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Advances in Mechanics and Mathematics 42

Vadim A. Krysko
Jan Awrejcewicz
Maxim V. Zhigalov
Valeriy F. Kirichenko
Anton V. Krysko

Mathematical
Models of
Higher Orders
Shells in Temperature Fields
Advances in Mechanics and Mathematics

Volume 42

Series editors
David Gao, Federation University Australia
Tudor Ratiu, Shanghai Jiao Tong University

Advisory Board
Antony Bloch, University of Michigan
John Gough, Aberystwyth University
Darryl D. Holm, Imperial College London
Peter Olver, University of Minnesota
Juan-Pablo Ortega, University of St. Gallen
Genevieve Raugel, CNRS and University Paris-Sud
Jan Philip Solovej, University of Copenhagen
Michael Zgurovsky, Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute
Jun Zhang, University of Michigan
Enrique Zuazua, Universidad Autόnoma de Madrid and DeustoTech
Kenneth C. Land, Duke University

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5613

Vadim A. Krysko Jan Awrejcewicz
•

Maxim V. Zhigalov Valeriy F. Kirichenko

•

Anton V. Krysko

Mathematical Models
of Higher Orders
Shells in Temperature Fields

123
Vadim A. Krysko Valeriy F. Kirichenko (Deceased)
Department of Mathematics and Modeling Department of Mathematics and Modeling
Saratov State Technical University Saratov State Technical University
Saratov, Russia Saratov, Russia

Jan Awrejcewicz Anton V. Krysko

Department of Automation, Biomechanics Department of Applied Mathematics and
and Mechatronics Systems Analysis
Lodz University of Technology Saratov State Technical University
Lodz, Poland Saratov, Russia

Maxim V. Zhigalov
Department of Mathematics and Modeling
Saratov State Technical University
Saratov, Russia

ISSN 1571-8689 ISSN 1876-9896 (electronic)

Advances in Mechanics and Mathematics
ISBN 978-3-030-04713-9 ISBN 978-3-030-04714-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04714-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018962138

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Preface

The content of this monograph exemplifies the vast range of mathematical models
of nonlinear dynamics and statics (to some extent) of continuous mechanical
structural members based mainly on consideration of beams, plates, and shells, with
a particular emphasis on shells interacting with internal and external thermal fields.
We consider models that are well known, those that we have modified, and those
that are new.
Though there exist numerous books devoted to the study of the dynamics of
structural members, the majority of investigations deal with linear modeling of
coupled problems of thermoelasticity. One of the unique features of our book relies
on consideration of a heat transfer equation in a 3D formulation, whereas the shell
equations yielded by the Hamilton variational principle exhibit a different type and
dimension (hyperbolic and hyperbolic–parabolic). This book offers a valuable
methodological approach to the state of the art of the above-mentioned classical
plate/shell mathematical models, including the kinematic model of the first-order
(Kirchhoff–Love) and second- order (Timoshenko) approximations, as well as the
mixed Grigolyuk–Chulkov model. Analysis of multilayer-shell nonlinear dynamics
and related stability problems “in the large” is based on the mathematical models
introduced by Timoshenko (second-order approximation), Sheremetev–Pelekh–
Levinson–Reddy (third-order approximation), Grigolyuk–Kulikov (hyperbolic
model), and the novel models derived with the help of the stationary variant of the
“projectional conditions” of a shell motion and the model with e-regularization.
The main thrust of this monograph points out the need for further investigations
of the classical problem of shell dynamics consisting of mathematical modeling,
derivation of nonlinear PDEs, and finding their solutions based on new and
effective numerical techniques, strongly supported by useful theorems and their
proofs.
Another challenging feature of the book embraces its engineering aspect devoted
to carrying out the optimal design of deformable mechanical constructions, high-
lighting the problems of diffraction (transmission) or decomposition of plates and

v
vi Preface

shells. In general, the problem of diffraction can be reduced to boundary value

problems in spaces consisting of a few different materials, and it is governed by
boundary value problems associated with differential equations with discontinuous
coefficients. We show how to solve such nonclassical problems in the framework of
appropriately chosen phases with adequate norms and/or configuration spaces.
This monograph introduces a new class of generalized problems of diffraction in
the theory of shells based on the fundamental variational equations of the ther-
momechanics of shallow shells. In addition, the mathematical theories for non-
classical geometrically nonlinear models and the design of inhomogeneous shallow
shells imply a coherent development of reliable computational programs in finding
solutions whose existence has been formally proved.
In particular, the proved existence of a generalized solution has allowed us to
give a theoretical basis for the validation of the Faedo–Galerkin method used in
higher approximations (the proof embraces coupled/uncoupled problems of ther-
moelasticity and Timoshenko hypotheses and their modifications).
This monograph is enriched by numerical algorithms for solving the governing
3D and 2D (hyperbolic and hyperbolic–parabolic) PDEs. Both the Faedo–Galerkin
and finite difference methods (FDM) have been employed to second-order accuracy
to solve the problem entirely, i.e., treating it as a well-posed problem of infinite
dimension in contrast to what is widely met in literature, namely strong truncation,
reducing the problem to only a few degrees of freedom and hence having limited
application. Furthermore, the reader should find our original approach attractive, for
it is aimed at solving static problems of thermoelasticity in which the treatment
of the dynamics is based on the setup (relaxation) method (the latter approach is
very efficient in comparison with the classical techniques of solving static
problems).
Finally, this book offers new results in the nonlinear dynamics of the objects
studied, including regular (periodic and quasiperiodic) and irregular (timing chaos
and spatiotemporal chaos) vibrations and their bifurcations. The latter study is
enriched by wavelet-based (in contrast to the classical Fourier transform) analysis
aimed at detecting and tracing the time evolution of the frequency spectra and
estimation of the Lyapunov exponents based on the neural network approach.
The book consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 offers an introduction to the
problems considered in the book, with emphasis on both the importance of a
rigorous mathematical treatment and application-oriented mathematical modeling.
It provides a description of the state of the art of problems devoted to the non-
classical mathematical modeling of structural members as well as highlighting the
gaps in research and challenges that one faces in developing novel models, which is
important for obtaining reliable and computationally acceptable solutions to the
governing nonlinear partial differential equations.
Chapter 2 is devoted to derivation of the mathematical models of nonlinear
dynamics of plates and shallow shells under internal/external temperature fields.
The variational formulation gives PDEs of different dimensions and different types.
Preface vii

The problem is studied within the first-order kinematic Kirchhoff–Love model,

taking into account von Kármán geometric nonlinearity, a physical nonlinearity,
and heat transfer processes. The governing PDEs are solved by the Faedo–Galerkin
method in higher approximations and the finite difference method to second-order
accuracy. A wide class of problems of nonlinear vibrations of shells and shells has
been solved in a comprehensive way with numerous analyses of case studies.
Nonclassical mathematical models and stability problems of multilayer ortho-
tropic thermoelastic shells within modified Timoshenko-type hypotheses are stud-
ied in Chapter 3, which includes the development of the construction of improved
mathematical models aimed at a rigorous study of nonlinear plates and shells under
the action of temperature fields. This chapter also illustrates the reliability of
boundary value problems of the models analyzed and discusses the problem of
static stability of multilayer orthotropic shells based on numerical investigations.
Chapter 4 deals with the general problem of diffraction in the theory of
plates/shells interacting locally with temperature fields. PDEs of different types and
dimensions are derived from the Hamilton/Onsager variational equations. The
existence of a generalized solution is proved, and the use of the Faedo–Galerkin
method is validated. Timoshenko, Kirchhoff–Love, and Grigolyuk–Chulkov
models are considered, and coupled problems of thermoelasticity exhibited by
mixed-form PDEs in displacements are illustrated and solved.
Chapter 5 deals with stability of flexible shallow shells under transversal load
and heat flow in which a coupling of thermal and deformation fields is neglected.
Dynamic pre- and postcritical behaviors of spherical and cylindrical shells are
studied. It is shown that an increase in the nondimensional heat transfer coefficient
implies an increase in thermal stresses and deflection amplitudes of the studied
shells, among other effects.
Chapter 6 presents methods and algorithms for economical (in the sense of
computational time) numerical investigations of the stability of multilayer flexible
orthotropic shells “in the large” under temperature fields within the models of
Timoshenko second-order approximation, the Sheremetev-Pelekh–Reddy–Levinson
third-order approximations, the Grigolyuk–Kulikov models and their modifications,
and the model with e-regularization. In the latter case, a theorem regarding the
existence of a general solution is proved. Algorithms devoted to the difference
approximation of differential operators appearing in the governing PDEs of asym-
metric packing of multilayer shells are developed. Numerous results dealing with the
obtained “load-deflection” stability curves are presented and discussed, also with
regard to application of the different mathematical models.
Chapter 7 focuses on the analysis of chaotic vibrations of closed cylindrical
shells under local transversal load and temperature field within the first-order
Kirchhoff–Love approximation model. A novel scenario of transition from regular
to chaotic shell dynamics is detected and illustrated. The influence of the damping
coefficient and the common action of the temperature field and the local harmonic
load is investigated, among other things.
viii Preface

This book is written for graduate and doctoral students in mechanical and civil
engineering, applied mathematicians and physicists, as well as for engineers
engaged in the study of nonlinear dynamics of structural members. It may be
helpful also for academics, researchers, and professionals interested in a rigorous
and comprehensive study of modeling nonlinear phenomena governed by PDEs.
We greatly appreciate the help and support of the Springer Editors, Elizabeth
Leow and Dahlia Fisch while writing the book.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge a support of the Russian Science
Foundation RSF No 16-11-10138 grant.

