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LABORATORY MANUAL
FOR INTRODUCTORY GEOLOGY
FOURTH EDI TI ON
ALLAN LUDMAN
Queens College, New York
STEPHEN MARSHAK
University of Illinois
n
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY
NEW YORK • LONDON
i
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CO N T E N T S
Preface vii 2.5 rocesses at Plate Boundaries Revealed by

P
Earth Features 37
CHAPTER 1 2.5.1 Seafloor Spreading 37
Setting the Stage for Learning 2.5.2 Continental Rifting 39

2.5.3 Subduction Zones: Deducing the Steepness
about the Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 of Subduction 41
2.5.4 Transform Faults 43
1.1 Thinking Like a Geologist 2 2.5.5 Hot-Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks 46
1.1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.2 The Scientific Method 4 2.6 Active versus Passive Continental Margins 50
1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System 5

1.2.1 The Nature of Matter 5 CHAPTER 3
1.2.2 Distribution of Matter in the Earth System 6 Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.2.3 Energy in the Earth System 7
1.2.4 Temperatures and Pressure in the Earth’s Crust 11 3.1 Introduction 54
1.3 Units for Geologic Measurement 12 3.2 Classifying Earth Materials 54
1.3.1 Units of Length and Distance 12 3.3 What Is a Mineral and What Isn’t? 55
1.3.2 Other Dimensions, Other Units 12
1.3.3 Some of the Earth’s “Vital Statistics” 14
3.4 Physical Properties of Minerals 57
3.4.1 Diagnostic versus Ambiguous Properties 57
1.4 he Challenges of Studying an Entire
T 3.4.2 Luster 58
Planet 15 3.4.3 Color 58
1.4.1 The Challenge of Scale 15 3.4.4 Streak 58
1.4.2 The Challenge of Working with Geologic Time 19 3.4.5 Hardness 60
3.4.6 Crystal Habit 61
1.5 Rates of Geologic Processes 21 3.4.7 Breakage 61
APPENDIX 1.1 3.4.8 Specific Gravity 65
METRIC-U.S. CUSTOMARY CONVERSION 3.4.9 Magnetism 66
3.4.10 Feel 66
CHART 24
3.4.11 Taste 66
3.4.12 Odor 66
3.4.13 Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid 66
CHAPTER 2 3.4.14 Tenacity 66
The Way the Earth Works:
3.5 Identifying Mineral Specimens
Examining Plate Tectonics.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
66
3.6 Mineral Classification 68

2.1 Introduction 26
3.7 Minerals and the Economy 68
2.2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 26 3.7.1 What Makes Minerals Valuable? 69
2.3 Early Evidence for Plate Tectonics 28 3.7.2 Economic Mineral Deposits 69
2.3.1 Evidence from the Fit of the Continents 28 APPENDIX 3.1

