter 9 – Non-destructive testing of weldments
Chapter 11 – Metal injection moulding
Two new chapters are also added:
Chapter 13 – Ceramics and Glasses
Chapter 14 – Composite Materials
xviii Preface to the Fifth Edition
A few case studies have been added to provide further discussion on the topics covered, from the practical
viewpoint. The instructors can discuss these case studies in more detail in the class so that it will generate
interest in the students towards the subject matter. For GATE aspirants, a dedicated section at book end is
provided for thorough practice.
With these additions and changes, it is hoped that the current edition will be able to fully satisfy the
curricula of most of the universities and thus serve the intended purpose with which I started in the beginning.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks are due to my colleague, Dr Srikanth Revuru, who has helped me with the development of all
the case studies presented in the book. I wish to express my sincere thanks to University of Northern Iowa,
for providing excellent environment and facilities so that I could carry out the updating of this book. Special
thanks are extended to my colleagues, Dr Scott Geise and Mr Sairam Ravi, of the Metal Casting Center of
our department, who helped me with the material for the casting simulation using Magma software. I am
delighted to record my appreciation for the editorial staff at McGraw Hill (India) who really nudged me
to complete this task as fast as possible such that the book is produced with the highest quality within the
shortest time so that the book is available in time for the new academic session.
I would like to thank the reviewers who have gone through the revised content of the book and have given
their valuable suggestions. In particular, I would like to thank:
Feedback
Despite the utmost care taken, it is not uncommon that some errors will be left in the book uncorrected, and I
would request the readers to communicate any such errors and omissions so that I will be able to correct them
at the earliest possible opportunity.
P. N. RAO
Preface to the First Edition
This new book on manufacturing technology relates to its practice with as much of scientific aspects as pos-
sible. The study of manufacturing processes forms a core subject area for a majority of engineering students.
In particular, this is an essential subject for all mechanical engineering students. But it is my experience that
more often the subject is taught with greater emphasis on the descriptive aspect rather than from a scientific
and practical viewpoint. As a result, a fresh engineering graduate, when he enters a manufacturing unit,
would be at a loss as to the means of correlating what he learned and what is required in practice. With this
in mind, an attempt has been made to bring in as much of practice as possible into this book to make it more
useful for engineering students.
This book is the outgrowth of material used by me for teaching two undergraduate courses relating to
manufacturing processes. Whenever a process is described, the practical information, such as specifications,
operating parameters and designing for the process, have all been highlighted. Each process is suppleme-
nted with simple illustrations, numerical calculations for the design process and a discussion of the results
so obtained. A large number of well-labelled illustrations are provided to give the necessary insight into the
process and its design.
After an introductory chapter, a short chapter is given to provide the necessary details of engineering
properties as related to manufacturing processes. Three chapters have been devoted to the essential details of
ferrous and non-ferrous materials along with their heat treatment methods.
Another 11 chapters have been devoted to the technology of casting processes, wherein the sand casting
process has been extensively dealt with from the technological viewpoint. In a concise form the available
knowledge relating to the pattern, gating, risering and product design has been presented in these chapters.
It is expected that an engineering student should be able to do a complete sand casting design from the
information provided in this book.
Six chapters are devoted to the technological aspects related to metal forming processes, such as rolling,
forging, extrusion and sheet metal operations. A good number of design examples as well as design exercises
are provided wherever necessary.
Lastly, the welding and allied processes are covered in eight chapters, again giving a good amount of
practical information. The emphasis is more on the commercial welding processes such as arc welding as
well as the modern developments in welding processes.
SI units have been used throughout the book without exception. Countries all over the world have adopted
these units because of the unambiguous representation of the various quantities. Hence it is imperative that
engineering education should be done in SI units so that change over takes place at the earliest and with least
resistance. A brief introduction to SI units as related to the measurements used in this book has been provided
in the appendix along with the essential data related to conversions from British or fps units to SI units.