Saratov, Russia Vadim A. Krysko

Lodz, Poland Jan Awrejcewicz
Saratov, Russia Maxim V. Zhigalov
Saratov, Russia Valeriy F. Kirichenko
Saratov, Russia Anton V. Krysko
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Mathematical Modeling of Nonlinear Dynamics of Continuous
Mechanical Structures with an Account of Internal and External
Temperature Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
2.1 Coupling of Temperature and Deformation: The First
Approximation Models and Parabolic Heat Transfer
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Fundamental Assumptions and Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.2 Reduction of the 3D Problem to the 2D Problem . . . . . . . 25
2.1.3 Variational Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.4 Differential Equations Governing the Dynamics
of Shallow Flexible Plates/Shells, Taking into Account
the Coupling of Temperature and Deformation Field
in the Mixed Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
2.1.5 PDEs in Displacements in the Theory of Flexible
Plates/Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34
2.1.6 Existence of a Solution Within the Kirchhoff–Love
Model in the Mixed Form and with Parabolic Heat
Transfer Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38
2.2 Mathematical Model of Continuous Mechanical Structures
Based on the First-Order Approximation with a Hyperbolic
Heat Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
2.2.1 Formulation of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
2.2.2 Theorem of Existence of a Solution of the Problems
(2.133)–(2.136) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
2.3 Numerical Investigation of Coupled Problems in the Theory
of Shallow Shells with a Parabolic Heat Transfer Equation . . . .. 68

ix
x Contents

2.3.1 Criteria of Stability Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 68

2.3.2 Application of the Faedo–Galerkin Method . . . . . . . . ... 70
2.3.3 Employing FDM of Second-Order Accuracy to Study
Coupled Problems of Thermoelasticity of Shallow
Shells in Mixed Form with a Parabolic Heat Transfer
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 78
2.4 Mathematical Models of Second-Order Approximation
(Timoshenko Model) with a Parabolic Equation of Heat
Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.5 Mathematical Models of a Three-Layer Structure Using
First/Second Approximations for the External/Internal Layers
and the Parabolic Heat Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3 Nonclassical Models and Stability of Multilayer Orthotropic
Thermoplastic Shells within Timoshenko Modified Hypotheses . . . . 133
3.1 “Projection” Condition of Motion for a Thermoelastic
Rigid Body and Its Application in the Theory of Multilayer
Orthotropic Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.2 Examples of Compatible, Asymptotically Compatible,
and Incompatible Models (Theories) of Multilayer Orthotropic
Thermoplastic Shallow Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.2.1 Compatible, Continual, and Displacement Oriented
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.2.2 Incompatible Models, Continual, in Displacements
and Taking into Account the Contact Conditions . . . . . . . 188
3.2.3 Models Asymptotically Compatible, Continuous,
Governed by Equations in Displacements and in Mixed
Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.2.4 Asymptotically Inconsistent, the Continuum Model
in the “Displacements” or “Mixed” Form, Without
Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.3 Qualitative Investigation of Asymptotically Compatible
and Incompatible Models of Thermoelastic Shells . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.3.1 Qualitative Investigation of the Evolutionary Equations
of Theory of Shells in Displacements with a Parabolic
Heat Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.3.2 Qualitative Investigation of the Evolutionary Equations
of the Theory of Shells in Mixed Form with a Parabolic
Heat Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Contents xi

3.3.3 Qualitative Investigation of the Evolutionary Equations

in the Improved Theory of Plates with a Hyperbolic
Heat Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
3.3.4 Qualitative Investigation of the Stationary Equations
of the Improved Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4 General Problems of Diffraction in the Theory of Design:
Nonlinear Shells and Plates Locally Interacting with Temperature
Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.2 Qualitative Investigation of Generalized Problems of Diffraction
of Shell/Plates in Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.2.1 Coupled Generalized Problem of Diffraction
for a Thermoelastic Plate with the Generalized
Timoshenko and Kirchhoff–Love Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . 251
4.2.2 Coupled Generalized Problem of Diffraction for
a Thermoelastic Shell Locally Defined in the Framework
of the Generalized Hypotheses of Timoshenko
and Grigolyuk–Chulkov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.3 Qualitative Investigation of Generalized Problems
of Diffraction for Shells and Plates in Mixed Form . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.3.1 Coupled Generalized Problem of Diffraction
for a Thermoelastic Shell Locally Defined
in the Framework of the Generalized Timoshenko
and Kirchhoff–Love Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.3.2 Stationary Generalized Problem of Diffraction
of a Thermoelastic Plate with Variable Thickness . . . . . . 296
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5 Stability of Flexible Shallow Shells Subject to Transversal
Loads and Heat Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.1 Dynamic Stability of Shallow Spherical Shells with Rectangular
Planforms Under the Impact of Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.2 Stability Loss of Shells, Taking into Account Heat
and Mechanical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.3 Shell Stability Versus Simultaneous Action of Constant/
Harmonic Mechanical Load and the Impact of Heat . . . . . . . . . . 322
5.4 Dynamic Stability Loss of Flexible Shallow Shells Under
Convective Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
xii Contents

6 Mathematical Models of Multilayer Flexible Orthotropic Shells

Under a Temperature Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
6.1 Fundamental Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
6.2 Model of the Timoshenko Second-Order Approximation
(MM2) [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.3 The Sheremetev–Pelekh–Reddy–Levinson Third
Approximation Model [2–4] (MM3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.4 The Grigolyuk–Kulikov Model (MM4) [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.5 Asymptotically Compatible Model (ACM) [17] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.6 Mathematical Model of e, Regularization (MM5) . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.7 Modification of the Mathematical Models of Timoshenko
(MM2), Grigolyuk–Kulikov (MM4), and the Asymptotically
Compatible Model (ACM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.8 Numerical Investigation of Stability of Multilayer Orthotropic
Shallow Shells Within Worked-Out Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
6.9 Comparison of the “Load-Deflection” Stability Curves
of the Symmetric Multilayer Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
6.10 Comparison of the Results for 1D Systems (Beams) Using
First-, Second-, and Third-Order Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
7 Chaotic Dynamics of Closed Cylindrical Shells Under Local
Transversal Load and Temperature Field (First-Order
Kirchhoff–Love Approximation Model) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
7.1 The Faedo–Galerkin Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
7.2 Chaotic Vibrations of Cylindrical Shells Under a Transversal
Local Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
7.3 On Spatiotemporal Chaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
7.4 Chaotic Vibrations as Functions of the Shell Geometric
Parameters and the Surface of the External Load . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
7.5 Shell Chaotic Vibrations Under a Local Transversal Load . . . . . . 443
7.6 Control of Chaotic Vibrations of Cylindrical Shells . . . . . . . . . . 449
7.7 Nonlinear Dynamics of Closed Cylindrical Shells Under
a Transversal Harmonic Load and Temperature Field . . . . . . . . . 453
7.8 Influence of Damping on the Shell’s Vibrations
in a Temperature Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
7.9 Chaotic Vibrations of Cylindrical Shells in a Temperature
Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Chapter 1
Introduction

The achievements of today’s material culture are obviously quantified by the results
of scientific investigation in the fields of mathematical modeling of numerous evo-
lutionary changes and in particular in the design of inhomogeneous mechanical
structures.
The term “mathematical modeling,” in a narrow sense, stands for the study of a
system with the help of computer technologies. However, in this book, this expres-
sion is employed in a wider sense, consisting of four steps of scientific investigation:
(i) construction of a mathematical model of a system; (ii) qualitative investigation of
the correctness and validity of the constructed model and properties of the modeled
system; (iii) employment of computer technologies to study the model; (iv) com-
parison of the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the real system and the
model. We may use the results of mathematical modeling in practical investigations
or modify the model by repeating again the four steps of investigation.
Intensive research carried out by scientists over dozens of years has yielded
numerous discrete and continuous models of mechanical structures. In the case of
shells, there is a tendency more recently observed to avoid the construction of a
two-dimensional (2D) models valid for all possible cases but rather to build dedi-
cated models that should take into account certain qualitative and quantitative shell
characteristics. This tendency is also observed in the theory of multilayer shells.
Discrete models are useful in investigating SSS (stress–strain states), whereas con-
tinuous models are more feasible for stability investigations. Moreover, research and
the construction of models of multilayer shells have revealed the importance of shear
stresses and contact boundary conditions in constructing models of multilayer shells.
In what follows we present a few important statements that should be taken into
account in considering problems of modeling and computation of structural objects:
(1) Owing to Vorovich [1], methods of reduction of 3D to 2D problems in the theory
of elastics can be divided into three groups, i.e., methods devoted to the introduc-
tion of hypotheses, analytical methods, and asymptotic methods. (2) The method of
hypotheses is characterized by the physical interpretation and possibility of direct
employment of the fundamental equations of thermodynamics of continuous objects.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1
V. A. Krysko et al., Mathematical Models of Higher Orders,
Advances in Mechanics and Mathematics 42,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04714-6_1
2 1 Introduction