2.3.2 Evidence from Reconstructing Paleoclimate MINERAL IDENTIFICATION FLOWCHARTS 75
Zones 29
2.3.3 Geographic Distribution of Earthquakes and APPENDIX 3.2
Active Volcanoes 30 DETERMINATIVE TABLES FOR SYSTEMATIC
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION 78
2.4 Modern Evidence for Plate Tectonics 33
2.4.1 Evidence for Seafloor Spreading: Oceanic APPENDIX 3.3
Magnetic Anomalies 33 COMMON MINERALS AND THEIR
2.4.2 Direct Measurement of Plate Motion 36 PROPERTIES 82
iii
CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 6
Minerals, Rocks, and the Using Sedimentary Rocks to
Rock Cycle.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Interpret Earth History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.1 Introduction 90 6.1 Introduction 144
4.2 The Three Classes of Rocks 90 6.2 Sediment Formation and Evolution 144
4.2.1 The Rock Cycle 91 6.2.1 The Origin of Sediment 144
6.2.2 Weathering and Its Influence on Sediment
4.3 A Rock Is More than the Sum of Its Minerals 91 Composition 144
4.3.1 Describing Texture 91 6.2.3 Mineralogical Maturity 145
4.4 The Processes That Produce Textures 96 6.3 The Basic Classes of Sedimentary Rocks 147
6.3.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 147
4.5 lues about a Rock’s Origin from the
C
6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 150
Minerals It Contains 100
6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks 152
4.6 Identifying Minerals in Rocks 100
6.4 Identifying Sedimentary Rocks 153
4.7 Interpreting the Origin of Rocks 103
6.5 Interpreting Clastic Sedimentary Textures 157
4.8 The Economic Value of Rocks 106 6.5.1 Grain Size and Sorting 157
6.5.2 Grain Shape 159
6.5.3 Sediment “Maturity” 159
CHAPTER 5
6.5.4 Cements in Clastic Rocks 161
Using Igneous Rocks to Interpret
6.6 edimentary Structures: Clues to Ancient
S
Earth History.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Environments 161
5.1 Introduction 112 6.6.1 Beds and Stratification 161
6.6.2 Sedimentary Structures 161
5.2 Interpreting the Cooling Histories
of Igneous Rocks 113 6.7 Fossils: Remnants of Past Life 165
5.2.1 Grain Size in Crystalline Igneous Rock 114 6.8 Applying Your Knowledge to Stratigraphy 165
5.2.2 Glassy Igneous Textures 118
5.2.3 Porous (Vesicular) Textures 118
5.2.4 Fragmental Textures 118 CHAPTER 7
5.2.5 Grain Shape 120 Interpreting Metamorphic Rocks.. . . . 173
5.3 Igneous Rock Classification and 7.1 Introduction 174
Identification 121
7.2 What Changes during Metamorphism? 174
5.3.1 Igneous Rock Classification: The Four Major
Compositional Groups 121 7.2.1 Changes in Texture 174
5.3.2 Identifying Igneous Rocks 122 7.2.2 Changes in Mineralogy 175
7.2.3 Changes in Composition 175
5.4 Origin and Evolution of Magmas 123
7.3 Agents of Metamorphism 175
5.4.1 here and Why Do Rocks and Minerals
W
Melt? 124 7.3.1 The Effect of Heat 175
5.4.2 How Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? 124 7.3.2 The Effect of Pressure 177
5.4.3 Factors Controlling Magma Composition 127 7.3.3 The Effects of Stress 180
7.3.4 The Effect of Hydrothermal Fluids 180
5.5 Igneous Rocks and Plate Tectonics 129
5.5.1 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Ultramafic Rocks
7.4 Studying Metamorphic Rocks 180
(Peridotite) 129 7.4.1 How to Determine if a Rock Is Metamorphic 181
5.5.2 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Mafic Igneous Rocks 7.4.2 Metamorphic Rock Classification and
(Basalt and Gabbro) 130 Identification 182
5.5.3 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Intermediate Igneous 7.4.3 Descriptions of Common Metamorphic Rocks 182
Rocks (Andesite and Diorite) 130
5.5.4 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Felsic Rocks (Granite
7.5 hat Can We Learn from a Metamorphic
W
and Rhyolite) 131 Rock? 186
7.5.1 Identifying the Protolith 187
5.6 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards 132 7.5.2 Interpreting the Type of Metamorphism and
5.6.1 Volcanic Landforms 132 Geologic Setting 188
5.6.2 Living with Volcanoes 134 7.5.3 Estimating the Grade of Metamorphism 190
iv CONTENTS
CHAPTER 8 10.4 Geologic Maps 256
Studying the Earth’s Landforms: 10.4.1 Introducing Geologic Maps and Map Symbols 256
10.4.2 Constructing Cross Sections 259
Maps and Other Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 10.4.3 Basic Geologic Map Patterns 260
10.4.4 Geologic Maps with Contour Lines 263
8.1 Introduction 198
8.2 Ways to Portray the Earth’s Surface 198 10.5 Structures Revealed in Landscapes 264
8.2.1 Map Projections 198 10.6 Reading Real Geologic Maps 267
8.3 Map Elements 201
8.3.1 Map Element 1: Location 201 CHAPTER 11
8.3.2 Map Element 2: Direction 208
8.3.3 Map Element 3: Distance and Scale 211
Earthquakes and Seismology. . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.4 ertical Exaggeration: A Matter of
V
Perspective 214 11.2 Causes of Earthquakes: Seismic Waves 276
11.3 Locating Earthquakes 279

CHAPTER 9
11.4 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake 289
Working with Topographic Maps. . . . . 217
11.5 P
redicting Earthquake Hazards:
9.1 Introduction 218 Liquefaction 292
9.2 Contour Lines 218 11.6 Tsunami! 295
9.2.1 Contour Lines on Topographic Maps 218
APPENDIX 11.1
9.3 Reading Topographic Maps 219 SEISMIC ANALYSIS WORKSHEETS 298
9.3.1 Contour Lines and Slope 220
9.3.2 Contour Lines and Elevation 223
9.3.3 Contour Lines and Streams: Which Way Is the
CHAPTER 12
Water Flowing? 225 Interpreting Geologic History:
9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Contour Lines on
Topographic Maps 226 What Happened, and When Did It
9.4 A
pplications of Contour Lines on Happen?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Topographic Maps 226 12.1 Introduction 300
9.5 Topographic Profiles 229 12.2 P
hysical Criteria for Determining Relative
9.5.1 Drawing a Topographic Profile 229 Age 300
9.5.2 Choosing the Vertical Scale 231 12.2.1 The Principles of Original Horizontality and
Superposition 300
APPENDIX 9.1
12.2.2 The Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 301
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SYMBOLS 235
12.2.3 The Principle of Inclusions 303
12.2.4 Sedimentary Structures 304
CHAPTER 10 12.2.5 Unconformities: Evidence for a Gap in the
Interpreting Geologic Structures on Geologic Record 307
Block Diagrams, Geologic Maps, and 12.3 Biological Methods for Relative Age Dating 311
Cross Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 12.3.1 Principle of Faunal and Floral Succession 311
12.3.2 The Geologic Time Scale 312
10.1 Introduction 240 12.3.3 Fossil Age Ranges 313
10.2 B
eginning with the Basics: Contacts
12.4 Determining Numerical Ages of Rocks 315
and Attitude 241
10.2.1 Geologic Contacts and Geologic Formations 241 12.5 C
orrelation: Fitting Pieces of the
10.2.2 Describing the Orientation of Layers: Puzzle Together 320
Strike and Dip 243
10.3 Working with Block Diagrams 246 CHAPTER 13

