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Copyright © 2019 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
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American Psychological Association.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Williams-Nickelson, Carol, author. | Prinstein, Mitchell J., 1970-author. |

Keilin, W. Gregory, author.
Title: Internships in psychology : the APAGS workbook for writing successful
applications and finding the right fit / by Carol Williams Nickelson, Mitchell J.
Prinstein, and W. Gregory Keilin.
Description: Fourth Edition. | Washington, DC : American Psychological
Association, [2019] | Revised edition of the authors’ Internships in psychology,
c2013. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018008940 (print) | LCCN 2018013515 (ebook) | ISBN
9781433829598 (ebook) | ISBN 1433829592 (ebook) | ISBN 9781433829581 |
ISBN 9781433829581 (print) | ISBN 1433829584 (print)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology—Study and teaching (Internship)
Classification: LCC BF77 (ebook) | LCC BF77 .I67 2019 (print) | DDC 150.71/55—
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Fourth Edition

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0000102-000

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 In Memoriam

Shane J. Lopez, PhD

1970–2016

We dedicate this edition of the workbook in memoriam of

our dear friend and colleague, Shane J. Lopez. Shane’s
many contributions to earlier editions of this workbook, his
participation in many of our American Psychological
Association preconvention workshops, his national
leadership on behalf of students and the American
Psychological Association of Graduate Schools, and his
effortless good humor will always be remembered and
appreciated. We look back on the many years we knew
Shane with fondness and tremendous gratitude for the
person he was and for the ways he enriched our lives, both
personally and professionally. We deeply miss our friend,
but his message of hope lives on in the hearts and deeds of
countless others.
 CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgments

1. Getting Started: General Overview of the Internship

Application Process
The Predoctoral Internship
Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers
What Is Accreditation?
The Increasing Importance of Accreditation
Changes in APPIC Match Eligibility
Internship Supply and Demand
Why Do Some People Have Difficulty Getting Matched to a
Preferred Internship?
How Many Sites Should You Apply To?
Internship Milestones
Moving Forward
The Next Step

2. Completing the APPIC Application for Psychology

 Internships
What Is the APPIC Application for Psychology Internships?
AAPI Online Overview
Completing the AAPI
Summarizing Your Practicum Experiences on the AAPI
Summary

3. Goals, Essays, and the Cover Letter

Setting Goals
Goals, Essays, and the Cover Letter
Guidelines for Writing Essays
Autobiographical Statement, Essay 1
Theoretical Orientation, Essay 2
Diversity Experience, Essay 3
Research Experience, Essay 4
Cover Letter: “Sell” the Fit
Summary

4. Curriculum Vitae and Letters of Recommendation

Your Curriculum Vitae
Letters of Recommendation
Additional Site-Specific Materials
Summary

5. The Interview
Scheduling Interviews
The “Big 3”
Ask, Ask, and Ask Again
Purpose and Goals of the Interview
Thank-You Notes

6. The Match
 An Overview of the APPIC Match
Match Registration
Phase I of the Match
What if I Don’t Match?
Other Things to Know
Phase II of the Match
The APPIC Post-Match Vacancy Service

7. Frequently Asked Questions From Prospective Interns

Getting Started
The APPIC Application for Psychology Internships
Goals and Essays
CVs and References
The Interview
The Match

8. Advice for Directors of Clinical Training of Students in the

Internship Application Process
Step 1: Orienting Students to the Application Process
Step 2: Helping Students Complete Their Applications
Step 3: Preparing Students for Interviews
Step 4: Debriefing and Rank Order Lists
Step 5: Helping With Phase II of the Match, if Needed
Conclusion

Appendix: Additional Resources

About the Authors
 PREFACE

Not so long ago, few resources were available to help students

navigate the internship application process. Students experienced a
great deal of anxiety and confusion throughout the process and had
many questions about how best to proceed. This great unmet need
led the three of us to become involved with local and national
associations that advocate for students and attend to training issues.
We served on committees, were elected to offices, and were asked
to speak at conferences about the internship process. These
activities ultimately led to the creation of the first American
Psychological Association of Graduate Students (APAGS) special
preconvention workshop on the internship application process, which
was presented at the 108th Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Association (APA) in 2000 in Washington, DC.
We created a set of handouts, which we conceived as a
workbook, that were designed to help applicants prepare for each
aspect of the internship application process in a careful, systematic
manner. We hoped that through the workshop and the workbook,
we would help students reconsider the internship application process
as an opportunity to start establishing their professional identity by
consulting with advisors, developing professional goals, meeting
dozens of professionals with a range of experiences, and discussing
their professional development and interests with people outside of
their graduate program. By reframing the tasks involved in this
process, we hoped that the application procedure might become a
little less cumbersome and that applicants could focus on finding not
just any internship but the right internship for them.
The workshop was a hit, and our hopes for this workbook were
more than realized. The early versions of this workbook were
distributed directly by the APAGS office and were very well-received.
We were therefore happy when, in 2004, APA Books took over
publication of the workbook and gave it even wider distribution. Our
goal has always been to help students get through a process that
can seem daunting and even confusing because of all the advice—
good and not-so-good—circulating in programs.
This is our fourth edition of the workbook, reflecting ongoing
changes in the application process and trends in psychology training
and internship availability. The application process is now an online
system. The process known as the Clearinghouse has been replaced
by Phase II of the Match and the Post-Match Vacancy Service. There
is now a Standardized Reference Form. And, perhaps most
important, the internship marketplace has changed dramatically. This
edition of the workbook offers updated and enhanced information to
address the evolution and many modifications to the application
process. In recent years, we added a chapter for directors of clinical
training, offering suggestions on how they might best assist students
during this process. Numerous additional changes also have been
made—many of which are based on readers’ feedback on earlier
editions.
We are pleased that the workbook is now available to a greater
number of students and that APA Books shares our goal of keeping
the price low to accommodate students’ limited budgets. Since our
first APAGS workshop 18 years ago, we have donated all our
royalties from prior workshop registration fees and workbook sales
to APAGS to continue supporting programs that directly benefit
students. For example, in earlier years, some of us have presented
portions of the internship workshop around the country for APAGS,
and sales of the book have supported many APAGS scholarships and
awards, additional APAGS-developed programs that address
internship issues, and other important aspects of graduate training in
psychology. Thus, we receive no direct financial gain from our work
on this project. Our reward is knowing that we are helping you! We
are thrilled that readers have found this workbook to be an
invaluable resource, and we are very pleased to offer this new
edition with substantial changes and updates.
Similar to past editions, this volume has a practical orientation,
presenting a discussion of each aspect of the internship process in
order and with new insights. We have included numerous examples
to help applicants calculate their clinical hours, compose essays,
craft impressive cover letters, write thank-you notes, and practice
interview questions. The examples are from real applicants, all of
whom successfully obtained an internship match; they are neither
ideal nor flawless but are realistic, excellent examples that illustrate
many of the suggestions offered in this volume. We are grateful to
the generous and courageous applicants who provided us with their
materials to be presented anonymously in this book.
We hope this volume will continue to provide readers the
support, assistance, and perspective they need to successfully
navigate the internship application process.
Good luck to you all!
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This is for you, internship applicants! Because of your consistent