It should be emphasized that in order to maintain the “physical correction,” the

method of hypotheses should be considered with respect to the variational equations
of thermodynamics; in contrast, analytical and asymptotic methods may include 3D
differential equations of the theory of elasticity, as has been pointed out by Vekula
[2], Ciarlet and Rabier [3], and Berdichevsky [4]. (3) Owing to Grigolyuk and Kogan
[5], the theory of composite shells is developing in two main directions: (i) mod-
els in which kinematic hypotheses for each separate layer are taken into account in
the derivation of the governing equations (discrete models) and (ii) models using
the hypotheses employed for all layers of a package (continual models). (4) The
method of hypotheses allows for the inclusion of a variety of a priori information
(experimental and computational data) on SSS peculiarities of inhomogeneous shells.
(5) The occurrence in multilayered shells of “soft” and “stiff” layers implies taking
into account shear stresses and contact clamping. (6) Hypotheses defining the SSS
of multilayered (inhomogeneous) shells are reduced to defining an approximation
of infinite dimension (they have infinite dimension with respect to a “transversal”
variable) and defining functions; the most popular approximations of longitudinal
displacements are polynomials of degrees one and three, though polynomials of
higher degree are also employed [6]. (7) Models proposed by different authors differ
in heuristic assumptions regarding the approximation introduced and by the method-
ology of derivation of the governing equations [1, 7–16].
The central notion of validation of correctness of mathematical models of shells is
to be found in the definition of general solutions of boundary value problems closely
linked to variational equations in continuum mechanics. Nowadays, boundary value
problems defining the classical models of shells (in the framework of the Kirchhoff–
Love hypothesis) make it possible to solve numerous tasks in the theory of existence
and uniqueness of solutions. Nonlinear problems in the theory of shallow shells are
closely linked to the earlier investigations of Vorovich [17–27], who formulated and
solved many problems in the mathematical theory of shells including (1) the devel-
opment of the mathematical theory of boundary value problems for Timoshenko-
and Reissner-type shells, taking into account account the geometric nonlinearity of
shear deformations; employment of approximate methods; (2) separating a class of
nonlinear boundary value problems of mathematical physics that can be solved based
on his originally proposed methods. Fundamental results on problems of uniqueness
and generalized dissipativity of nonlinear problems of the theory of shallow shells
and plates have been reported by Morozov [28, 29]. Karchevskii [30] employed first-
order approximations of the Kirchhoff–Love theory to solve geometrically nonlinear
models of nonshallow shells with the help of implicit function theory. Timergaliev
[31] investigated solvability in the sense of Vorovich [1], devoted to the problem of
free shallow shells without geometric boundary conditions. The method is based on
a solution taking deformations into account. In the series of Sedenko’s [32–34] pub-
lications, problems devoted to the uniqueness and existence of classical solutions
to the initial–boundary problems of the nonlinear shell equations of Marguerre–
Vlasov–Mushtari have been formulated and solved (the main tool for the proofs was
estimates based on embedding inequalities). Sedenko’s results generalized those
obtained earlier by Vorovich [35] and Morozov [28]. Vorovich and Morozov [36]
1 Introduction 3

considered a general boundary value problem of the nonlinear theory of elastic shells
exhibiting “average bending” in the framework of the hypotheses of the first approx-
imation (Kirchhoff–Love theory). The continuity of solutions with respect to small
perturbations of the shell dimensions and shape as well as with respect to small
changes in part of the employed boundary conditions is used. The proposed method-
ology made it possible to prove convergence of the finite element method where the
boundary takes an arbitrary form. Lebedev [37] proved theorems on the solvability of
nonlinear boundary value problems of shallow shells whose middle surfaces exhibit
a singularity.
Issues aimed at investigating the correctness of improved shell models are still
open [1] and require further study. Panteleyev and Medvedev [38] analyzed the coer-
civity of an operator in the case of the linear theory of three-layered shallow shells
with a soft filler and external layers made of orthotropic material. Grigolyuk et al.
[39] investigated the solvability of boundary value problems of the equilibrium con-
figurations of three-layer shells with a stiff filler (transferring a transversal shear)
including equations in displacements and in mixed forms. It should be emphasized
that the boundary value problem of solvability of Reissner’s plates has been inten-
sively studied by Morozov [29].
Since multilayer constructions (beams, plates, and shells) are applied in the air-
plane, rocketry, and ship-building industries as well as in other branches of transport,
such investigations should be carried out from the point of view of nonlinear (chaotic)
dynamics.
Nowadays it is well known and experimentally verified that chaotic vibrations are
exhibited by structural mechanical systems; such vibrations are more complex and
dangerous in engineering objects than regular vibrations. Investigations of nonlin-
ear vibrations of multilayer structural membranes include two main approaches:
The first is based on the Kirchhoff–Love hypotheses of a straight undeformed
normal holding for the whole package of layers, and the problem is reduced
to the computation of a multilayer quasihomogeneous plate/shell with reduced
elastic parameters [40–49]. The second yields nonclassical improved 2D theories
using various integral hypotheses, the second- (Timoshenko) and third-order
(Sheremetyev–Pelekh–Levinson–Reddy) approximations for the whole package of
layers, taking into account transversal deformations and stresses.
Bennett [41, 42] studied vibrations of free and externally loaded simply supported
(along their contour) rectangular composite plates reinforced by orthotropic layers.
Using the Faedo–Galerkin method and the method of harmonic balance, solutions
based on the first approximation of nonlinear equations have been derived. The
dependencies of the nonlinear frequency parameter on layers made of graphite for
three types of composites have been constructed. The stability of the obtained solution
has been reduced to a problem governed by the Mathieu–Hill equation. The influence
of the reinforcement angle and higher forms of vibrations on the borders of stability
loss of two-layer and orthotropic composite plates made from different composites
has been investigated numerically.
In the works [45, 47, 49], the Galerkin method has also been used to
derive second-order nonlinear ODEs with a cubic nonlinearity, which have been
4 1 Introduction

integrated numerically. In [45], the amplitude–frequency characteristics for the case

of a six-layer plate’s nonlinear vibrations with asymmetric layer construction along
its thickness have been presented. A similar study has been carried out for anisotropic
plates made of fiber composites [49] and lying on the Winkler and Pasternak sup-
ports [47]. Rectangular plates with orthotropic layers of different orientations have
been analyzed in [46]. The first approximation hypothesis has been employed for the
whole package of layers. Computational examples aimed at frequency estimation
of nonlinear vibrations of two-layer plates with different combinations of the layer
materials and orientation of the orthotropy axes have been carried out.
On the other hand, many works have been devoted to studying vibrations of
rectangular plates clamped along their contours. Wu and Vinson [50] studied plate
vibrations with large amplitudes based on earlier developed approaches to investigate
one-layer plates made of composite materials [51]. Berger’s hypothesis has been used
to derive simplified nonlinear dynamic equations. The solution has been found using
the Galerkin method, and the results have been reproduced for different combinations
of boundary conditions. Patricio [52] extended the study of plates in a way performed
earlier in [50, 51]. The externally loaded dissipative low-frequency nonlinear bending
vibrations of a clamped beam with stiff external layers and soft filler have been
obtained with the help of the Galerkin procedure and the method of harmonic balance.
References [43, 48] proposed a modified approach devoted to computing bending
frequencies of a plate made of a composite material based on Berger’s hypothesis.
Large-amplitude vibrations of three-layer and multilayer plates, taking into
account initial imperfections, have been studied in [44, 53–55]. In [53, 54], a
parabolic distribution of deformations of the transversal shear along the thickness
of the whole package of layers has been assumed. Five input differential equations
have been recast as one second-order nonlinear ODE, taking into account square and
cubic nonlinearity. Employing one-mode approximation, an exact solution has been
derived and then solved with the help of the perturbation method. It has been shown
that for either stiff or soft nonlinearity, the dynamic behavior of plates depends
essentially on the initial imperfections. Sircar [48] was one of the first investiga-
tors to study large nonlinear vibrations of different plates on the Winkler foundation
employing Berger’s hypothesis. Triangular and trapezoidal plates clamped along their
contours have been analyzed, and the vibration periods depending on the amplitude
and foundational properties have been presented. Externally loaded vibrations of
skew-reinforced rectangular plates supported partially on their contours have been
analyzed in [56]. Kurpa and Timoshenko [57] studied nonlinear vibrations of multi-
layer orthotropic plates of complex shapes based on the R-functions method [57] and
the method of Ritz and Galerkin. Free vibrations of sixteen-layer rectangular plates
with different numbers of rectangular cutouts have been studied, and the frequencies
of linear and nonlinear vibrations as functions of the dimension of the plate and depth
of the cutout for simply supported and clamped plates have been reported. In [58],
the finite element method has been employed to study nonlinear bending vibrations
of a skew-symmetric composite plate, taking into account transversal shears and
rotational inertia.
1 Introduction 5