10.3.1 Block Diagrams of Flat-Lying and Dipping Landscapes Formed by Streams. . . . . . 327
Strata 246
10.3.2 Block Diagrams of Simple Folds 248 13.1 Introduction 328
10.3.3 Block Diagrams of Faults 250
13.2 How Do Streams Work? 328
10.3.4 Block Diagrams of Unconformities 252
10.3.5 Block Diagrams of Igneous Intrusions 253 13.3 Stream Valley Types and Features 335
CONTENTS v
13.4 Changes in Streams over Time 337 16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid Landscapes 415
13.5 Stream Networks 342 16.4 Wind and Sand Dunes 422
13.5.1 Drainage Basins 342 16.5 Desertification 428
13.5.2 Drainage Patterns 342
13.6 C
hanges in Stream-Created Landscapes CHAPTER 17
over Time 346 Shoreline Landscapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
13.7 W
hen Streams Don’t Seem to Follow
the Rules 351
17.2 F
actors Controlling Shoreline Formation
13.8 When There’s Too Much Water: Floods 355
and Evolution 432
13.9 S
treams, Society, and the 17.2.1 Shoreline Materials 432
Environment 359 17.2.2 Weather and Climate 432
17.2.3 Tidal Range 434
17.2.4 Tectonic Activity 436
CHAPTER 14 17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shorelines 437
Groundwater as a Landscape 17.3 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition 444
Former and Resource.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 17.3.1 How Waves Form 444
17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Deposition 445
17.3.3 Longshore Drift 445
14.2 Aquifers and Aquitards 362 17.3.4 Erosional Features 446
17.3.5 Depositional Features 451
14.3 Landscapes Produced by Groundwater 366
14.4 The Water Table 370 17.4 H

uman Interaction with Shoreline
Processes 455
14.5 Groundwater Resources and Problems 373 17.4.1 Seawalls 455
17.4.2 Beach Nourishment 456
17.4.3 Jetties 456
CHAPTER 15 17.4.4 Unintended Consequences of Human Shoreline
Glacial Landscapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Management Efforts 457
15.1 Introduction 384 17.5 When Shorelines Become Dangerous 459

17.5.1 Sea-Level Change 459
15.2 How Glaciers Do Their Work 384
17.5.2 Coastal Storms 460
15.2.1 Types of Glaciers 384
17.5.3 Tsunamis 465
15.2.2 How Glaciers Create Landforms 385
15.3 L
andscapes Produced by Continental CHAPTER 18
Glaciation 385
15.3.1 Erosional Landscapes 388
Looking to the Future: How Will
15.3.2 Depositional Landscapes 391 Humans Be Affected by Changes in
15.4 L
andscapes Produced by Mountain the Earth System?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Glaciation 399 18.1 Introduction 472
15.5 Glaciers and Climate Change 404
18.2 Changes in the Earth System 472
APPENDIX 15.1 18.2.1 The Nature of Change: Cyclical versus
GLOSSARY OF GLACIAL LANDFORMS 408 Unidirectional 473
18.2.2 Changes in the Geosphere 473
18.2.3 Changes in the Atmosphere 475
CHAPTER 16 18.2.4 Changes in the Cryosphere and
Hydrosphere 484
Processes and Landforms in Arid 18.2.5 Changes in the Biosphere 485
Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 18.3 H
umans as Agents of Environmental
16.1 Introduction 410 Change and Extinctions 491
16.2 Processes in Arid Regions 413 Credits 497
vi CONTENTS
P R E FAC E
This laboratory manual is based on our collective 70-plus years of teaching and
coordinating introductory geology courses. Those experiences have helped us
understand not only how students best learn geologic principles, but also how to
stimulate their engagement with the material to enhance their learning process.
Our manual provides (1) an up-to-date, comprehensive background that addresses
the hands-on tasks at the core of any introductory geology course; (2) patient step-
by-step explanations that are more easily understood by students than those in text-
books; (3) text and exercises that lead students to think like geologists, engaging
them in solving real-life problems important to their lives; and (4) the passion and
excitement that we still feel after decades as teachers and geologists.
Students often ask us how we maintain this enthusiasm. Our answer is to share
with them both the joys and frustrations of facing and solving real-world geologic
problems. You will find many of those types of problems in the following pages—
modified for the introductory nature of the course, but still reflecting their chal-
lenges and the rewards of solving them. This manual brings that experience directly
to the students, engaging them in the learning process by explaining concepts clearly
and providing many avenues for further exploration.
Unique Elements
As you read through this manual, you will find a pedagogical approach that incor-
porates many unique elements, which distinguishes it from other manuals. These
elements include:
Hands-on, inquiry-based pedagogy