positive feedback over the years, we have remained committed to
helping you achieve success throughout the internship process. This
workbook was developed to address your needs and was shaped by
your feedback and encouragement during our annual American
Psychological Association of Graduate Students (APAGS) internship
workshops and other conversations. Your ongoing support and
expressions of gratitude have been our inspiration and the
motivating force for both completing this project and keeping the
content fresh and relevant. Your membership in APAGS has also
helped to make our workshop and workbook available to students
each year. We hope this workbook offers you some direction,
comfort, and perspective, along with a little humor, throughout the
internship application process.
We also thank all the students who voluntarily provided sections
of their actual internship application materials for use in this
workbook without any expectation of recognition or reward. Their
gesture of camaraderie is greatly appreciated because their work will
help future generations of internship applicants.
We also gratefully acknowledge Richard Suinn, past president of
the American Psychological Association (APA), and the APA Board of
Directors for allocating seed money from their limited contingency
funds in 2000 to help launch the workshop and workbook. Nadine J.
Kaslow, past chair of the Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and
Internship Centers (APPIC), and the entire APPIC board deserve
tremendous recognition for their dedication to students and to
internship training.
Carol Williams-Nickelson thanks the staff of the University of
Notre Dame Counseling Center, especially Sue Steibe-Pasalich,
Patrick Utz, Micky Franco, Rita Donley, and Dominic Vachon, for a
memorable and richly rewarding internship experience. The
immeasurable support provided by her colleagues at APA,
particularly L. Michael Honaker, her former boss and mentor, and
former deputy chief executive officer of APA, is deeply appreciated.
Carol is grateful to her husband, David Nickelson, JD, PsyD, for his
encouragement in all her endeavors. Most important, Carol thanks
her precious daughters, Jillian and Tiffany, for excusing their mom to
participate in seemingly endless APA meetings and for being the
youngest budding psychologists to attend the internship workshop
(Jillian at less than 2 months old in Louisville, Kentucky, in March
2005 and Tiffany at 11 months old in San Francisco, California, in
August 2007).
Mitch Prinstein extends unending gratitude to his mentors,
Annette La Greca and Tony Spirito, for their career guidance and
support, as well as to Audrey Zakriski, Greta Francis, Fran D’Elia, Rod
Gragg, and Donn Posner for an excellent internship experience.
Mitch also extends thanks to his friends and family for everything,
always.
Greg Keilin thanks his graduate advisor, Scott Hamilton, and his
internship training director, Melba Vasquez, for their support and
mentorship throughout the years. He also thanks his colleagues on
the APPIC Board of Directors, an incredibly energetic and dedicated
group of individuals who have been willing to take the bold steps
necessary to support quality training and to make the internship
selection process more manageable for students.
 GETTING STARTED: GENERAL OVERVIEW
1
OF THE INTERNSHIP APPLICATION
PROCESS

The psychology internship application process can be rewarding,

exhausting, stressful, and exciting. Your internship training marks the
beginning of the final stages of your graduate career in professional
psychology and is a milestone that you should be proud of reaching.
Congratulations!
You have been preparing for internship since your first day of
graduate school. As a result, you have acquired many valuable
experiences that can make you very attractive to the right internship
program. The process of gathering materials, calculating your clinical
hours, developing your curriculum vitae (CV), establishing and
articulating your internship and career goals, interviewing with
various internship sites, being matched to a site that is a good fit,
and finally going on internship is one of the most valuable exercises
you will undertake as a graduate student. This process will help you
review and assess all of your previous training, evaluate your
collective graduate experiences, define your training and career
goals, practice your job application and interviewing skills, and launch
you into your career as a psychologist.
This chapter provides you with a broad overview of the entire
internship application process and gives you some organizational
tools to assist you in preparation. It is no secret that decisions about
internship often are difficult and anxiety provoking. The process
includes many unknown factors that you may be contemplating:
Where will I go? Will I measure up? Will my application be
competitive? Do I really have what it takes to make it? Can I move?
Will I survive living in a region that has snow? Will my family be
supportive? How will I live on my small stipend? What will my
supervisors be like? Will I connect with my fellow interns? What will
be next for me after internship? Will I have a positive experience? As
you well know, change is rarely easy and is almost always stressful.
We hope to help you to eliminate some of the unproductive worry
you may be experiencing and instead to capitalize on the normal,
productive, and motivating anxiety that is a natural part of doing
anything new and different, particularly when you are being
evaluated. So, relax as much as you can and do your best to learn
from and enjoy this process.
We understand that you may be worried about the many nuances
of where and how to apply for internships and especially how to
present yourself to an entirely new group of faculty and supervisors
who will be evaluating you all over again. Although you have
probably already established yourself in your doctoral program as a
competent student with a variety of talents, soon you will be faced
with the task of explaining and demonstrating your competence and
interests to a new group of evaluators. This is not the first time that
you will have to do this, nor will it be the last. Each time you apply
for a new job, even if you have a stellar and well-known reputation,
you will have to sell yourself and your skills. Preparing for and
applying to internship sites is one of the best ways of practicing for
future job interviews and opportunities. If you plan and prepare well
now, you will gain valuable skills and knowledge that will benefit you
for years to come.
THE PREDOCTORAL INTERNSHIP

The psychology predoctoral internship is typically a year-long, full-

time clinical training experience that is a required part of a student’s
doctoral program. The internship is often described as the “capstone”
of graduate training in psychology and differs from practicum and
work experience by its rigorous nature, its timing in the overall
sequence of graduate training, the intensive supervision and training
received, the focus on the development of advanced skills, and the
high level of organization and commitment to the training program
that is required of the sponsoring agency. Although a very limited
number of 2-year, half-time internship positions are available, the vast
majority of students attend internship on a full-time basis. The
internship typically occurs in the final year of one’s doctoral program
and ideally after the student has completed comprehensive
examinations and proposed (or, it is hoped, defended) his or her
dissertation. The policies of the Association of Psychology
Postdoctoral and Internship Centers (APPIC) state that internship
applicants must be currently enrolled in a doctoral program in health
service psychology (i.e., clinical, counseling, or school psychology or
some combination of those three areas) that requires internship
training and must have completed practicum experience.
Applicants begin preparing for internship at the beginning of their
training programs by carefully selecting the type of practicum training
they receive and by tracking and recording all related training hours,
experiences, and supervision. This process helps prospective interns
consider the type of training they still need when it comes time to
apply for internship.
ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGY POSTDOCTORAL AND INTERNSHIP CENTERS