Nonlinear free vibrations of three-layer rectangular simply supported plates with

damping, where a hypothesis of a piecewise linear curve has been employed, have
been studied with the help of a double trigonometric Fourier series, and the governing
ODEs have been integrated by the Runge–Kutta method in [59].
High-amplitude vibrations of rectangular composite externally driven plates with
a symmetric structure along their thickness with taking into account nonlinear shear
deformation have been studied using the finite element method in [60]. Amplitude–
frequency characteristics for different coefficients responsible for nonlinear shear
and angles of reinforced fibers of the composited plates have been reported.
The finite element model devoted to studying free nonlinear vibrations of compos-
ite plates was proposed in [61]. It was assumed that transversal shear deformations
were distributed along the plates’ thickness in a parabolic manner. Stiffness and mass
matrices have been constructed for nine-mode isoparametric elements with seven
degrees of freedom in each node. Numerical solutions to the nonlinear equation have
been found by employing the iterational method. The influence of orthotropy order,
number of layers, orientation of fibers, transversal shear, and the geometric properties
of the plate’s free frequencies have been analyzed.
In [62], with the help of the finite element method (using four-mode rectangular
FE with 12 degrees of freedom), the influence of the boundary conditions on the
frequencies of nonlinear bending vibrations of “averaged thick” composite plates
with asymmetric structure has been studied. A multimode dynamical reaction on
composite rectangular plates taking into account nonlinearity geometric nonlinearity
and under harmonic load has been investigated based on the simultaneous use of the
Galerkin method and the perturbation method in [63].
Based on FEM, the multimodal analysis of free nonlinear vibrations of composite
rods and rectangular plates has been carried out in [64]. The input system of nonlinear
differential equations was transformed into a generalized Duffing-type equation,
which was solved using the Runge–Kutta method. In the case of the fundamental
and a few higher modes of vibrations, a comparison of the FE mesh convergence to the
exact solution has been discussed. Phase portraits for isotropic and orthotropic simply
supported and clamped rods and eight-layer square plates of symmetric structure
made from graphite/epoxide materials have been reported.
This review of the state of the art has thus far shown topical aspects and the neces-
sity of investigating the following issues: (1) construction of nonclassical models of
inhomogeneous shells interfacing with various physical fields and coinciding with
the postulates of thermodynamics; (2) verification of the correctness of nonclassical
(improved) models of thermoelastic shells including nonlinear coupled problems of
thermoelasticity; (3) definition of various schemes of decomposition of deformable
constructions subject to local physical fields, verification of correctness and validity
of the employed schemes; (4) qualitative and quantitative comparison of the different
mathematical models of inhomogeneous shells and plates.
The authors of this monograph propose a novel “projectional” form of the fun-
damental conditions of motion and equilibrium of deformable rigid bodies. Based
on the “projectional” form of the motion/equilibrium conditions, a methodology of
construction of models of multilayer orthotropic thermosensitive shallow shells has
6 1 Introduction

been proposed and developed. New “compatible” and “asymptotically compatible”

models of shells with/without terminal conditions for shear components of the stress
tensor have been constructed. With an example of a new compatible model (for the
first time), the nonuniqueness of the stress–strain state (SSS) for the considered class
of multilayer shells has been taken into account. The existence of the generalized
solution has been proved, and it has been proved that it is possible to employ the
Galerkin method. The proof has been carried out for coupled and uncoupled problems
of theromoelasticity of homogeneous isotropic shells in the framework of the gener-
alized Timoshenko hypotheses and modifications thereof. The reported methodology
of the proofs of the above-mentioned theorems allows us to conclude that the case of
shells obeying the generalized Timoshenko hypotheses and the methods developed
to study boundary values problems are of equivalent significance and applicability
to other hypotheses.
Beginning of the middle of the twentieth century, the development of coupled
fields has been observed, which found applications in aviation and astronautics, as
well as in electronic, magnetic, and nuclear techniques (Maruszewski and Rymarz
[65], Bakulin and Obraztsov [66], Nowacki [25]). Elements of the investigated con-
structions under condition of the nonuniform nonstationary heating where physical–
mechanical material properties are changed and thermal stresses are generated by
different heat extensions of the structural elements. Stresses generated by heat and
force factors may result in cracks and the collapse of a construction made from brittle
materials. The material’s tendency to develop cracks is increased due to the sudden
action of thermal and force perturbations.
Duhamel [67] was among the first to formulate the problem of thermoelasticity,
and he introduced into equation of the heat construction, a member responsible for
the coupling of the volume and temperature of the investigated body in the governing
heat transfer equation. This original idea bifurcated in two independent directions
for over 100 years, i.e., into the theory of heat transfer and the theory of thermal
stresses. In the works of Carslaw [68], Lykov [69], Kutateladze [70], Kozdoba [71],
Muskhelishvili [72], Kovalenko [73], and Nowacki [74], various problems in the
theories of heat transfer and thermal stresses have been studied.
The phenomenological thermodynamics of irreversible processes is of fun-
damental significance for the development of a methodological background of
thermoelasticity. It was originally based on a generalization of Navier’s ideas devoted
to the study of the hydrodynamics of compressive fluids. The fundamental role in
the theory of irreversible processes was played by the investigations of Onsager [75],
who formulated the general principle of the least energy dissipation. This theory has
been further developed by the Holland–Belarus group (Prigogine, Groot, Mazur).
Prigogine [76] proposed a novel principle of the smallest increment of entropy suit-
able for the solution of real-world problems. The Hungarian physicist Gyarmati
[77] found relations between Onsager’s and Prigogine’s principles and derived their
integral forms. Fundamental results and generalizations of many aspects of thermo-
dynamics of constructions have been presented in the works of Sedov [78], Ilyushin
[75], Nowacki [74], and others.
From a principal point of view, the theory of Duhamel [67, 79] for nonstation-
ary heat and mechanical inputs is limited, because it does not allow for a rigorous
1 Introduction 7

description of the motion of a rigid body associated with its thermal state. Under
certain conditions, nonstationary heating is accompanied by dynamic effects in the
structure. Danilovskaya [80] solved, for the first time, a crucial problem in the theory
of elasticity with an inhomogeneous heat field. The problem dealt with a half-space
under heat impact, which since has been referred to as the theory of uncoupled ther-
moelasticity. In this theory, the temperature is defined by a parabolic PDE without
any elastic terms.
It is generally recognized that high-temperature action changes a material’s
characteristics such as elasticity modules, the Poisson coefficient, and heat trans-
fer coefficients (see Lomakin [79]). In certain investigations the above-mentioned
characteristics depended on coordinates (Tanigawa [81]).
Therefore, a temperature change is implied not only from external heat sources
but also as a result of the process of mechanical deformation. Deformations of a body
caused by mechanical and heat processes yields the so-called coupling effect of the
fields of deformation and temperature. Consequently, nonuniform heat extension
cannot, in general, be realized separately in continuum; it implies thermal stresses.
The classical theory of thermoelasticity developed on the basis of Fourier’s rule
exhibits two problematic events that do not coincide with physical observations. First,
the heat transfer equation does not include any elastic term, though the deformations
generate heating. Second, the heat transfer equation is of parabolic type, which
implies an infinite velocity in the propagation of the waves.
In 1956, Biot’s [82] work was published, where for the first time, on the basis
of irreversible processes, the notion of the fundamental relations and equations of
a linear theory of coupled thermoelasticity was introduced. Biot considered a rigid
deformable body to be a thermodynamic system under conditions of a local quasiequi-
librium, i.e., the following assumption is made: for any small physical subvolume of
the investigated system, specific relations of the equilibrium thermodynamics occur
(Nowacki [74], Gyarmati [77]). The equation of balance for the entropy of the sys-
tem allows one to derive a general equation of heat transfer in which a coupling of
temperature and deformation fields is taken into account. The level of investigation
and the obtained results with respect to coupled and uncoupled problems of ther-
moelasticity have been reported in monographs by Nowacki [25, 74], Podstrigatch,
Lomakin, Kolano [83], and others.
Kozlov [84] considered heat input problems governed by coupled linear thermoe-
lasticity equations for a plate in the framework of the Kirchhoff–Love model. The
effect of damping of thermoelastic vibrations obtained by the “coupling effect” has
been validated. However, in that work no hypothesis regarding temperature field
dissipation along the plate thickness was proposed.
In [85, 86], the possibility of approximation of a solution of the input coupled
problems of thermoelasticity by a few auxiliary uncoupled problems was pointed
out. It should be emphasized that in the coupled problems of thermoelasticity of
plates and shells, there is the absence of limitations of application of the classi-
cal and improved models. Rogacheva [87] studied the behavior of thermoelastic
shells, showing that the Kirchhoff hypothesis about the constant length of a normal
under nonlinear change of temperature along the shell’s thickness is inappropriate.
8 1 Introduction

Numerous fundamental results regarding the existence and uniqueness of solutions of

linear 3D coupled problems of thermoelasticity have been obtained using the method
of potentials and the theory of multidimensional integral equations [20, 88]. In the
latter works, the classical solutions of external and internal problems of thermoe-
lasticity have been investigated, conditions for thermoelastic radiation have been
obtained, and effective approaches to solving numerically coupled problems have
been proposed. Problems dealing with a mathematical description of wave phenom-
ena and proofs of the existence of solutions to the Cauchy problem in the coupled
problem of thermoelasticity have been stated by Smirnov et al. [89] and in [24, 89].
The state of the art of progress in the investigation of coupled linear problems of ther-
moelasticity up to 1970 was described in the introduction to the monograph [25]. In
[17, 18], rigorous proofs of the existence, uniqueness, and regularity of solutions to
problems of thermal stresses in classical and generalized thermodynamics in Sobolev
spaces are reported.
However, the issue of the correctness of the models used in nonlinear coupled prob-
lems of thermoelasticity is far from being settled. It should be emphasized, however,
that the methodology employed and developed to study nonlinear boundary value
problems in the works of Vorovich [35], Morozov [28], Lions [23], Temam [26],
Ladyzhenskaya [21, 22], Wilke [27], and others can be successfully applied to the
given class of problems. This approach has been successfully employed to study the
correctness of coupled problems in thermomechanics. In [90, 91], Dafermos studied
initial–boundary value problems for 1D nonlinear problems of thermoelastoplastic-
ity, where the existence of a smooth solution to the system of balance mass equation,
motion and energy equations was rigorously proved.
The fundamental equations of Biot theory are coupled with each other, which
excludes the first paradox of classical theory. Moreover, Biot’s theory suffers from
the existence of the parabolic heat transfer equation. In order to remove this draw-
back, a series of new theories has been proposed, including the Lord and Shulman
(LS) theory, the Green–Linsday theory (GL), the Green–Naghdi theory (GN), the
Chandrasekhaiah (CT) theory, and two theories by Hetnarski and Ignaczak (LTTE,
DPLTE).
Lord and Shulman [92] (LS) presented the theory of elasticity with one relaxation
time. In their theory, the modified law of heat transfer includes the heat flow and
its time derivative, and hence it replaces the Fourier law. The latter theory offers
a hyperbolic heat transfer PDE, which automatically removes the paradox of the
infinite velocity of heat propagation. This theory has been extended in the works of
Dhaliwal and Sherief [93] to isotropic matters with the occurrence of heat sources
and in those referring to the study of the heat impact problem.
The second coupled theory of hyperbolic thermoelasticity was introduced by
Green–Linsday, (GL) where the time derivative of temperature has been added to the
corresponding relations for stress and entropy [94]. In parallel, similar equations have
been presented by Suhubi [95]. This theory includes constants in time relaxations,
which change not only the heat transfer equations, but also the elasticity equations.
The next theory was proposed by Green and Naghdi (GN) [96]. In the GN theory,
the Fourier law has been substituted by a temperature gradient shift that yields the
1 Introduction 9