We believe that students learn science best by doing science, not by just memoriz-
ing facts.
New “Geotours” Google Earth activities in each lab, authored by M. Scott
Wilkerson of DePauw University, allow students to apply the concept knowledge
gained through their lab and lecture work to real-life sites and phenomena, as a
geologist would. The updated “What Do You Think?” exercises in each chapter
engage students in making assessments and decisions on topics relevant to their
own lives, such as selecting building codes appropriate for local earthquake hazards
(Ch. 2); determining how technological advances that have altered demands for
various mineral resources have impacted their community (Ch. 3); and explaining
what unforeseen and unintended results accompany human interactions with natu-
ral processes (Ch. 13).
Innovative exercises that engage students and provide

instructors with choice
Tiered exercises are carefully integrated into the text, leading students to under-
stand concepts for themselves by first reading about the concept and then imme-
diately using what they just learned in the accompanying exercise. These unique
exercises show students how important geologic principles are in our everyday
activities. There are more exercises per chapter than can probably be completed in
vii
a single lab session. This is done intentionally, to provide options for instructors dur-
ing class or as potential out-of-class assignments. The complexity and rigor of the
exercises increase within each chapter, enabling instructors to use the manual for
both non-majors and potential majors alike. Just assign the exercises that are most
appropriate for your student population.
Superb illustration program

Readers have come to expect a superior illustration program in any Norton geol-
ogy text, and this manual does not disappoint. The extensive and highly illustrative
photos, line drawings, maps, and DEMs continue the tradition of Stephen Marshak’s
Earth: Portrait of a Planet and Essentials of Geology.
Reader-friendly language and layout

Our decades of teaching introductory geology help us to identify the concepts
that are most difficult for students to understand. The conversational style of this
manual and the use of many real-world analogies help to make these difficult con-
cepts clear and enhance student understanding. The crisp, open layout makes the
book more attractive and reader-friendly than other laboratory manuals, which are
crammed with pages of multiple-column text.
Unique lab on global change

A new capstone lab on global change (Ch. 18) combines our understanding of the
past and present to look to the future—not in geologic time, but rather within the
next 50 years. The chapter addresses all components of the Earth System, with a
particular emphasis on climate change and how changes in the atmosphere will
potentially affect the hydrosphere, cryosphere, and biosphere. Exercises guide
students to assess how the planet will likely change during their lifetimes, and to
examine their role in furthering or mitigating those processes. The chapter ends
with a series of thought-provoking questions designed to prepare students for their
roles as intelligent citizens in evaluating issues they will face in the future.
Unique mineral and rock labs

Students learn the difference between minerals and rocks by classifying Earth
materials in a simple exercise (Ch. 3). That exercise then leads to the importance
of physical properties and a logical system for identifying minerals. In Chapter 4,
students make intrusive and extrusive igneous “rocks,” clastic and chemical sedi-
mentary “rocks,” and a foliated metamorphic “rock” to understand how the rock-
forming processes are indelibly recorded in a rock’s texture. The goal in studying
rocks in Chapters 5–7 is to interpret the processes and conditions by which they
form, not just to find their correct names.
Digital elevation models (DEMs)

Digital elevation models are used to enhance the understanding of contour lines
and to build map-reading skills.
Improvements to the Fourth Edition