The first step in preparing for internship is to become familiar with

APPIC and its website (http://www.appic.org). APPIC is the
organization that oversees many aspects of psychology internship
and postdoctoral training in the United States and Canada, most
notably the selection and placement of interns and postdoctoral
fellows. APPIC is governed by a board of directors that is elected by
its membership—nearly 1,000 internship and postdoctoral training
programs in the United States and Canada.
It is important to understand that APPIC is not an accrediting
body; it is a membership organization. In other words, an internship
program that is a member of APPIC may or may not be accredited.
Accreditation is granted by other organizations, as we discuss in the
next section. You may occasionally hear someone mistakenly refer to
an internship program as “APPIC accredited” when they really likely
mean that the program is an APPIC member.
To become and remain an APPIC member, an internship program
must meet APPIC’s membership criteria. Although these criteria have
been developed to be indicators of quality training, they are not as
rigorous, comprehensive, or highly regarded as the standards used
by recognized accrediting organizations in psychology. Furthermore,
the review process to become an APPIC member (submitting a
written application that is reviewed by a committee) involves far less
scrutiny than does the process of attaining accreditation.
APPIC oversees the internship selection process and provides a
number of services and resources for prospective interns, doctoral
programs, and internship programs, such as

the APPIC Directory Online, which is a catalog of APPIC-

member internship programs that is searchable using a variety
of criteria;
 the APPIC Application for Psychology Internships (AAPI) Online
service (pronounced “app-ee”), a service that allows students
to develop a standardized application that can be submitted to
multiple internship sites via the Internet;
the APPIC Match, an organized and fair process by which
students are placed into internship positions based on the
expressed preferences of applicants and programs;
the APPIC Post-Match Vacancy Service, a process that operates
after the APPIC Match has completed, connecting students
who remain unmatched with programs that have unfilled
positions;
informal problem consultation and a formal complaint process,
services to assist students who run into difficulties during the
application/selection process or while on internship; and
extensive information, statistics, FAQs, e-mail lists, and other
resources to assist students and programs in navigating the
internship application and selection experiences.

We discuss these services and resources in greater detail in the

chapters that follow.

WHAT IS ACCREDITATION?

In a nutshell, an accredited program is one that has met certain

standards of quality as defined by an accrediting body. Accreditation
is a voluntary process that is rigorous, time consuming, and
expensive for a program to attain. Internship programs that apply for
accreditation usually develop an organized training model along with
a sequence of training and clinical experiences that fit that model.
They must provide a certain level of supervision, adequate physical
resources, and a reasonable stipend. Furthermore, every 5 to 10
years, internship programs must complete an extensive document
called a Self-Study (which is usually longer than a dissertation!) and
host an intensive, multiday, on-site visit by representatives of the
accrediting body.
Currently, two organizations are generally recognized and
accepted as accrediting bodies in psychology: the American
Psychological Association (APA) for programs in the United States,
and the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) for programs in
Canada. A program that is accredited by APA or CPA has achieved the
highest form of recognition available. Students who complete APA- or
CPA-accredited doctoral and internship programs are least likely to
have difficulties in becoming licensed or in securing employment as a
psychologist.
Accreditation by APA and CPA is different from other forms of
accreditation (e.g., regional accreditation) because those other forms
carry very little weight when it comes to your future as a
psychologist. For the purposes of this workbook, the term
accreditation refers only to accreditation by APA or CPA.

THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF ACCREDITATION

You may be surprised to hear that according to APA, psychology is

the only major health profession that does not require its students to
attend accredited doctoral and internship programs to be qualified to
practice. In recent years, many have argued that this situation is both
unjustifiable and unsustainable, given the importance of ensuring the
provision of high-quality services to clients/patients, as well as the
need for psychologists to be seen as competent and qualified in an
increasingly integrated health care environment.
In fact, things are changing rapidly when it comes to the
importance of accreditation within psychology. In 2013, the APA
Council of Representatives approved a resolution that stated that
health service psychologists must be trained in accredited doctoral
and internship programs and further identified a timeline for the
implementation of these standards. Although this resolution reflects
only APA’s official perspective on the matter, it has had great
influence since it was approved. For example, there has been a
significant effort to assist internship programs in the accreditation
process; in early 2018, approximately 80% (630 out of nearly 800) of
internships that were APPIC members were also accredited, a
substantial increase from just a few years earlier. Furthermore, some
licensing boards have already enacted rules that require a candidate
to have graduated from an accredited doctoral program or internship
to be licensed.
Although no one can predict the future with certainty, from our
perspective it seems very likely that accreditation will soon become
the standard for education and training in psychology, and virtually all
students will graduate from accredited doctoral programs and
complete accredited internships. This suggests that those who have
completed nonaccredited training programs will find themselves more
and more in the minority, facing increased competition, fewer
opportunities, and some doors being closed entirely.
Attending an accredited internship can help you feel confident
that you will have a high-quality training experience as well as the
comfort of knowing that it is highly unlikely that you will encounter
barriers when applying for licensure or employment. On the other
hand, if you are considering attending a nonaccredited internship
program, it is important that you understand the potential risks in
doing so. Some jurisdictions have specific criteria that an
unaccredited internship must meet for the candidate to be licensed. If
your internship does not meet those requirements, you will not be
able to be licensed as a psychologist in that jurisdiction (see the
Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards’ website at
http://www.asppb.org for more information). As far as future
employment is concerned, many employers explicitly state that they
will only employ psychologists who interned at and/or graduated from
accredited programs. Some examples of situations in which an
accredited doctoral program and/or internship are more likely to be
required of applicants include academic positions and faculty
appointments, governmental agencies, hospitals and other medical
facilities, positions located in certain competitive geographic regions
(e.g., New York City), appointments to some managed-care panels,
and all psychologist positions in Veterans Affairs hospitals and clinics.
So, what does all of this mean for you and your decisions about
internship? For one thing, it means that, more than ever, you should
consider nonaccredited internship programs only if you fully
understand the risks. And, those risks should be considered with an
eye toward the future—and the knowledge that what worked in the
past for some may not work in the future. Specifically, if one of your
mentors tells you not to worry about attending a nonaccredited
internship, you should understand that such advice may be based on
past experiences that have limited relevance to where psychology is
heading. This advice may be provided in good faith, with a genuine
desire to be helpful, but it also may not be accurate for today’s
graduate students. It is vitally important that you do your homework
and talk to a variety of people in making this important decision.
Remember, if you decide to accept a nonaccredited internship and
eventually run into difficulties, there are currently almost no options
to do a second (accredited) internship.