References were provided at the end of each chapter which should be useful for those interested in
studying further into the specific aspects. Also, a list of Indian standards that are relevant for the subject under
discussion has been provided at the end of each chapter. This information together with the numerous tables
xx Preface to the First Edition
that are provided should help the practising engineer as well in the proper utilisation of the manufacturing
processes.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. U.R.K.Rao, Prof. N.K.Tewari and Mr. S. Swaminathan
who have provided constant encouragement to undertake this type of productive activity over a period of
time. I am particularly thankful to Mr S.Swaminathan and Prof. U.R.K.Rao for having taken the pains to
review major portions of the manuscript and for giving useful suggestions for improvements. It is a pleasure
to express heartfelt gratitude to my family members who have borne long hours of inconvenience during
the preparation of the manuscript. I am indebted to the authorities of Indian Institute of Technology, New
Delhi, for having allowed me to undertake this activity and provided the necessary facilities. Lastly, I wish to
acknowledge the contributions made by many of my students over the past years during the teaching of the
courses which enriched the book in many forms.
I am open to criticism and suggestions regarding the coverage in the book, and would welcome any
helpful suggestions for improvement in future editions.
P. N. RAO
Visual Walkthrough xxi
Visual Walkthrough
11.1 IntroductIon
Powder metallurgy is the name given to a process in which metallic powders are heated below their melting
temperatures to achieve the bonding. In reality the powder metallurgy (P/M) process involves compacting
of metal or alloy powders into the desired shape after blending and then heated in a controlled atmosphere
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE at a temperature below the melting point in order to achieve the bonding of the particles to get the desired
properties. The powder metallurgy process enables to produce parts in their final shape eliminating the need
for any additional machining. Raw material is not wasted during the processing while unusual materials or
Provides a brief perspective of mixtures can be utilized. It is possible to get parts with unique properties not possible by any other manu-
facturing process. Most of the powder metallurgy parts are in the size range of less than 2 kg, though parts
historical developments related as large as 20 kg were made. Large parts require very expensive tooling and as such are not widely made by
powder metallurgy.
to the processes discussed in the The limit to the size of a PM component is based on the final density and the available press size. Typical
values are the projected area (area perpendicular to the pressing direction) usually between 4 and 16,000 mm2,
chapter with length between 0.8 to 150 mm, although 75 mm is the practical maximum. There are parts weighing
above 10 kg in production today.
Though powder metallurgy was appeared to have been used by Egyptians around 3000 BC, the modern
developments have started in the mid or late nineteenth century. The early interest was in the self lubricated
bearings. Later the invention of incandescent light required the filament to be made by P/M process. The
invention of tungsten carbide in 1920’s utilized the P/M process. Later the automobile industry had utilized
the P/M process to a great extent and even today it accounts for a large volume of its usage. Many of the
enhancements in various powder metallurgy technologies have taken place in the last 70 years.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Objectives
Each chapter begins with a clearly
Sand casting processes described so far are not suitable and economical in many
applications. In such situations special casting processes would be more appropriate. After defined set of objectives that
completing this chapter, the reader will be able to
❯ Understand the shell moulding as a process for higher quality castings with thin surface details
provide a quick reference to the
❯ Know precision investment casting used for complex shapes chapter’s key aspects. These help
Use permanent mould casting for mass production of relatively simple shapes
❯
students better anticipate what they
❯ Apply die casting process for complex parts
❯ Understand the advantages of using centrifugal casting process will be studying and help instructors
❯ Learn the advantages and applications of various other special casting process measure student’s understanding.
Riser
WELL-LABELLED
Sprue Sprue
ILLUSTRATIONS Pouring basin
base
Open top or
2 Runners bob riser
Neat illustrations within the
chapters provide a complete In gate
Example 4.1
Calculate the optimum pouring time for a casting whose mass is 20 kg and having an average section thick-
ness of 15 mm. The materials of the casting are grey cast iron and steel. Take the fluidity of iron as 28 inches.
Grey cast iron
Pouring time, t = K Ê1.41 + T ˆ W s
Ë 14.59 ¯
SOLVED EXAMPLES
=
28 Ê
40 Ë
1.41 +
15 ˆ
14.59 ¯
20 = 7.632 s Throughout each chapter, various
Steel
Pouring time, t = (2.4335 - 0.3953 log W ) W s
solved examples are given that
= (2.4335 - 0.3953 log 20) 20 = 8.5825 s help readers understand and apply
Example 4.2 the concept learnt in the chapter.
Calculate the optimum pouring time for a casting whose mass is 100 kg and a thickness of 25 mm. Fluidity
of iron is 32 inches. Calculate both for cast iron and steel.
Grey cast iron
Pouring time, t = 32 Ê1.41 + 25 ˆ 100 = 24.988 s
40 Ë 14.59 ¯
Steel
Pouring time, t = (2.4335 - 0.3953 log 100) 100 = 16.429 s
Su mm aRy
Gating and risering systems are important for the final quality of the casting achieved. To this extent, there
are a number of elements that are present in the path of the molten metal.