We are grateful to the many adopters of the first three editions for their detailed
comments and suggestions, which have improved this Fourth Edition. This feed-
back has led to significant revisions, but the Fourth Edition still retains its core
approaches from the previous editions—hands-on, inquiry-based learning through
viii PREFACE
exercises interspersed throughout the chapters. As a result, this manual offers
an integrated approach that mirrors the typical, logical sequence of laboratory
sessions. This Edition incorporates reviewers’ requests for even more hands-on,
applied activities and for new approaches to make concepts more accessible to
students. Updated content and exercises help turn geologic events in current
headlines into teaching moments, emphasizing how Earth processes affect the
lives of humans throughout world.
Also, in response to reviewer requests, we have reorganized the sequence of
chapters to better align with how instructors structure their courses. Chapters on
geologic structures, block diagrams, and maps; earthquakes and seismology; and
geologic history have been moved earlier in the text, preceding the chapters on
landforms and landscape evolution that most adopters discuss at the end of their
courses.
New “Geotours” exercises, like those in Marshak’s textbooks, have also been
added to each chapter. These exercises enable students to “walk miles in the foot-
steps of geologists” and to see the world as geologists do.
Along with the new “Geotours” exercises, each chapter has also been revised
with an eye toward clarifying core concepts, and new maps, photographs, and
diagrams can be found throughout the manual. Other significant improvements
include:
Chapter 1: [Setting the Stage for Learning about the Earth] New figures
clarify the ways in which geologists respond to the challenges we face as we
study the Earth.
Chapter 2: [Examining Plate Tectonics] The improved illustration program
clarifies relationships among plates and processes that occur at different types
of plate boundaries. New exercises help students follow the evolution of the
plate-tectonic model.
Chapter 3: [Minerals] A section has been added on minerals as natural
resources, and the role of minerals in state and national economies. A new
“What Do You Think” exercise asks students to consider how rapid technologi-
cal advances affect local industries and economies by making some resources
obsolete while creating new needs.
Chapter 4: [Minerals, Rocks, and the Rock Cycle] This chapter features an
improved transition from minerals to rocks, and an expanded section on the
economic importance of rocks.
Chapter 5: [Using Igneous Rocks to Interpret Earth History] An expanded
section on volcanoes includes new coverage of the 2018 eruptions in Hawaii
and Guatemala, and new exercises on predicting and mitigating volcanic
hazards.
Chapter 6: [Using Sedimentary Rocks to Interpret Earth History] The discus-
sion of sediment maturity has been revised for better understanding.
Chapter 7: [Interpreting Metamorphic Rocks] This chapter has been
completely reorganized and rewritten to make concepts more accessible to
students.
Chapter 8: [Studying the Earth’s Landforms] A new section has been added to
discuss the difference between geographic (true) and magnetic north. A new
“What Do You Think” exercise explores the differences between old maps and
modern ones---in a practical and (potentially) financially rewarding way. And
basic map elements are defined precisely.
Chapter 9: [Working with Topographic Maps] In response to reviewers, the
introduction to contour lines has been shortened and students now get to focus
more quickly on topographic contours. A new exercise has students examining
PREFACE ix
contoured topographic maps of familiar areas---we suggest the area in which your
campus is located.
Chapter 10: [Interpreting Geologic Structures on Block Diagrams, Geologic
Maps, and Cross Sections] This chapter has been relocated to better fit the
organization of most introductory courses. The content has not altered sig-
nificantly, but the new location gives students practice in applying what they
learned about contour lines in Chapter 9.
Chapter 11: [Earthquakes and Seismology] Two improvements enable students
to more accurately determine the arrival times of seismic waves, allowing for
a more accurate locating of an earthquake’s epicenter: (1) seismograms are
printed in a larger format, and (2) a new seismic overlay measuring tool has
been added to the Geo Tools section at the back of the manual, making it pos-
sible to estimate arrival time to within a few seconds.
Chapter 12: [Interpreting Geologic History] A new exercise shows how ages
of detrital zircons can help to constrain the numerical ages of sedimentary
rocks that cannot be dated directly, and to interpret the provenance of those
rocks.
Chapter 13: [Landscapes Formed by Streams] The concept of nick points form-
ing during stream evolution has been added, with an explanation of the short
life span (in geologic time) of even the largest waterfalls. A new section has
been added on streams, society, and the environment, along with a new “What
Do You Think” exercise that examines the geologic and socioeconomic effects
of building the Aswan Dam across the Nile River.
Chapter 14: [Groundwater as a Landscape Former and Resource] New exer-
cises have been added on (1) how the change in the water table affects local
residents; and (2) the causes and results of salt-water incursion into coastal
aquifers. The exercise on Florida karst has been revised to better illustrate karst
hazards.
Chapter 15: [Glacial Landscapes] The presentation of depositional land-
forms associated with continental glaciation has been reorganized to
emphasize the distinction between those deposited directly from the melting
glacier and made of till, from those deposited by meltwater and made of
outwash.
Chapter 16: [Processes and Landforms in Arid Environments] A new section
has been added on desertification (natural and anthropogenic), including a
new “What Do You Think” exercise.
Chapter 17: [Shoreline Landscapes] The discussion of coastal storms has
been updated to include the effects of Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria in
2017, as well as Katrina and Sandy in earlier years. New illustrations have been
added of new shorelines being formed by the recent lava flows from Kilauea,
and overall, the chapter features more complete photo coverage of all shore-
line types.
Chapter 18: [How Will Humans Be Affected by Changes in the Earth System]
This new chapter has been added at the requests of several reviewers and
many instructors to explore the ways in which changes in the Earth System
affect humans, as well as ways in which humans impact natural Earth System
processes. The focus is in terms of a human lifespan, examining predictions of
how changes over the next 50 years will affect students’ lives and those of their
children. The complex relationships among all Earth System reservoirs are ad-
dressed by showing how changes in one reservoir potentially affect the others,
with regards to climate change, a melting cryosphere, rising sea level, increased
rate of extinctions, etc.
x PREFACE
Supplements
(available for download at wwnorton.com/instructors)
Coursepacks. Available at no cost to professors or students, Norton Coursepacks
bring high-quality Norton digital media into your course. This new supplement
includes:
■■ Prelab quizzes, available as autograded assignments, or printable worksheets,
and designed to assess if students have prepared their pre-lab material.
■■ On-line versions of selected lab exercises (a complete list is in the Instruc-
tor’s Manual). For professors that need to offer this course in a blended or
distance learning environment, we have adapted the best exercises for these
formats into our coursepacks. Responses are either autograded or written to
require brief responses. Note: students still need either a print or electronic
version of the lab manual for access to figures and background reading. We
have constructed labs to work with typical rock kits that can be purchased
from many different suppliers.
Instructor’s Manual. Available in electronic format, the revised Instructor’s Manual