CHANGES IN APPIC MATCH ELIGIBILITY

Based on the changes taking place in the field related to

accreditation, APPIC decided that a student would be eligible to
participate in the Match and Post-Match Vacancy Service only if he or
she was (a) enrolled in an accredited doctoral program, or (b)
enrolled in a nonaccredited doctoral program that had reached the
point in its accreditation process to have been awarded a site visit by
an accrediting organization. This change took effect beginning with
the 2017–2018 selection process for the 2018–2019 internship
training year.
Although this change will not affect the vast majority of students,
because most are from accredited doctoral programs, the 200+
students from nonaccredited programs who seek internship each year
will be seriously affected. APPIC did announce what it described as a
“one-year, one-time” partial exception for the 2018 Match, allowing
students from nonaccredited doctoral programs to seek positions in
the Post-Match Vacancy Service once both phases of the Match were
over. However, as of this writing, APPIC had not yet determined
whether it would extend that exception to future years. You should
check the APPIC web site for the latest eligibility criteria.
If you are currently enrolled in a doctoral program that is not yet
accredited, we strongly encourage you discuss your options with your
director of clinical training. In particular, if your doctoral program is
not in the process of seeking accreditation, you and your fellow
students may wish to encourage them to do so.

INTERNSHIP SUPPLY AND DEMAND

You have probably heard much about the psychology internship

supply-and-demand problem, which refers to the long-standing
shortage of internship positions as compared with the number of
applicants who are seeking such positions. And you may have
witnessed students who were a few years ahead of you in your
doctoral program going through the stress and worry of not
matching, having to wait a year, and so on.
Fortunately, as of this writing, those issues have greatly
diminished. The number of internship positions has increased
markedly in the past few years, while the number of graduate
students matriculating through psychology doctoral programs has
decreased. In fact, the selection process for the 2017–2018 training
year resulted in approximately 200 internship positions in the United
States and Canada that were never filled. Thus, with rare exceptions,
there is now an internship position for every psychology graduate
student who wants one. Table 1.1 provides a comparison of the
Match participation numbers between 2012 (the year of the worst
imbalance) and 2017.
Table 1.1. Five-Year Comparison of APPIC Match Statistics (2012–2017)

What remains, however, is a shortage of accredited internship

positions, although that is rapidly improving as well. In the 2017
APPIC Match, there were 752 fewer accredited positions than the
number of applicants, which meant that there were accredited
positions for 81% of all applicants (as compared with an accredited
position for 53% of applicants back in 2012).
These changes are terrific news for applicants and are the result
of much effort (not to mention money) from the psychology
education and training community. For you, it means that you will be
able to avoid much of the angst and worry about not matching that
was experienced by students who sought internship just a few years
ago. However, it does not mean that you can submit mediocre
applications to sites or not take the process seriously, and it remains
important for you to devote sufficient time and effort to the process.
WHY DO SOME PEOPLE HAVE DIFFICULTY GETTING MATCHED TO A
PREFERRED INTERNSHIP?

Here are some of the more common reasons that applicants have
difficulty matching or don’t match to one of their higher-ranked
programs.

Applicant is geographically restricted. Some applicants,

because of family, financial, employment, or other obligations,
are limited geographically in their internship search. This can
result in an insufficient number of sites to which one can apply
or being put in a position of applying to sites that are a poor fit
for one’s training needs. Although geographic restrictions are
unavoidable for some, those who do have geographic flexibility
are generally encouraged to broaden their search to prevent
these difficulties.
Applicant applies to too few sites. As outlined in Table 1.2,
applying to fewer than 11 internship sites can result in a
greater chance of remaining unmatched.
Applicant applies to primarily “competitive” sites (i.e., sites that
receive a large number of applications for a small number of
positions). Some sites receive hundreds of applications, and
those who apply exclusively to such sites run a greater risk of
not matching—regardless of their qualifications.
Applicant needs to attend a part-time internship.
Unfortunately, the number of 2-year, part-time psychology
internship positions is far lower than the number of students
who prefer them.
Applicant is from an unaccredited doctoral program. As noted
previously, accreditation is becoming an increasingly important
factor in hiring decisions, and the internship process is no
exception. Many internship programs will not accept students
from nonaccredited doctoral programs.
Applicant is not a good fit for the programs to which he or she
applies. An extremely important part of the internship
application process is to choose sites that are a good fit for
your background, training, and experiences. Internship training
directors often consider fit to be one of the most important
criteria when evaluating applicants. Applying to more than a
few sites that aren’t a good fit for you can lower your chances
of being matched.
Essays and/or cover letters are poorly written or not
compelling. Your essays and cover letters provide you with the
opportunity to make your application truly come alive, and
most applicants go through multiple drafts and get feedback
from trusted mentors. Cover letters that are generic (i.e., not
written and tailored to each site) are not viewed favorably by
internship sites. Essays and cover letters will be addressed in
later chapters.
Interviewing skills are deficient. Just because you are a
wonderful graduate student, a wonderful clinician, a wonderful
researcher, and so on, doesn’t necessarily mean that you
interview well! In our experience, some of the most wonderful
and qualified applicants simply don’t present themselves well
on an interview. Ask your faculty and mentors to do mock
interviews with you, as that can go a long way in helping you
develop those skills and present yourself to maximum
advantage. We address this topic in Chapter 5.
Letters of recommendation are weak. It is important that you
have open and frank conversations with potential reference
writers in advance about their willingness to write you a strong
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this is the so-called "phanerozonate" structure, the term
"cryptozonate" being used when the marginals are rod-like and
inconspicuous. In other cases (Ganeriidae) the whole skeleton of the
ventral surface is made of tightly fitting plates, whilst the aboral
skeleton is either reticulate or made of imbricating plates. Lastly, the
skeleton may be represented only by nodules forming the bases of
paxillae (see p. 455), as in the Astropectinidae, or may be entirely
absent over wide areas (Brisingidae).