heat transfer equation without the term of the velocity of change of temperature. This
means that the existence of undamped thermoelastic waves is allowed. This theory
has been widely accepted, and nowadays it has three types that can be distinguished.
Type I refers to the standard theory based on the Fourier law of the heat flow vector,
type II concerns heat wave propagation without internal energy dissipation, and type
III takes into account dissipation effects (see the monograph [97] for more details).
The fourth hyperbolic theory of thermoelasticity, abbreviated CT, was introduced
by Chandrasekharaih [98]. The governing equations are derived based on the heat
transfer of a two-phase delay model (DPL) proposed by Tzou [99]. The development
of the theory, uniqueness of solutions, and examples of applications are considered
in [100].
The fifth low-temperature thermoelasticity theory (LTTE) was introduced by
Hetnarski and Ignaczak [101]. Here, the free energy as well as the heat flow depends
not only on the temperature and deformation tensor but also on the heat flow satis-
fying a nonlinear evolutionary equation.
The sixth model, based on thermoelasticity with two-phase delay (DPLTE), was
also introduced by Hetnarski and Ignaczak [102], where the Fourier law has two
different time terms, for the heat flow and temperature gradient.
Each of the models introduced aims at removing the drawback of the classical
dynamic thermoelasticity consisting of the occurrence of thermoelastic waves of
infinite velocity, a nonreal thermoelastic shift on a rigid body caused by short laser-
type impulses, with an improper description of the thermoelastic behavior at low
temperatures. Such theories have been proposed for different features of the coupled
theory of thermoelasticity. Attempts to develop a theory of thermoelastic waves that
are attractive to both pure and applied scientists continue. There is a series of works,
for instance [103], in which it has been shown that the influence of an infinite velocity
of heat propagation is of negligible magnitude, which speaks to the applicability of
the Biot theory. In spite of the proposed new theories of coupled thermoelasticity,
the Biot theory still is widely employed in various mathematical models.
The investigation of coupled problems of thermoelasticity by means of analyt-
ical methods is not an task. Indeed, only fundamental problems of the theory of
coupled thermoelasticity are considered using analytical approaches, such as the
problem of infinite space and half-space. The majority of results have been obtained
using numerical methods. Bagri and Eslami [104] investigated the generalized cou-
pled problem of thermoelasticity of a functional gradient dis, on the basis of the
Lord–Shulman model. The finite element method based on the Galerkin approach
has been employed to study ODEs in 3D space obtained with the help of the Laplace
transformation. Yang and Chu [105] investigated the dynamic thermoelasticity of
ring stabilization by neglecting the inertial effect in the equations of motion. They
considered the effect of mechanical coupling in the heat transfer equation. Using the
Laplace transform, the governing equations became uncoupled, and the method of
Fourier series was used to achieve a reliable solution.
In [106], a hundred coupled thermoelastic responses of a functionally graded
cylindrical shell using FEM in the Galerkin 3D form and the Laplace formulation in
the time domain have been reported.
10 1 Introduction

Hosseni et al. [107] employed the boundary element method to study coupled
problems of thermoelasticity under mechanical and heat loading in a finite 2D space.
The Laplace transform was successfully used.
This brief review of the state of the art has shown that in the majority of studies
carried out, the problems of coupled thermoelasticity have been considered in linear
form. Namely, dynamical problems have been reduced to a quasistatic form by the
employment of Laplace transforms. Such approaches certainly decrease the quality
and reliability of the results obtained. There has also been observed a lack of theoret-
ical work focused on mathematical approaches and/or mechanical criteria that allow
for carrying out a comparative analysis of different variations of improved models
using the considered approach with an emphasis on the choice on the most feasible
and economical (from the point of view of computational time) methods. On the
other hand, improvements in the theoretical approaches and the introduction of more
sophisticated models yields a need for more complex practical implementations, in
particular in the case of nonlinear models. Therefore, there is a need for worked-out
universal numerical models that are optimal for all boundary conditions and for an
arbitrary choice of the orthotropic shell layers.
The authors of this monograph have constructed mathematical models of the
nonlinear dynamics of continuous mechanical structural members (plates and shal-
low shells) taking into account both internal and external thermal fields. The kine-
matic model of the first approximation (Kirchhoff–Love) and second (Timoshenko)
approximations as well as the mixed mathematical model (Grigolyuk–Chulkov) have
been employed. A geometric nonlinearity is taken into account in addition to plastic
deformations, and heat transfer processes are included with the help of the Fourier
principle. The variational principle yields the governing PDEs of different dimen-
sions and different types (hyperbolic and hyperbolic–parabolic). The heat transfer
equation is three-dimensional, whereas the shell equations are two-dimensional. The
existence of a solution to the coupled problem of the thermoelasticity of shells in
the mixed form with the addition of the parabolic heat transfer equation has been
proved. The algorithms devoted to an investigation of coupled problems of elastic-
ity of shallow shells with the parabolic heat transfer equations have been carried
out based on the Faedo–Galerkin method and finite difference method (FDM) of
second-order accuracy. In order to solve the static problems of thermoelasticity, the
future development of a very efficient setup/relaxation method has been proposed.
A wide class of nonlinear problems of shell vibrations taking into account differ-
ent types of nonlinearity has been studied. In particular, Chap. 5 includes methods
and algorithms focusing on the numerical investigation of stability “in the large”
of multilayer shells with the following mathematical models: Timoshenko (second-
order approximation), Sheremetyev–Pelekh–Levinson–Reddy (third-order approx-
imation), Grigolyuk–Kulikov (hyperbolic model), and their modifications. Novel
mathematical models have been constructed such as the modified asymptotic model
derived with the help of a stationary variant of the “projectional conditions” of the
shell’s motion and a model with ε-regularization (a theorem on the existence of
generalized solutions is proposed). First, a comparative analysis of the computa-
tional results focusing on stability estimation “in the large” of shallow multilayer
1 Introduction 11

orthotropic shells using the above-mentioned mathematical model and including

also the Kirchhoff–Love model (first-order approximation) has been carried out.
The problem of diffraction (transmission) or decomposition of shells and plates
has enormous practical significance, in particular in carrying out the optimal design of
deformable constructions. Traditionally, by the problem of diffraction (transmission)
in mathematical physics, one means the boundary value problem in spaces consisting
of two or more different materials [22, 108, 109]. It is expected that they satisfy the
compatibility conditions of coupling, which should guarantee the absence of discon-
tinuities and equilibrium of the forces acting on the border separating the different
materials. From a formal point of view, problems of diffraction can be reduced to
the boundary value problems obtained from system of differential equations with
discontinuous coefficients. Problems devoted to the correctness and convergence of
the numerical method used to solve the latter tasks have been addressed in the mono-
graphs [22, 108–111]. It is clear that the problem of diffraction includes continuous
mathematical models of inhomogeneous (in particular multilayer) shells. It should be
emphasized that discrete models of shells cannot be reduced to problems of diffrac-
tion, because the latter requires the structural identity (owing to type and dimensions)
of the governing PDEs for various coupled subspaces (this condition can be violated
by discrete models). Similar problems, though with violation of identity, appear in
carrying out the decomposition of deformable constructions into subsystems in the
framework of dedicated problems in the theory of elasticity [14, 112], and they are
studied on the basis of a systemic analysis of the constructions under investigation.
The method of decomposition is particularly useful under analysis using the FEM
[113], known as the method of super elements. The problems of decomposition have
close links to the mathematical modeling of rib shells [114] and multilayer shells
(models of Grigolyuk, Chulkov, Kulikov [11, 12], Bolotin, and Novichkov [115]) on
the basis of the combined hypotheses. However, the latter problems are reduced to
classical problems of diffraction owing to the employment of differential variations
of the piecewise hypothesis.
In general, in order to use the method of decomposition, we need to describe the
evolution of the subspaces of deformed constructions based on various hypotheses
and by taking into account the influence of geometry, material of constructions, and
local input of various physical fields. Let us briefly address the problem of the state of
the art of this research direction. A global–local FEM model of a composite plate has
been developed in [91], where approximations of the displacement fields have been
introduced on two levels: on the finite element level (method of decomposition) and
the mesh level. There are examples of computation of composite plates consisting
of subspaces with 3D stress fields.
Kolpakov [116] studied the influence of the microstructure of a thermoelastic
beam on its microscopic properties. This required additional asymptotic analysis
of the problem of thermoelasticity in small dimensions. Grigorenko and Vasilenko
[117] considered a class of problems in the theory of multilayer shells taking into
account shear effects.
It has been shown that models in which for the whole package only one system of
hypotheses is employed that deal with ideal contact of the layers (such models define
12 1 Introduction