contains word files of the solutions to each exercise, teaching tips for each lab, and a
detailed conversion guide that shows the differences between the Third and Fourth
Editions.
Electronic Figures. All figures, photographs, charts, and maps in this text are avail-
able for you to download and incorporate in your presentations, handouts, or
online courses.
Videos and Animations. Animations and videos of core concepts in geology are
available to download or stream from our site.
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to the talented team at W. W. Norton & Company whose zealous
quest for excellence is matched only by their ingenuity in solving layout problems,
finding that special photograph, and keeping the project on schedule. We would
like to thank Scott Wilkerson of DePauw University for authoring the dynamic and
engaging “Geotours” exercises in each lab. We are also grateful to the professors
who have provided accuracy reviews and feedback for earlier editions: Pete Wehner
of Austin Community College–Northridge; Daniel Imrecke, Jinny Sisson, and Julia
Smith Wellner of the University of Houston; Kurt Wilkie and Amanda Stahl of
Washington State University; Michael Rygel of SUNY–Potsdam; and Karen Koy of
Missouri Western State University. We also appreciate the detailed chapter-by-chapter
review of the Second Edition by the core teaching faculty and teaching assistants at
the University of Houston, and are grateful to Nathalie Brandes of Lone Star College
and Geoffrey Cooke of UCSD for working closely with the authors and our team of
editors at W. W. Norton to proofread and check accuracy for the Third Edition.
Finally, we would like to thank the following expert reviewers for their input and
expertise in making this Lab Manual the best it can be:
Stephen T. Allard, Winona State University

Richard Aurisano, Wharton County Junior College
Miriam Barquero-Molina, University of Missouri
Quintin D. Bendixen, University of Wisconsin
PREFACE xi
Peter J. Berquist, Thomas Nelson Community College
Theodore Bornhorst, Michigan Tech University
Chloe Branciforte, Ventura College
Nathalie Brandes, Lone Star College
Lee Anne Burrough, Prairie State College
Geoffrey W. Cook, University of California, San Diego
Winton Cornell, University of Tulsa
Juliet Crider, University of Washington
John Dassinger, Chandler-Gilbert Community College
Meredith Denton-Hedrick, Austin Community College
Yildirim Dilek, Miami University
Mark Evans, Central Connecticut State University
Todd Feeley, Montana State University
Jeanne Fromm, University of South Dakota
Lisa Hammersley, Sacramento State University
Bernie Housen, Western Washington University
Daniel Imrecke, University of Houston
Jacalyn Gorczynski, Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi
Michael Harrison, Tennesse Technological University
Daniel Hembree, Ohio University
Ryan Kerrigan, University of Maryland
Karen Koy, Missouri Western State University
Heather Lehto, Angelo State University
Jill Lockard, Los Angeles Pierce College
Jamie Macdonald, Florida Gulf Coast University
John A. Madsen, University of Delaware
Lisa Mayo, Motlow State Community College
Amy Moe Hoffman, Mississippi State University
Kristen Myshrall, University of Connecticut
David Peate, University of Iowa
Alfred Pekarek, St. Cloud State University
Elizabeth Rhodes, College of Charleston
Anne Marie Ryan, Dalhousie University
Ray Russo, University of Florida
Randy Rutberg, Hunter College
Mike Rygel, SUNY Potsdam
Jinny Sisson, University of Houston
Roger Shew, University of North Carolina---Wilmington
Amanda Stahl, Washington State University
Alexander Stewart, St. Lawrence University
Christiane Stidham, SUNY Stony Brook
Lori Tapanila, Idaho State University
JoAnn Thissen, Nassau Community College
Peter Wallace, Dalhousie University
Pete Wehner, Austin Community College–Northridge
Julia Smith Wellner, University of Houston
Kurt Wilkie, Washington State University
Jeanette M. Wolak, Tennessee Technological University
Andrew H. Wulff, Western Kentucky University
Victor Zabielski, Northern Virginia Community College
xii PREFACE
A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S
Allan Ludman is Professor of Geology in the School of Earth and