SUMMARY ● Pouring basin, sprue, sprue-base well, runner and runner extension serve the purpose of allowing
clean molten metal to enter the mould cavity.
● Parting gate is the most widely used gate while the top and bottom gates are sometimes used for
A detailed chapter-end summary is specific applications that favour them.
● Fluid mechanics laws together with empirical relations are applied to design the optimum gating
provided for a quick review of the system.
● It is important to make sure that slag entering the gating system be removed completely before the
important concepts discussed in the metal enters the mould cavity.
● Risers compensate for the volumetric shrinkage taking place during the solidification of the molten
chapter. metal inside the mould cavity.
● Caine’s method provides a simple procedure to size the risers in sandcastings, while the modulus
method is more elaborate and provides a better design.
● Sometimes chills may need to be added to reduce porosity at isolated sections that are not fed by
risers.
● To reduce the size of risers, feeding aids such as riser sleeves are often used.
Q u e s t io n s
7.1
7.2
List the various processes of metal working.
What are the advantages of hot working over cold working of metals?
REVISION QUESTIONS
7.3 What are specific merits of cold working over hot working?
7.4 For hot working it is often necessary to heat the work piece in a furnace and there are scale losses A set of review questions has
and other problems. Why is hot working sometimes preferred to cold working in spite of such
disadvantages? been carefully constructed
7.5
7.6
What is the significance of recrystallisation temperature in metal working?
To what temperature should a given plain-carbon steel be heated for hot working?
to help students review their
7.7 State two parameters which determine the extent of deformation possible in a given material in a understanding of the concepts.
metal-working process.
7.8 What is meant by ‘grain flow’ in the case of forged or rolled components?
7.9 Give a line diagram of the various processes involved in the manufacture of the steel sheet, starting
from steel ingots.
P ro bl e ms
9.1 In a given arc welding operation, the power source is at 20 V and current at 300 A. If the electrode
PRACTICE PROBLEMS travel speed is 6 mm/s, calculate the cross‑sectional area of the joint. The heat transfer efficiency is
taken as 0.80 and melting efficiency as 0.30. Heat required to melt the steel is 10 J/mm3.
9.2 In a resistance welding of a lap joint or two mild steel sheets of 1.5 mm thick, a current of 10 000 A
Practice problems are given in each is passed for a period of 0.1 seconds. The effective resistance of the joint is 120 micro ohms. Density
of steel is 0.00786 g/mm3 and heat required to melt is 1381 J/g. The joint can be considered as a
chapter to provide hands-on practice cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 2.25 mm in height. Calculate the percentage of heat distributed to the
to students in solving problems surroundings.
9.3 A projection welding of 3 spots is obtained with a current of 35 000 A for a period of 0.01 second.
related to real-life situations. If the effective resistance of the joint is taken as 120 micro ohms. If the joint can be considered as a
cylinder of 6 mm diameter and 2.5 mm in height, calculate the heat distributed to the surroundings.
9.4 The arc welding of 6 mm steel plates in butt welding is being carried out at a welding speed of 9 mm/s.
The welding transformer is set at 25 V and the current flowing is 300 A. Taking the arc efficiency as
0.85, calculate the temperature to which the plates should be preheated such that the critical cooling
rate is kept below 6 °C/s at a temperature of 550°C for satisfactory metallurgical quality.
Visual Walkthrough xxiii
C a s e s T u dy
energy consuMPtIon In Bulk forMIng
Due to the increasing population of the world, the energy demand is severe. Further, energy generation
leads to a significant carbon footprint that affects the environment. Nearly about 20% of the energy is
CASE STUDIES wasted in the industrial sector in the United States. Hence, it is the need of the hour to choose the pro-
cesses and improve them to make them more sustainable. In this case study, the energy consumption of
bulk forming was compared with additive and subtractive manufacturing. Bulk forming processes for
Provides a practical view point of plastics include injection moulding, thermoforming and compression moulding, where as in metals, the
methods include die casting, sand casting, investment casting and forging.
the subject to increase interest and In the present case study, injection moulding, milling (subtractive) and fused deposition modeling
(FDM-Additive) are considered. A model of 30 ¥ 30 ¥ 5 mm with two holes and slots was selected.
understanding. Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) is used for the purpose of comparing the different manufacturing
processes. The energy consumed in the production of a component part is defined as SEC. It is defined
as 1 joule per unit volume of material for subtractive processes and 1 joule per unit mass of material for
additive processes.