(b) Spines.—The spines vary more than any other part of the
skeleton. They may be close set and small, or few and large, and
often bear spines of the second order, or spinelets, attached to them.
In Asterias and its allies they are comparatively short, blunt
tubercles, covered with thick skin. In the Echinasteridae and
Asterinidae they are short and blunt, but they are very numerous and
thick set. In the Solasteridae they are long, and arranged in bundles
diverging from a common base. Such bundles may be termed
sheaves, and starting from an arrangement like this, two distinct
lines of modification may be traced. Thus (1) the members of a sheaf
become connected by a web of skin, so that the sheaf becomes an
umbrella, and successive umbrellas may adhere, so that a supra-
dorsal tent is formed (a structure characteristic of the Pterasteridae),
or (2) the members of a sheaf may become arranged in a circle
round a central vertical axis so that a structure like a capstan is
produced, which is called a "paxilla" (characteristic of
Astropectinidae, Porcellanasteridae, and Archasteridae). The axis,
[453] as shown by its development, represents the plate which bore
the bundle of spines. Again, the skeleton may consist of plates with a
close covering of granules (Pentagonasteridae, etc.). Lastly, in
Porania spines are absent, the plates being deeply embedded in a
thick leathery skin.
 Fig. 194.—Views of portions of the aboral surface of different genera of
Asteroidea in order to show the main varieties of skeleton. A, Solaster,
showing spines arranged in sheaves; B, Pteraster, showing webs forming
supra-dorsal membrane supported by diverging spines; C, Astropecten,
showing paxillae; D, Nardoa, showing uniform plating of granules. × 8.
(After Sladen.)

(c) Pedicellariae.—These are to be looked on as spines of the

second order. In Asterina and its allies they are not present, but
groups of little spines arranged in twos and threes, each group being
attached to a special small plate, are scattered over the aboral
surface; and these on irritation approach one another, and represent
the rudiment out of which pedicellariae have been developed. The
most perfect form, termed "forcipulate," in which there is a basal
ossicle, is found in Asteriidae, Brisingidae, Heliasteridae,
Pedicellasteridae, Zoroasteridae, Stichasteridae. There are two
varieties of forcipulate pedicellariae, the "crossed" and the "straight,"
which have been described on p. 432. In all other cases the
pedicellariae are devoid of the basal ossicle, and the two or more
spinelets forming the jaws are directly attached to one of the main
plates of the skeleton.

Fig. 195.—Different forms of pedicellariae (excluding the forcipulate form, for

which see Fig. 186). A, pectinate; B, pectinate; C, valvate; D, pincer-
 shaped; E, alveolate, from the side; F, alveolate, from above. × 10. (After
Sladen.)

The simplest variety is termed "pectinate"; these pedicellariae are

composed of two parallel rows of small spines opposed to each
other. They are found in the Archasteridae, and are hardly more
advanced in structure than the groups of spines found in Asterina. In
Leptogonaster and its allies there are pincer-shaped pedicellariae
composed of two curved rods articulating with one of the plates of
the skeleton, and also "alveolate" pedicellariae, composed of two
short prongs which are implanted on a concave tubercle borne on
one of the plates of the skeleton. In the Antheneidae every plate of
the ventral surface bears a large "valvate" pedicellaria consisting of
two horizontally elongated ridges, which can meet one another. It is
possible that valvate pedicellariae have been derived from a
pectinate form in which successive spinules of one row have
become adherent.

(d) Ambulacral Skeleton.—In every case, whether spines are

developed elsewhere or not, the adambulacral plates bear spines.
Where the spines are elsewhere represented by granules (Nardoa
and its allies) (Fig. 194, D) the adambulacral spines are short and
blunt. The terms "monacanthid" and "diplacanthid" are used to
express the occurrence of one or two rows of spines respectively on
each adambulacral plate.

In the Zoroasteridae the adambulacral plates are curved, and are

alternately convex and concave towards the ambulacral groove, so
that this groove presents a wavy outline.

In the description of Asterias it was pointed out that the first

adambulacral plates in adjacent radii are closely approximated to
one another, and bear spines which can to some extent form a
trellis-work over the mouth. In very many species not only is this the
case, but the plates themselves project inwards over the mouth so
as to form prominent "mouth-angles." This is not the case in the
Asteriidae or the allied families.

Papulae.—In Asteriidae and many allied families these organs are

found both on the upper and under surface of the disc, but in another
large group consisting of Astropectinidae, Pentacerotidae, and allied
families, papulae are only borne on the dorsal surface, and, in some
cases, are restricted to a few groups at the base of the arms. In most
Asteroidea the papulae are arranged singly, that is to say, each
occupies one of the interspaces between the plates of the skeleton,
but in Asterias and some other genera they are arranged in tufts of
two or three.

Water-vascular System.—In its general structure this system of

organs is very constant, the two most important variations being
found, one, in Asteriidae and a few allied families, and the other, in
the Astropectinidae and the families allied to them.

The first of the variations alluded to concerns the number of the

tube-feet in a radius. In Asterias and its allies these are so numerous
that there is not room for them one behind the other, but they follow
one another in a zigzag line, the transverse canals connecting them
with the radial canals being alternately longer and shorter. In this
way the appearance of four rows of tube-feet is produced, and the
advantage of this increase in number can be recognised by any one
who has compared the quick movements of Asterias and the slow
ones of a Cribrella, for instance.

The second important variation referred to is the complete loss of the

sucker of the tube-foot, and, concomitantly, the loss of the power of
climbing. Starfish which have undergone this change live on sandy
bottoms and run over the surface of the sand. They are also
incapable of forcing asunder the valves of Molluscs, and hence are
compelled to swallow their prey whole.
"Polian vesicles," or stalked sac-like outgrowths of the water-
vascular ring, are absent from the Asteriidae, but are found in many
families—the Asterinidae, Solasteridae, Astropectinidae, for
example. They project outwards from the water-vascular ring in the
interradii; when there are several present in one interradius they
often arise from a common stalk. Cuénot believes that their sole
function, like that of Tiedemann's bodies, is to produce
amoebocytes, but this appears unlikely. It is more probable that they
act as store-houses of fluid for the water-vascular ring.

Fig. 196.—Dissection of Ctenodiscus to show the Polian vesicles. amp, Ampullae

of the tube-feet; nerv.circ, nerve-ring; Pol, Polian vesicle; sept, interradial
septum; stone c, stone-canal; T, Tiedemann's body; w.v.r, water-vascular
ring. × 1.