Environmental Sciences at Queens College, part of the City Univer-
sity of New York. He holds a B.S. from Brooklyn College, an M.A. from
Indiana University, and a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania. Allan
has devoted more than five decades to deciphering the evolution of the
Northern Appalachian mountain system through field and laboratory stud-
ies in Maine and parts of adjacent New Brunswick, Canada. He has just
begun his 50th year teaching introductory geology and has supervised the
introductory geology laboratories at Queens College for the past 43 years.
Professor Ludman is also the director of GLOBE NY Metro, the south-
ern New York State partner of the GLOBE Program®, an international
K-12 science teacher development program, created to promote hands-on,
inquiry-based Earth System research for elementary and high-school level
teachers and their students.
Stephen Marshak is Professor Emeritus of Geology at the University

of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, where he also served as the director of the
School of Earth, Society, and Environment. He holds an A.B. from Cornell
University, an M.S. from the University of Arizona, and a Ph.D. from
Columbia University. Steve’s research interests lie in structural geology
and tectonics, and he has participated in field projects on several conti-
nents. Steve loves teaching and has won his college’s and university’s high-
est teaching awards. He also received the 2012 Neil Miner Award from
the National Association of Geoscience Teachers (NAGT), for “excep-
tional contributions to the stimulation of interest in the Earth sciences.”
In addition to research papers and co-authoring the Laboratory Manual for
Introductory Geology, Steve has authored Earth: Portrait of a Planet, Essentials
of Geology, and co-authored Earth Science, Earth Structure: An Introduction to
Structural Geology and Tectonics, and Basic Methods of Structural Geology.
xiii
Setting the Stage
for Learning about 1
the Earth
This sunset over the red cliffs of the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River in Arizona, shows
the Earth System at a glance—air, water, and rock all interacting to produce this stunning
landscape.
geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 1 9/11/18 10:25 AM

LEARNING 1.1 Thinking Like a Geologist
OBJECTIVES
■ Understand challenges 1.1.1 Introduction
geologists face when studying
a body as large and complex as Learning about the Earth is like training to become a detective. Both geologists and
the Earth detectives need keen powers of observation, curiosity about slight differences, broad
■ Practice basic geologic scientific understanding, and instruments to analyze samples. And both ask the
reasoning and strategies same questions: What happened? How? When? Why? Much of the logical thinking
■ Understand the concept of is the same, but there are big differences between the work of a detective and that
the Earth System and begin of a geologist. A detective’s “cold” case may be 30 years old, but “old” to a geologist
to learn how energy and means hundreds of millions or billions of years. To a detective, a “body” is a human
matter are connected through
body, but to a geologist, a “body” may be a mountain range or a continent. Eyewit-
geologic cycles
nesses can help detectives, but for most of Earth history there weren’t any humans
■ Use concepts of dimension,
to witness geologic events. To study the Earth, geologists must therefore develop
scale, and order of magnitude
to describe the Earth strategies different from those of other kinds of investigators. The overall goal of this
■ Review the materials and manual is to help you look at the Earth and think about its mysteries like a geologist.
forces you will encounter while To help you begin thinking like a geologist, let’s start with a typical geologic
studying the Earth mystery. Almost 300 years ago, settlers along the coast of Maine built piers (like the
■ Learn how geologists discuss modern pier shown in FIG. 1.1) to load and unload ships. Some of these piers are
the ages of geologic materials now submerged to a depth of 1 meter (39 inches) below sea level.
and events and how we
measure the rates of geologic
processes FIGURE 1.1 Subsidence along the coast of Maine.
■ Become familiar with the types
of diagrams and images used
by geologists
MATERIALS
NEEDED
■ Triple-beam or electronic
balance
■ 500-mL graduated cylinder
■ Clear plastic ruler with
divisions in tenths of an inch
and millimeters (included in
the Geo Tools section at the
back of this manual)
■ Calculator
■ Compass
Tourists might not think twice about this phenomenon before heading for a lob-
ster dinner at the local restaurant, but a geologist would want to know what caused
the submergence and how rapidly the pier was submerged. How would a geologist
go about tackling this problem? Exercise 1.1 outlines the problem and shows some
of the basic geologic reasoning needed to get answers to the questions raised above.
At the same time, this exercise will be your first of many opportunities to see that
geologists solve real-world problems affecting real people.
2 CHAPTER 1SETTING THE STAGE FOR LEARNING ABOUT THE EARTH