Injection Moulding
The mould was machined using a CNC machine. The prepared aluminium mould was used for
injection moulding. The warmup of the moulds took 27 minutes. The average power consumption was
534 W. The total energy consumption for cutting the mould and the injection moulding process was
832.4 Wh/part. However, the specific energy consumption (SEC) drastically decreased with the number
of parts as the actual processing energy consumption was only 37 Wh/part.
Milling
In this study a CNC machine was used to manufacture the part. The process consisted of milling drilling
and slotting. The total processing time was 1123 s including 15 min preparation time. The total energy
consumption was 40.8 Wh.
Introduction
1
Objectives
After completing this chapter, the reader will be able to
❯ Understand the importance of manufacturing for the mankind
❯ Know the different types of manufacturing processes
❯ Evaluate the feasibility of a process by carrying out break-even analysis
desired quality. This may result in slight modification in their design to suit the particular manufacturing
process they choose.
Manufacturing, as defined by Merriam Webster online dictionary, is to make into a product suitable to use.
Manufacturing remained as a craft from the first industrial revolution till the end of 18th century with low
volumes and single piece production. It required highly skilled craftsmen to individually produce the pieces
and fit them when the assembly was required. This was a slow and expensive process but in the absence of
any machine that was the only thing possible.
The availability of steam engine and the coal fired furnaces have made the invention of a number of steam
power driven machinery to greatly increase the manufacturing capacity. A large number of inventions related
to machine tools have taken place during this period and continued into the 19th century. Towards the end
of 19th century, with the invention of electricity and better engineering materials, manufacturing operations
became more productive. The developments in the automobiles at the beginning of the 20th century are
instrumental in the growth of a variety of manufacturing methods and practices.
There are a large number of processes available for manufacture to the engineer. These processes can be
broadly classified into four categories:
(a) Casting Processes
(b) Forming Processes
(c) Fabrication Processes
(d) Material Removal Processes
● Centrifugal Casting
● Upset Forging
● Extrusion
● Wire Drawing
● cold Welding
● Brazing
● Soldering
● Drilling
● Shaping and Planning
● Milling
● Grinding
● Broaching
● Sawing
All these manufacturing processes have been continuously developed to obtain better products at a reduced
cost. Development of computers and their effect on the manufacturing processes has been of particular
interest. The arrival of computers has made a remarkable difference to most of the above manufacturing
processes. They have contributed greatly to both automation and designing of the process.
1.4 Manufacturing Technology—Foundry, Forming and Welding
Total cost
Cost
Variable cost
Fixed cost
Production quantity
fig. 1.1 Typical cost curves
If an engineer has to make a choice between two different processes for manufacturing the same component,
he or she may first estimate the fixed costs and variable costs for both the processes and then plot the total
cost curves for both as in Figure 1.2. The point where both these curves intersect is called the break-even
point. It implies that the first process will be economical if the quantity of production is less than that of the
break-even point, that while beyond it the second process is economical.
Introduction 1.5
TC1
TC2
VC1
FC2
Cost
VC2
FC1
Production Quantity
Process 1 Process 2
Economical Economical
The break-even quantity ‘n’ can also be obtained by equating the total costs in both the processes. That is
FC1 + n ¥ VC1 = FC2 + n ¥ VC2
FC2 - FC1
n=
VC1 - VC2
This would give a positive value when fixed cost of a process is greater and variable cost lesser than those
of the second. If both fixed and variable costs are lower than the other process, then the latter process is
always uneconomical what ever may be the production quantity.
Another way of plotting a cost comparison curve is to calculate the average cost of production for different
production quantity. The average cost is given by
Total cost
Production quantity
Closed Die
Average Cost per Piece
Forging
Open Die
Forging
10 27 100 1000
Asia päättyi jakoon; Dick sai sen, mikä oli yli Samin kahden
punnan, ja viittaili selvästi olevansa valmis tekemään saman
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Laivuri nyökkäsi.
Nyt oli jo aivan pimeä. Kun vielä oli ostettu lakki sekä pari kolme
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Hän otti lakkinsa ja läksi. Kului tunti; laivuri nousi kannelle hyvin
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