the problem of diffraction) do not take into account changes introduced by adhesion
processes. Aldoshina and Nazarova [118] analyzed the influence of the boundary
layer exhibited by contact of the plates. It has been pointed out that the conditions
of coupling (transmission) are usually defined by considering the transversal and
longitudinal displacements as well as rotation and bending moments. However, due to
the occurrence of new parameters, one may observe nonstandard coupling conditions.
These may appear in the contact of plates with different thicknesses with various
defects in the plate. The construction of a loudspeaker (decomposed into “thick
weak” and “thin stiff” shells) has been analyzed numerically, validating the earlier
asymptotic analysis of the coupling conditions.
It should be noticed that in studying the coupled problems of thermoelasticity
of plates and shells, there is lack of work focused on validating the limitations of
applications of the classical and improved plate/shell models. In other words, the
theory of nonlinear coupled problems of thermoelasticity with respect to the classical
models of shells remains open (in particular, the problem of existence of solutions
and the associated boundary value problems).
Consequently, the above-mentioned questions that we have raised have a negative
influence on the quality and analysis of the computational experiments performed
in the investigation of the evolutionary states (and dynamic stability) of deformed
constructions and machines. The “negative influence” presented is motivated by the
observation that in order to obtain a full description of the shear states of a con-
tinuous thermoelastic mechanical system (here a shell), it is necessary to carry out
investigations in the framework of a suitable phase or configuration space. How-
ever, this can be done only on the basis of theorems on the existence of solutions
of the boundary value problems implied by the shell modes. On the other hand, the
methodological importance of the phase and configuration spaces comes from the
principle of deformation given by Newton and Laplace, which stands as the funda-
mental scientific principle of the elastic mechanical systems studied for validating
the results of laboratory and computational experiments. Therefore, there is a need
for the development of mathematical theories for nonclassical models of the design
of inhomogeneous shallow shells with the inclusion of properly chosen associated
phase spaces. They may serve as a basis for the development of new mathematical
methods of modeling evolutionary states for shallow shells using the norms of the
introduced phase spaces. This yields the possibility for the development of reliable
computational programs to carry out the numerical experiments.
The authors of this monograph have defined a new class of generalized problems
of diffraction in the theory of shells based on the fundamental variational equations
of the thermomechanics of shallow shells and the Hamilton and Onsager principles
and the principle of virtual work. The existence of a generalized solution has been
proved. It has also been proved that it is possible to use the Galerkin method in gener-
alized problems of diffraction for shallow shells with nonconstant thickness locally
interfacing with a temperature field and under local approximation of the displace-
ments vector in the framework of the first-approximation Kirchhoff–Love model,
the second-approximation Timoshenko model, the third-approximation model of
(Sheremetyev–Pelekh–Levinson–Reddy) and the mixed Grigolyuk–Chulkov model.
1 Introduction 13

Thin elements of constructions in the form of cylindrical shells have been

investigated by numerous researchers for hundreds of years. The importance of the
problems of deformation, strength, vibrations, and the static and dynamic stability of
cylindrical shells is motivated by the immense variety of applications such as as the
carrying loads of structural elements, which are met in numerous constructions in
civil engineering, aviation and rocket technology, surface vessels, boats, submarines,
pipelines, and power stations. The first state-of-the art study focusing on the investi-
gation of cylindrical shells was published by Evensen [119]. Then other review works
appeared, including Sathyamorthy and Pandalai [120, 121], Leissa [122], Amabili
[123], and others. However, these works considered a strong reduction of the original
problem of infinite dimension to one modeled by lumped mechanical systems with
a few degrees of freedom (DOF), usually ranging from one to three.
Only in some special cases under strong assumptions can those models be treated
as reliable and validated, in particular when one takes into account different types
of nonlinearity. In particular, the geometric nonlinearity in the theory of vibrations
allows one to detect novel behavior otherwise hidden by the linear theory of vibra-
tions. Marguerre [124] introduced the background for the geometric nonlinear theory.
Later von, Kármán and Tsien [125], based on the Marguerre equations, detected that
in the postcritical states, the load decreased, with an increase in the deformations,
which was in contrast to the observed facts.
More recently, many researchers focused on solutions to problems involving the
thermoelastic behavior of thin plates and shells embedded in thermal fields including
a study of the reservoirs of high-temperature fields [126, 127], conical shells in a tem-
perature field [128], steel with covers against high temperatures [129], thermoelastic
analysis of railroad tracks [130], etc.
Investigations in the field of nonlinear dynamics of plates and shells treated as
systems of infinite dimension have revealed complex dynamic behavior, including
regular (periodic, subharmonic, ultraharmonic, quasiperiodic) and irregular (timing
chaos and spatiotemporal chaos) regimes. Consequently, the vibrational process may
exhibit an immense variety of physical phenomena, including the occurrence of
complex resonances, snap through phenomena, evolution of the spatiotemporal
dynamics (standing or propagating waves or, for example, stability loss through
either symmetric or asymmetric modes). Another dynamical aspect of nonlinear
continuous systems is associated with a study of different irregular dynamics includ-
ing chaos, hyperchaos, hyper-hyper-chaos, and deep chaos and various transitions
from regular to irregular dynamics, and vice versa.
An integral application of the theory of nonlinear vibrations was proposed by
Zeng Jing [131]. The wagon construction with two-axle suspension was considered
a lumped mass mechanical system with nine DOF. The Hopf bifurcation, limit cycle,
quasiperiodic, and chaotic vibrations and the associated phase portraits and Poincaré
maps were reported, including predictions of the threshold velocity responsible for
the occurrence of chaotic vibrations. Though numerous problems of dynamics of
plates and shells have been studied, to our knowledge there is only a very limited
quantity research on the structural package consisting of plates/shells under mechan-
ical periodic loading and temperature fields from the point of view of regular and
14 1 Introduction

chaotic dynamics. This gap is covered by our investigations with an emphasis on

plates/shells as systems with an infinite number of degrees of freedom.
In this monograph, mathematical models taking into account geometric nonlin-
earity for both cylindrical shells and panels having rectangular plan forms and being
under a sinusoidal load and thermal field have been developed. In particular, attention
is paid to the transition from regular to chaotic vibrations exhibited by the above-
mentioned continuous mechanical systems. We have investigated, among others, the
influence of the viscous damping coefficient on the nonlinear vibrations of shell-
type systems. Both static and dynamic loading have been studied as well as the
stress–strain shell state under simultaneous input of the local sinusoidal load and
temperature field.
Finally, let us briefly address the most important issues covered by this book:
(i) Construction of mathematical models of nonlinear dynamics of continuous
mechanical systems (plates and shells) under the action of external and inter-
nal temperature fields based on the kinematic models of the first, second, and
third approximations. Proof of existence of a solution of the coupled prob-
lems of thermoelasticity of shells using the first-order approximations with the
parabolic and hyperbolic heat transfer equations. Numerical analysis of non-
linear problems in the theory of shallow shells.
(ii) Construction of nonclassical models of shells and investigations of stability of
thermoelastic orthotropic multilayer shells in the framework of the modified
hypotheses of the second-order approximation.
(iii) Investigation of the generalized problems of diffraction in the theory of shells
of the first and second approximations taking into account the coupling of the
deformation and temperature fields.
(iv) Construction of mathematical models of the theory of multilayer shells in tem-
perature fields based on kinematic models of the first, second, and third approx-
imations and their modifications.
(v) Numerical investigation of nonlinear dynamics of closed cylindrical shells sub-
ject to local transversal loads under the input of temperature fields.