The stone-canal is rarely repeated, but this occurs in the aberrant

genus Acanthaster, where there may even be several in one
interradius, and each stone-canal has an axial sinus, genital stolon,
and madreporite annexed to it. According to Cuénot, in Asterias,
when 6-rayed specimens occur in a species normally 5-rayed, there
are two stone-canals, suggesting that the repetition of stone-canals
is a suppressed effort at multiplication by division. This is also true of
Echinaster, but in Ophidiaster two madreporites may occur in an
individual with five arms. In the Asterinidae the Y-shaped fold which
projects into the cavity of the stone-canal is feebly developed,
whereas in the Pentacerotidae it meets the opposite side of the
stone-canal, and in Culcita gives out branches which reduce the
cavity of the canal to a series of channels. In Echinasteridae and
some Asterinidae, and in Astropectinidae and Pentacerotidae the
ampullae become so deeply indented as to be almost divided into
two, so that each tube-foot has virtually two ampullae.
The alimentary canal has a remarkably constant structure. The only
important variation from the type, as described in Asterias, is found
amongst the Astropectinidae and Porcellanasteridae, where the
anus is wanting. In Astropecten the rectum and the rectal caeca still
persist, but in Luidia even these have disappeared. The rectal caeca
are remarkably variable structures. In Asterias there are two, but in
Pentacerotidae there are five forked caeca, in Asterina five simple
caeca, and in the Echinasteridae and Astropectinidae one large flat
slightly 5-lobed caecum. In the Asterinidae the pyloric caeca are
remarkable for the size of the enlarged basal portion in each radius,
which serves as a reservoir for the juices secreted by the branched
forks of the caecum. In Porcellanaster pacificus the pyloric caeca are
vestigial, and in Hyphalaster moseri they are absent.[454]

The genital organs are, as we have seen, outgrowths from radial

branches of the genital rachis. In most species, as in Asterias, they
are limited to a single cluster of tubes on each branch of the rachis,
but in the Astropectinidae and Pentacerotidae each branch gives rise
to a large number of clusters, arranged in longitudinal series, each
cluster having its independent opening to the exterior.

Asexual reproduction, as a regular occurrence, is not common

amongst Asteroidea. If, however, a Starfish loses some of its arms, it
has the power of regenerating the missing members. Even a single
arm will regenerate the whole Starfish. Now in some cases
(Astropectinidae, Linckiidae) Starfish will readily snap off their arms
on irritation. In Linckia this occurs at regular intervals and the
separated arm forms a new individual. In one of the Asterinidae,
Asterina wega, a small Starfish with seven arms, transverse fission
regularly occurs, a portion with three arms separating from one with
four. The same is believed to occur in two species of Asterias, and
as has already been pointed out, the repetition of the madreporite
and stone-canal is, in many cases, possibly connected with this
tendency to transverse fission.
 Classification of Asteroidea.
Whilst there is considerable agreement amongst the authorities as to
the number of families, or minor divisions of unequivocal
relationship, to be found in the class Asteroidea, there has been
great uncertainty both as to the number and limits of the orders into
which the class should be divided, and also as to the limits of the
various species. The difficulty about the species is by no means
confined to the group Echinodermata; in all cases where the attempt
is made to determine species by an examination of a few specimens
of unknown age there is bound to be uncertainty; the more so, as it
becomes increasingly evident that there is no sharp line to be drawn
between local varieties and species. In Echinodermata, however,
there is the additional difficulty that the acquisition of ripe genital
cells does not necessarily mark the termination of growth; the
animals can continue to grow and at the same time slightly alter their
characters. For this reason many of the species described may be
merely immature forms. In proportion, however, as the collections
from various localities increase in number and size, difficulties
connected with species will tend to disappear.

The disputes, however, as to the number of orders included in the

Asteroidea proceed from a different cause. The attempt to construct
detailed phylogenies involves the assumption that one set of
structures, which we take as the mark of the class, has remained
constant, whilst others which are regarded as adaptive, may have
been developed twice or thrice. As the two sets of structures are
often of about equal importance it will be seen to what an enormous
extent the personal equation enters in the determination of these
questions.

Where, as in Asteroidea, the internal organisation is very uniform,

the best method of classification is to take as our basis the different
methods in which the demands of the environment have been met. It
is in this way, we hold, that divergence of character has been
produced, for whilst species may differ in trifling details, families and
orders differ in points of functional importance. The fact that one of
the orders may have sprung from several allied species instead of
one may be admitted, and at the same time the hopelessness of
trying to push phylogenetic inference into details asserted.

Sladen, in his Monograph of the Asteroidea collected by the

"Challenger" expedition, took for the basis of his system the
presence or absence of distinct pavement-like marginal plates along
the edges of the arms and the restriction of the papulae to the aboral
surface, or their distribution over the whole surface of the body. What
connexion, if any, the presence of these pavement-like plates has
with the habits it is impossible to say, but it is unlikely to be of the
high importance with which it was regarded by Sladen, for in the
same family we have genera with inconspicuous marginals
(Asterina) and others with conspicuous marginals (Palmipes). The
restriction of the papulae to the back also varies within the same
family (Linckiidae), and whilst, on the whole, it is perhaps a primitive
arrangement, it is in many cases connected with burrowing habits,
which can scarcely be deemed to have been the original mode of life
of the class.

A far better basis is supplied by the system of Perrier,[455] who

divides the Asteroidea into five orders according to the character of
the dorsal skeleton; and this classification really corresponds with
the different habits assumed by groups of Asteroidea in order to
meet what must be regarded as one of their chief dangers, viz.
assaults by other animals, especially parasites, on their soft and
delicate skins. Since the food (so far as is known) of all Asteroidea is
more or less similar, the great differentiating factor in their
development must have been the means they adopt to shelter
themselves from their enemies. Perrier's classification, which we
shall adopt, is as follows:—

Order 1. Spinulosa.—Asteroidea in which the plates of the dorsal

skeleton bear spines arranged singly or in groups. The tube-feet
have suckers and there are no pedicellariae. Marginals sometimes
conspicuous, sometimes rod-like.
Order 2. Velata.—Asteroidea in which the dorsal surface of the
animal is concealed from view by a false membrane composed of
the webs of skin stretched between diverging groups of spines
united at the base with one another. No pedicellariae. Tube-feet with
suckers.

Order 3. Paxillosa.—Asteroidea in which the dorsal surface is

beset with paxillae (upright spines bearing two or three circles of
horizontal spinelets). Pedicellariae, when present, few, and never of
the forcipulate variety; often absent. Marginals large. Papulae only
on dorsal surface. Tube-feet mostly devoid of suckers.

Order 4. Valvata.—Asteroidea in which the dorsal surface is

protected by plates covered with a mail of minute granules.
Pedicellariae of the valvate or alveolate type. Marginals large.

Order 5. Forcipulata.—Asteroidea in which the dorsal surface is

beset with small spines surrounded by numerous forcipulate
pedicellariae. Tube-feet with suckers and arranged in four rows.
Marginals rod-like and inconspicuous.

Order I. Spinulosa.
This is by far the most primitive order of Asteroidea. The tube-feet
are arranged in two rows only, and there is no special means of
protecting the back, other than the small close-set plates bearing
spines, with which it is covered. In some cases, as Asterina, these
spines have a tendency to converge when irritated, and thus act
somewhat like pedicellariae. This circumstance suggests strongly
the manner in which pedicellariae have been developed from small
groups of spines. The order is divided into six families, of which four
have common representatives on the British coast.

Fam. 1. Echinasteridae.—Spinulosa in which the aboral skeleton is

composed of close set plates bearing comparatively small spines.
This family is represented on the British coasts by the beautiful
scarlet Starfish Cribrella (Henricia) sanguinolenta. It is also found on
the Norwegian coast and on the east coast of North America. On the
Pacific coast it is replaced by a larger species, C. laeviuscula. The
narrow ambulacral grooves and sluggish movements at once
distinguish it from the Starfish described as the type. Indeed, all the
Spinulosa seem to be slow in their movements in contrast to the
comparatively active Asterias and its allies. Cribrella is remarkable
for its large eggs, which have a rapid development. The larva never
swims at the surface but glides only for a short time over the bottom.
Echinaster is an allied genus in which each plate bears a single
somewhat enlarged spine. It possesses on the skin of the aboral
surface numerous pits lined by glandular walls, which probably
secrete a poisonous fluid which defends it. Acanthaster has thorny
spines, more than ten arms, and several stone-canals and
madreporites.

Fam. 2. Solasteridae.—Spinulosa in which the aboral skeleton is a

network of rods. Spines arranged in diverging bundles (sheaves)
attached to a basal button. This family includes the well-known "Sun-
stars," with numerous arms and a wide peristome. There are two
species found on both sides of the Atlantic. Solaster papposus, with
thirteen or fourteen arms and long bundles of spines on the dorsal
surface, which is of an orange colour variegated with yellow, and S.
endeca with eleven rays and shorter spines and of a reddish violet
colour. Rhipidaster has eight arms. Some genera have, however,
only five arms, as, for instance, Peribolaster and Korethraster (Fig.
197). In this family there are conspicuous "Polian vesicles" attached
to the water-vascular ring.
 Fig. 197.—Korethraster hispidus. × 2. (From Wyville Thomson.)

Fam. 3. Asterinidae.—Spinulosa in which the aboral skeleton

consists of overlapping plates, each bearing a few small spines. The
common British representative of this family is the small Asterina
gibbosa, in which the arms are short and stout and of somewhat
unequal length. This Starfish differs from most of its allies in being
littoral in its habit. At low tide on the south and west coasts of
England it can be found on the underside of stones feeding on the
Sponges and Ascidians with which they are covered. Like Cribrella
sanguinolenta this species has a modified development. The larva
resembles that of Cribrella, and the larval stage only lasts about a
week. Owing to the fact that Asterina lays its eggs in accessible
localities, its development has been more thoroughly worked out
than that of any other species. Palmipes membranaceus, an animal
of extraordinary thinness and flatness, is sometimes dredged up off
the coast of Britain in deeper water. Its arms are so short that the
general form is pentagonal. The infero-marginal plates are long and
rod-like, and form a conspicuous border to the body when viewed
from below.

Fam. 4. Poraniidae.—Spinulosa allied to the Asterinidae but

possessing a thick gelatinous body-wall in which the plates and
spines are buried, the marginals forming a conspicuous border to the
body. This family is represented in British waters only by Porania
pulvillus, a cushion-shaped Starfish with very short arms and of a
magnificent reddish-purple colour. It is occasionally, but rarely,
exposed at low tide.
Fam. 5. Ganeriidae.—Spinulosa allied to the Asterinidae but
distinguished by the large marginals and by the fact that the skeleton
of the oral surface consists of plates each bearing a few large
spines. Ganeria, Marginaster.

Fam. 6. Mithrodiidae.—Spinulosa with a reticulate aboral skeleton.

The spines are large and blunt, covered with minute spinules.
Mithrodia, sole genus.

These last two families are not represented in British waters.

Order II. Velata.

This is a very extraordinary group of Starfish, about the habits of
which nothing is known, since they all live at very considerable
depths. Their nearest allies amongst the Spinulosa must be looked
for amongst the Solasteridae. If the sheaves of spines with which the
latter family are provided were to become adherent at their bases,
and connected with webs of skin so as to form umbrella-like
structures, and if then these umbrellas were to become united at
their edges, we should have a supra-dorsal membrane formed such
as is characteristic of the order.

Fam. 1. Pythonasteridae.—Velata in which each sheaf of spines is

enveloped in a globular expansion of the skin and is not united with
the neighbouring sheaves. Pythonaster, sole genus.

Fam. 2. Myxasteridae.—Velata with numerous arms in which the

sheaves of spines are long and form with their connecting
"umbrellas" web-like expansions which do not fuse with one another.
Myxaster, sole genus.
Fig. 198.—Aboral view of Pteraster stellifer. mars, Dorsal brood-pouch, × 1½.
(From Sladen.)
 Fig. 199.—Oral view of Hymenaster pellucidus. × 1. (From Wyville Thomson.)

Fam. 3. Pterasteridae.—Velata in which the membranes supported

by the sheaves of spines are united so as to form a continuous
supra-dorsal tent. The Pterasteridae are represented in British
waters by a single species, Pteraster militaris, which is occasionally
dredged in deep water off the British coast, and is found also in the
Norwegian fjords and off the east coast of Canada. This interesting
Starfish has five short, blunt arms, and its general appearance at first
sight recalls that of Asterina. Closer inspection reveals the "false
back." The anus is surrounded by five fan-like valves, supported by
spines (Fig. 198), underneath which is a space in which the young
complete their development, Pteraster being one of the genera in
which the normal larval form is not developed. The tendency towards
the union of adjacent spines by webs is deeply rooted in the
organisation of the animal. It is seen on the under side where the
spines borne by the ventral plates are united so as to form
transverse combs. In Hymenaster (Fig. 199) the spines borne by the
ventral plates are long and free.

Order III. Paxillosa.

This is an exceedingly well-marked order. The armature of the upper
surface consists of paxillae. These organs as already mentioned are
probably to be traced back to sheaves of spines like those of the
Solasteridae. The same end as that striven after in the case of the
Velata has been attained, but in a different way. The horizontal
spinelets of the paxillae meet one another and form a close-fitting
mail which is almost as efficient a protection as the webs and
umbrellas of the Velata. Pedicellariae are occasionally present, but
they are always of the pectinate or pincer variety, never forcipulate.

Fam. 1. Archasteridae.—Paxillosa in which the anus is still retained

and in which the tube-feet have suckers.