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Another random document with
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inclines are so steep that we had all the sensations of a giant roller-
coaster as we dashed uphill and down. I expected a collision every
time another car passed. Now we shot around a curve where a slight
skidding might have hurled us into a ravine; and now climbed a hill
where the trestle-work trembled beneath us. We rode for some
distance through “Lovers’ Lane,” a part of the ninety acres of forest
in the public park, and later climbed the steep slope of Acropolis Hill.
On top of Acropolis Hill we inspected the city’s waterworks. The
supply is carried to a reservoir here from Lake Woodworth, five miles
away. The reservoir, which has been dug out of the rock, contains a
million gallons of water more than the regular needs of the city.
On another part of the hill are the municipal tennis courts and
baseball park. The tennis courts are made by laying a level plank
floor upon the uneven surface of the rocks, and erecting about it
fences of wire netting so high that the balls cannot possibly fly over
and roll down the steep slopes of the mountain. The ball park was
blasted out of the rock. It is so situated that the hills about it form a
natural grandstand, and consequently admission is free. The players
are paid by passing the hat.
We have a good view of Prince Rupert from Acropolis Hill. In
front of us is the harbour, sparkling in the sunlight and backed by
mountainous islands of green. Behind us are forest-clad hills, lost in
the clouds, and below is the city, connected with the mainland by a
great bridge of steel. The business section is made up of two- and
three-story frame buildings, painted in modest colours. Here and
there the spire of a church rises above the other roofs; and should
you take your spyglass you might pick out the signs of banks, stores,
and real-estate offices.
There are many comfortable one- and two-story wooden
cottages rising out of the muskeg. The people have blasted out the
stumps in making the foundations for their homes, and some have
brought earth and stones and built up level yards with lawns as
green and smooth as those of old England. All kinds of vegetation
grow luxuriantly. There are many beautiful flowers, and the town is
green from one end of the year to the other.
 The climate here is milder than in Baltimore, Richmond, or St.
Louis. The mean temperature in summer is about sixty degrees
Fahrenheit, and in winter the thermometer seldom falls below eight
or ten above zero. There is but little snow in the winter. The rainfall
reminds me of that of southern Chile, where they say it rains thirteen
months every year. Because of the dampness the frosts are heavy,
and they sometimes cover the roads to a depth of three inches. Then
the people have tobogganing parties on these roller-coaster
highways.
Prince Rupert started with a boom. The town was planned and
partially developed before a single lot was offered for sale. The
Grand Trunk Pacific Railway decided upon the site, named it after
the first governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who was the
nephew of Charles I, and sent its engineers to clear the land, level
the hills, and lay out the city. The railway owned twenty-four
thousand acres of land and the first sub-division covered one twelfth
of that area. The future city was advertised, and auctions were held
in Victoria and Vancouver. The first lots brought high prices, and the
boom continued until the war halted its progress.
The inhabitants believe this city will become a great port and that
it will some day have a population of one hundred thousand or more.
With a view to the future, the city has built the largest floating dry
dock on the Pacific coast. It has cost more than three million dollars
and will accommodate ships up to six hundred feet in length and
twenty thousand tons capacity. Nearly three thousand vessels enter
the harbour in a year, and this number is on the increase.
Prince Rupert lies so far north on the globe that it is five hundred
miles nearer Yokohama than are Vancouver and Seattle. Moreover,
the journey from western Canada to Europe is shortened by the
railroad route from here to the Atlantic. England is only about four
days from Halifax. The Canadian National runs from there to this port
in one continuous line across the continent. It crosses eastern
Canada far north of the Great Lakes and from Winnipeg goes
through the wheat belt to Edmonton. It climbs the Rockies by easier
grades than any other road. It has short cuts by various connections
to all the United States cities, and it promises to be the fast freight
route for perishable products between Alaskan waters and the rest of
the continent.
The city is two days nearer Alaska by steamer than are the
Puget Sound ports, and travellers from the eastern parts of Canada
and the United States can reach there that much sooner by coming
here over the Canadian National.
The fisheries of British Columbia are the most valuable in the
Dominion. Prince Rupert has become one of the fishing centres of
the Pacific and the chief halibut port in the world. It has thirty-five
canneries and seven large cold storage plants, and scores of steam
vessels, sailing boats, and gasoline launches go back and forth
between here and the fishing grounds. About fifty American vessels
land their catches at this port every week, and every train that goes
eastward over the railway carries carloads of fresh fish to the cities
of the United States.
Halibut are caught for nine months of the year, twenty million
pounds being landed here in a single season. The moment they are
taken from the sea they are packed in ice for shipment or put into
cold storage. I am told that the fish can be kept perfectly fresh for a
month by the present method of packing. During the summer as
many as a half dozen carloads are shipped in one day. More than a
quarter of a million pounds were recently sent to New York and
Boston in a single trainload.
 Prince Rupert has miles of streets made of
planks, upheld by trestle work, or resting on the rock
underlying the city. Most of the streets and building
sites were blasted by dynamite from the sides of the
mountains.
 British Columbia leads all Canada in the value of
its fisheries, of which Prince Rupert is the centre.
More halibut is brought here each season than to any
other port in the world.
 The animals, birds, and fish surmounting the
totem poles are the family crests indicating the
different branches of an Indian tribe at Kitwanga, not
far from Prince Rupert. The poles number a score or
more, and some are a hundred feet high.
 The chief salmon fisheries of the Pacific coast are farther north
in Alaska, but nevertheless British Columbia’s catch is worth ten
million dollars a year. At Vancouver I saw the fleets of salmon
trawlers in the mouth of the Fraser. There are many salmon fisheries
near the mouth of the Skeena, not far from Prince Rupert, and forty
per cent. of all the salmon packed in the province is put up in this
city. The fresh fish are shipped only during the summer months, but
they are exported in a frozen state from the cold storage plants
throughout the winter.
 CHAPTER XXXI
BY MOTOR CAR THROUGH THE
WILDERNESS