The Archasteridae are a most interesting family. Thus Pararchaster

has no true paxillae, but only small isolated groups of spines. The
pectinate pedicellariae are composed each of two parallel rows of
somewhat smaller spines. The members of this family are to some
extent intermediate in structure between the Spinulosa, such as
Echinasteridae, and the other families of the Paxillosa—some
genera, indeed, might almost be classed as Spinulosa. At the same
time they are apparently closely allied with the more primitive Valvata
such as Astrogonium and its allies, some of which have paxillae on
the upper surface; although the retention of the anus and of the
suckers on the tube-feet (in which characters they agree with the
Archasteridae) distinguishes them from the more typical Paxillosa, in
which both anus and suckers are lost. Archaster (Figs. 200, 201).
Leptogonaster.

Fig. 200.—Aboral view of Archaster bifrons. × ¾. (From Wyville Thomson.)

Fam. 2. Astropectinidae.—Paxillosa which have lost the anus, but
which possess neither aboral protuberance nor interradial grooves.
The marginal plates are thick, covered with spinules and placed
horizontally. The tube-feet have no suckers.

This family is the only one of the order which occurs in British
waters, where it is represented by two genera, Astropecten and
Luidia. In Astropecten the inferior marginal plate is in immediate
contact with the adambulacral, whilst in Luidia it is separated from it
by a small intermediate plate.

Fig. 201.—Oral view of Archaster bifrons. × ¾. (From Wyville Thomson.)

Astropecten irregularis is a very common species on the coast of

Britain, and a study of its habits when in captivity has thrown a great
deal of light on many obscure points in the anatomy of the Paxillosa.
Owing to the loss of suckers it is unable to climb over rocks and
stones like the ordinary species, but it runs over the surface of the
hard sand in which it lives by means of its pointed tube-feet. The
arms are highly muscular, and the animal when laid on its back rights
itself by throwing the arms upwards and gradually overbalancing
itself. The loss of suckers has also rendered Astropecten and its
allies incapable of feeding in the manner described in the case of
Asterias rubens. They are unable forcibly to open the valves of shell-
fish, and the only resource left to them is to swallow their prey whole.
The mouth is consequently wide, and the unfortunate victims, once
inside the stomach, are compelled by suffocation to open sooner or
later, when they are digested.[456]

Fig. 202.—Oral view of Psilaster acuminatus. × 4⁄3. adamb, Adambulacral

spines; pax, paxillae; pod, pointed tube-feet devoid of sucker. (After
Sladen.)

Many interesting experiments have been made on Astropecten by

Preyer and other investigators, but one important fact[457] has
escaped their notice, that Astropecten, when at rest, lies buried in
the sand, whilst the centre of the aboral surface is raised into a cone
which projects above the surface. On the sides of this cone the few
papulae which this species possesses are distributed. This raising of
the aboral surface is obviously an expedient to facilitate respiration.
It loosens the sand over the region of the papulae, and thus allows
the water to have access to them. We can thus understand how the
restriction of the papulae to the dorsal surface, so characteristic of
the Paxillosa, is not always as Sladen imagined, a primitive
characteristic, but often an adaptation to the burrowing habits which
in all probability are characteristic of the whole order. In both Luidia
and Astropecten Cuénot has described short spines covered with
cilia in the interspaces between the marginal plates, these also
subserve respiration by drawing a current of water over the gills.
Psilaster (Fig. 202).

Fam. 3. Porcellanasteridae.—Paxillosa which have lost the anus.

There is a conical prominence in the centre of the dorsal surface
termed the epiproctal cone, and in the interradial angles there are
vertical grooves bordered by folds of membrane produced into
papillae, the so-called "cribriform organs." The marginal plates are
thin and form the vertical border of the thick disc. The tube-feet have
no suckers.

Fig. 203.—Porcellanaster caeruleus. A, aboral view; B, oral view, × 1. (From

Wyville Thomson.)

Comparing the Porcellanasteridae with the Astropectinidae we see

at once that the "epiproctal cone" is a permanent representative of
the temporary aboral elevation in Astropecten, and we are inclined to
suspect that the cribriform organs are grooves lined with cilia which
keep up a respiratory current like the ciliated spines of Luidia. In all
probability the Porcellanasteridae are more habitual burrowers than
even the Astropectinidae.

Ctenodiscus (Fig. 196), a genus in which there is a short epiproctal

cone and numerous feeble cribriform organs in each interradius, is
found in deep water north of the Shetland Islands. Porcellanaster
(Fig. 203) is a more typical genus, with one large cribriform organ in
each interradius. Hyphalaster has long arms, on which the supero-
marginal plates meet above.

Order IV. Valvata.

The Starfish included in this order are characterised by the absence
of prominent spines and by the superficial covering of minute
granules. The skeleton consists, in most cases, of plates, and these
plates with their covering of granules probably represent the first
stage in the evolution of paxillae.

The tube-feet possess well-developed suckers. No members of this

order can properly be said to be British.

Fam. 1. Linckiidae.—Valvata with long arms, the marginals being

developed equally throughout the whole length. These Starfish are
distinguished by their long narrow arms and small disc. It is possible
that these forms, so different in many respects from the other
families of the order, have been directly derived from the long-armed
Echinasteridae. Ophidiaster, Nardoa, Linckia.

Fam. 2. Pentagonasteridae.—Valvata with short arms, the

marginals being especially developed at the base and in the
interradial angles. The aboral skeleton consists of close-fitting plates.
Pentagonaster (Fig. 204), Astrogonium.

Fam. 3. Gymnasteridae.—Valvata allied to the foregoing but

distinguished by possessing a very thick skin in which the plates are
completely buried. Dermasterias, Asteropsis.

Fam. 4. Antheneidae.—Valvata with short arms. The dorsal

skeleton is reticulate and each ventral plate bears one or several
large valvular pedicellariae (Fig. 195, C). Hippasterias, Goniaster.
Fam. 5. Pentacerotidae.—Valvata with arms of moderate length.
The dorsal skeleton is reticulate but the ventral plates bear only
small pedicellariae or none. The upper marginals are smaller than
the ventral ones.

The Pentacerotidae include both short-armed and long-armed forms.

Amongst the former is Culcita, in which the body is a pentagonal
disc, all outer trace of the arms being lost; Pentaceros is a long-
armed form.

Fig. 204.—Pentagonaster japonicus. × ⅔. (After Sladen.)

The family Pentagonasteridae furnishes the key to the understanding

of most of the forms contained in this order. It contains genera such
as Astrogonium which possess on the back unmistakable paxillae,
whilst on the under surface they have the characteristic covering of
granules; these genera seem to be closely allied to the short-armed
species of the Archasteridae, from which they are distinguished
chiefly by the granular covering of the marginals. From a study of
these cases it seems clear that the plates of the dorsal skeleton of
the Valvata correspond to the supporting knobs of the paxillae much
broadened out, and the granules correspond to the spinelets of the
paxillae increased in number and diminished in size.