I have come into the Yukon Territory from Alaska. The trip from
the land of Uncle Sam to that of John Bull was made over the route
followed by thousands of gold seekers in the first great Klondike rush
in the winter of 1897, when the prospectors made their way on foot
over that frozen pass. It is now summer, and I have come from
Skagway to White Horse, where I am now writing, on the White Pass
Railway.
My first journey into the interior of the Yukon has been a motor
trip of a hundred miles on the overland trail that runs from here to
Dawson. The car was of American make, the chauffeur was
“Caterpillar Ike,” and the time was yesterday from midday to
midnight. We dashed through virgin forests, climbed mountains, flew
around dizzying curves, and skidded along narrow cliffs until my
heart was in my throat but my soul was full of thrills.
The overland trail begins at White Horse and runs through the
wilderness for a distance of three hundred and fifty miles to Dawson
at the mouth of the Klondike. It is more than one hundred miles
shorter than the river trip to the gold mines, and it is used to carry
mail, passengers, and freight during the cold winter months when
everything in this region is locked tight by Jack Frost.
The road through the forest climbs over ranges of mountains,
winds its way through the valleys, and crosses swamps, bogs, and
sloughs of mud that sticks like cement. In many parts of its course it
twists about like a corkscrew, as though the surveyors had laid their
lines along the trail of a rabbit, and a drunken rabbit at that. Here it is
bedded on rock, and there it half floats on a quicksand covered with
corduroy logs. In the spring of the year the six-horse teams of the
mail stage are often mired to their bellies, and have to be lifted from
the waxy clay by a block and tackle attached to the trees.
My ride over the trail took me as far as the crest of the range
beyond Little River, whence I returned to White Horse to go down the
Yukon by steamer. The motor trip was a moving picture of the
wonders of nature. On each side of the roadway the country is the
same as it was when Columbus discovered America; it is the same
as when the Scandinavian navigators drifted down our coast about
1000 A. D.—yes, I venture, the same as it was when old Cheops
built his great pyramid on the banks of the Nile. With the exception of
several log huts where meals are served to travellers, there were no
signs of human habitation, and aside from the roads, old and new,
not one mark of human labour. We were in no danger of meeting
other machines or farm wagons, although we might have run down a
covey of birds instead of the usual chicken, or a fox or a bear in
place of a dog. At one time a lynx leaped across the trail in front of
our machine, and later a great flock of grouse passed over our
heads with a whirr. I am told that hunters sometimes bag a good lot
of birds on this route by shooting them from automobiles.
All sorts of animal tracks were to be seen as we rode over the
trail. The woods are full of bears, brown and black, caribou in great
numbers, and wide-antlered moose. There are foxes and lynx and
millions of rabbits. We passed groves of small trees, every one of
which had been killed by the rabbits. They had eaten the bark off
during the winter, beginning when the snow was two or three feet in
depth and biting it away inch by inch as the snow melted, until a belt
of white a yard wide girdled each tree. The bark above and below
was dark green or brown, and the white shone out like ivory. Beavers
and muskrats abound in the streams, and there are many kinds of
squirrels, as well as gophers, that burrow like moles under the
roadway. We crossed many such burrows, our motor car hitting them
with a bump that shot us from our seats, so that our heads struck the
top.
 Upon starting from White Horse we were told of a narrow escape
from a bear that one of the railroad clerks had had only the night
before. This man had gone out to a lake in the woods about five
miles away and made a good catch of fish. He was riding home on
his bicycle when a big black bear rushed out of the forest and upset
him. Fortunately, he fell near a dead root. He seized this as he
jumped up, and hit old Bruin a blow on the snout. Then, before the
bear had time to recover, he mounted his bicycle and sped away. But
the bear got the fish.
Our first stop was twenty-two miles from White Horse, at the
Tahkeena road house, on the Tahkeena River, where there is a
famous Irish cook, Jimmy. The road house is built of logs and heated
by a stove made of a hundred-gallon gasoline tank. The tank lies on
its side, resting on four legs made of iron pipe. A stovepipe is fitted
into the top and a door is cut in one end. The result is an excellent
heating device, and one that is common in many parts of Alaska and
the Klondike. We got a snack at this road house on our first stop and
had an excellent dinner there on our return.
We crossed the Tahkeena River on a ferry boat attached to a
cable worked by the current. We then rode on through a parklike
country, spotted with groves of pine trees, each as high as a three-
story house, as straight as an arrow, and, branches and all, no
bigger around than a nail keg. I cannot describe the beauty of these
trees. Where they were thick we rode for miles through walls of
green twenty or thirty feet high, and in places where the trees had
been burned by forest fires the walls were of silver, the dead
branches having been turned to the most exquisite filigree.
The trees here are like those of most parts of interior Alaska.
They grow in the thin soil, nowhere more than six inches or so deep,
which is underlaid by strata of earth that have been frozen for
thousands of years. The moss on the top of the soil acts as an
insulator and keeps the ice from melting except on the surface. The
roots go down to the ice and then spread out. When a tree dies one
can easily pull the stump out, roots and all, and throw it aside. The
overland trail was cleared in this way, and the sides of it are fenced
with piles of such trees.
 We are accustomed to think of this part of the world as all snow
and ice. That is so in winter, but in summer the whole country is as
spotted with flowers as a botanical garden. During our ride we
passed great beds of fireweed and motored for miles between
hedges of pink flowers, higher than the wheels of our automobile.
The woods that had been swept by forest fires were dusted with pink
blossoms, and in the open spaces there was so much colour that it
seemed as though Mother Nature had gone on a spree and painted
the whole country red. In one open place where we stopped to put
on a new tire, I picked nineteen varieties of wild flowers. Among
them were roses of bright red, and white flowers with petals like
those of a forget-me-not. There were also blue flowers the names of
which I do not know, and daisies with petals of pink and centres as
yellow as bricks of Klondike gold.
The mosses were especially wonderful. One that looked like old
ivory grew close to the ground in great patches. It reminded me of
the exquisite coral of Samoa and the Fijis. I am told that this moss is
the favourite food of the reindeer, and that the caribou paw their way
down through the snow to get it. Another curiosity found here is the
air plant. I have always thought of orchids as confined to the tropics,
but in this part of the world are polar orchids, great bunches of green
that hang high up in the trees.
The character of the country varied as we went onward. Now our
way was across a rolling plain, now the road climbed the hills, and
again it cut its way through the mountains. At one break in the hills
we could see the Ibex Range, with glaciers marking its slopes, and
its peaks capped with perpetual snow. In other places the mountains
were as green as the hills of the Alleghanies, and they had the same
royal mantle of purple. Just beyond the Tahkeena River we rode
through a valley walled with mountains from which the earth had
been torn by a cloudburst a few years before. The faces of the green
hills were covered with clay-coloured blotches and they looked as
though they had been blasted by leprosy or some earthy plague.
We crossed one little glacial river after another, and rode through
valleys that are covered with ice in the winter and become soup
sloughs in the spring. A great part of the way was over what is
known as glacial clay. This clay is solid when dry, but when moist it
has the consistency of shoemakers’ wax and, like a quicksand,
sucks in anything that goes over it. A railroad track built on it and not
well protected by drainage may disappear during a long rainy
season.
The labour of keeping the overland trail in order reminds one of
that of Hercules cleaning the Augean stables. The road bed has had
to be filled in and remade again and again. The route is changed
from year to year. Now and then we passed an old roadway that had
become so filled with boulders that a man could hardly crawl over it.
This region had no rain for three months until day before yesterday,
when enough fell to change the whole face of Nature, and make this
glacial clay like so much putty. Our automobile weighed more than
two tons, and we had to go carefully where there was any doubt as
to the condition of the clay. At one wet spot we found ourselves
down to the axles, with the wheels held fast in the mud. We had
brought with us an axe and a long-handled shovel for use in just
such an emergency. We cut down trees and made a bed of branches
in front of the car. A pine track was put under the wheels and a pine
tree used as a lever to aid the jack in getting the car out of the mud.
It took us about two hours to dig the machine from the clay and get it
on the firm road bed. After that when we came to soft clay we turned
out and sought new roads through the grass or rushed over the wet
spots to prevent the car from sinking.
The overland trail is used almost altogether during winter,
although the Canadian government keeps it in such a condition that
it is fit for travel in summer. It is, on the whole, better than most of
Uncle Sam’s roads in Alaska, and in the winter makes possibles
regular mail service into the Klondike. The freight and the mail are
carried on great sleds hauled by six horses, with relays at the
various road houses. Each house has stables for the horses and at
some of them there are sleeping accommodations for passengers.
At the Tahkeena road house I saw a great stack of horse feed
that had been brought up the Tahkeena and cached there for the
winter, and at the Little River road house I saw one of the sleds used
for carrying foodstuffs and other perishables into the Klondike during
the cold season, when the thermometer may fall to seventy degrees
below zero. The sled was a covered one, large enough to carry three
or four tons. It was so arranged that carbon heaters could be placed
in troughs around its bed. These heaters keep the tightly covered
load from freezing. Such sleds are drawn by four or six horses,
according to the state of the roads.
The Canadian government has already spent a great deal on
this road, and its upkeep costs thousands of dollars a year. Within
the last few years the trail has been much improved for the use of
automobiles. The first time an automobile road was proposed many
people scoffed at the idea and said that it could not be done. The
matter came up before the Parliament at Ottawa and was discussed
pro and con. An appropriation of fifty thousand dollars had been
asked. The objections made were that automobiles could not be run
in the low temperature of the Yukon, and that the road was so rough
that the machines could never make their way over it.
 Built at the height of the Klondike gold rush, the
White Pass Railway transported thousands of
prospectors and millions of dollars’ worth of gold
during the first few years of its existence. It is one
hundred and eleven miles long and connects
Skagway with White Horse.
 For more than half the year the Yukon River is
covered with ice, and then mail, freight, and
passengers for the interior are carried on sleds by
way of the Overland Trail from White Horse to
Dawson.
 “Our first stop was at the Tahkeena roadhouse,
famous for its Irish cook. It stands on the banks of the
Tahkeena River, which we crossed on a ferry.”
This discussion occurred in the midst of the winter, and while it
was going on the Honourable George Black, who was then
Commissioner of Yukon Territory, decided to show parliament that
the undertaking was practicable. He made an arrangement with C. A.
Thomas, the resident manager of the Yukon Gold Company at
Dawson, to take a forty-horse-power automobile over the trail. With a
chauffeur, the two men left Dawson when the road was covered with
snow and the thermometer far below zero. The long winter nights
were at hand and the sun shone only an hour or so every day. The
darkness was conquered in part by a locomotive headlight on the
front of the car.
The trip to White Horse and return was made within fifty-six
hours, of which thirty-six hours was actual running. The distance of
seven hundred and twenty miles was covered at an average speed
of twenty miles an hour for the running time of the round trip. During
the journey the thermometer fell to fifty-six degrees below zero, but
the air was dead still, and wrapped up as they were in furs, the men
did not realize how cold it was until they came to a road house and
read the thermometer.
It was necessary to keep the machine going continuously, for
during a stop of even a few minutes the engine would freeze and the
oil congeal. At one time their gasoline gave out and they had to stop
twenty miles away from a road house they had expected to reach. A
dog team was found and sent on to the road house, but while they
waited the engine froze and the oil became stiff, and they had to
build a fire under the car with wood from the forest before they could
start off again. When they had completed the journey and returned to
Dawson the bill for the road appropriation was just coming up for
action. The news of their trip was telegraphed to Ottawa and the bill
was passed.
 CHAPTER XXXII
FROM WHITE HORSE TO DAWSON

Within the last fifteen days I have travelled by foot, by rail, and
by steamer from the headwaters of the Yukon to Dawson, a distance
of five hundred miles. The river has one of its sources in the coast
range of mountains only fifteen miles from the Pacific Ocean. It starts
as a trickling stream of icy cold water and winds its way down the
hills to Lake Bennett. On the White Pass Railway I rode twenty-five
miles along the east shore of that lake to Caribou, and thence for an
hour or so farther to White Horse. That town is at the head of steam
navigation on the Yukon, from where one can go for more than two
thousand miles to the mouth of the river on Bering Sea, not far from
the Arctic Ocean.
The Yukon makes one think of Mark Twain’s description of the
Mississippi, which he knew so well as a pilot. He said: “If you will
peel an apple in one long paring and throw it over your head, the
shape it will have when it falls on the floor will represent the ordinary
curves of the river.”
Let me take you with me on my trip down this looping river. In its
upper reaches, it winds about like a snake. It narrows and widens,
now measuring only a few hundred feet from shore to shore, and
now almost as broad as a lake. It is full of sand banks, and there are
rocky cañons through which our boat shoots, its sides almost grazing
the cliffs.
Our ship down the Yukon from White Horse is the little steamer
Selkirk, drawing between four and five feet of water. Nevertheless, it
is so skilfully handled that it twists and turns with the current and at
times swings about as though on a pivot. Now the pilot throws the
boat across the stream and lets the current carry it along, and now
he drives it through the rapids, putting on steam to make the paddles
go faster.
In addition to the boat itself we have a great barge to care for.
Most of the freight that goes down the Yukon is carried on barges
pushed along in front of the steamers. The load of to-day consists
largely of cattle. The barge is enclosed in a high board fence, within
which are eight cow pens, with a double-deck sheep-fold at the back.
There are one hundred and fifty beef cattle in the pens and two
hundred live sheep in the fold. The animals were brought by rail from
Calgary to Vancouver. There they were loaded on a Canadian
Pacific steamer and carried through the thousand miles of inland
waterways that border the west coast of the continent to Skagway.
They were then taken over the mountains on the White Pass
Railway, and are now on their way to Dawson, where they will be
transferred to another steamer that will push them a thousand or
fifteen hundred miles more down the Yukon.
The freight charges are so heavy that the animals selected must
be of a high grade. The steers average three fourths of a ton and
several of them weigh close to two thousand pounds each. They
were raised on grass and are now fed on the bales of alfalfa piled
around the edge of the barge.
 From White Horse, at the head of navigation on
the Yukon, during the open season from June to
October one can travel by steamer down that river for
two thousand miles to Nome on Bering Sea.