EXERCISE 1.1 Submergence Rate along the Maine Coast
Name: Section:
Course: Date:
2015 1715
1m
1m
The figure on the left illustrates a pier whose walkway sits 1 meter below the ocean’s surface today. Because we weren’t
there when it was built 300 years ago, we have to make some assumptions—geologists often do this to make estimates. So
let’s assume that the pier’s walkway was originally built 1 m above sea level at high tide, as many are built today (illustrated
in the figure on the right), and that submergence occurred at a constant rate. With these assumptions, calculating the rate
of submergence for the past 300 years becomes simple arithmetic.
(a) The rate of submergence is the total change in the elevation of the pier ( m) divided by the total
amount of time involved ( years) and is therefore cm/yr. (Remember, 1 m 5 100 cm.)
Now consider a problem this equation might solve:
(b) A local restaurant owner is considering the purchase of a pier, whose walkway is 50 cm above the high-water
mark, for use in outdoor events. The owner has been advised that piers with walkways less than 30 cm above the
high-water mark should be avoided because they can be flooded by storms and very high tides. If submergence
continues at the rate you calculated, how many years will pass before the high-water mark is less than 30 cm from
the base of the walkway? years
? What Do You Think Now it’s time to try really thinking like a geolo-
gist. Given your answers to questions (a) and (b), would you recommend that
the restaurant owner purchase this pier? In a sentence or two, on a separate sheet
of paper, explain why. Then describe another issue that you think the owner should
investigate before making a decision.
Congratulations! You’ve just tackled your first problem as a geologist-in-training.

A veteran geologist, however, would also want to explain why the piers were sub-
merged. When faced with a problem like this, geologists typically try to come up
with as many explanations as possible. For example, which of the following explana-
tions could account for the submergence?
 Sea level has risen.
 The land has sunk.
 Both sea level and land have risen, but sea level has risen more.
 Both sea level and land have sunk, but the land has sunk more.
If you think all four choices might be right (correctly!), you realize that explain-
ing submergence along the Maine coast may be more complicated than it seemed at
first. To find the answer, you need more data—more observations or measurements.
3

One way to obtain more data would be to see if submergence is restricted to Maine,
or to the east coast of North America, or if it occurs worldwide. As it turns out, sub-
mergence is observed worldwide, suggesting that the first choice above (sea-level
rise) is the most probable explanation—but not necessarily the only one.
With even more data, we could answer questions such as: “When did the submer-
gence happen?” “Did sea level rise at a constant rate?” Maybe all the submergence
occurred in the first 100 years after the pier was built and then stopped. Or perhaps
it began slowly and then accelerated. Unfortunately, we may not be able to answer
all of these questions because, unlike television detectives who always get the bad
guys, geologists don’t always have enough data and must often live with uncertainty.
We still do not have answers to many questions about the Earth.
1.1.2 The Scientific Method

Like all scientists (and most people trying to find answers to problems they have
identified), geologists follow a logical process that you are probably familiar with:
the scientific method. You did so instinctively in Exercise 1.1 and will do so many
times throughout this course. The scientific method begins with observations of
Earth features or processes—such as, in Exercise 1.1, the observation that a colonial
pier is now below sea level. The steps that constitute the scientific method are illus-
trated schematically in FIGURE 1.2.
FIGURE 1.2 The scientific method.
1. Observe
Begin by looking at an
Earth feature or process.
2. Recognize
that a problem or question
exists.
3. Collect data to make

sure that the
observation is valid.
4. Hypothesis
Propose a tentative answer or
answers.
5a. Design test of

hypothesis;
predict result.
6a. Test does not support 6b. Test supports one or

hypothesis more hypotheses
Revise the hypothesis to fit 5b. Test the hypothesis Don’t stop! Make additional
new data or propose a new Perform a test, experiment, or tests to be sure that you have
hypothesis. more observations and the answer.
measurements.

STEP 1 Observe an Earth feature or process (e.g., the submerged pier).
STEP 2 Recognize that a problem exists and define the problem by asking questions
about it. Usually the problem is that we don’t understand how what we’ve ob-
served came to be: Why was the pier in Exercise 1.1 submerged? By how much
has the pier been submerged? How fast did submergence take place? Was the
rate of submergence constant or sporadic? We respond with the steps that follow.
STEP 3 Collect more data to (a) confirm that the observation is valid and (b) shed
light on what is going on. In Exercise 1.1, for instance, we determined that it
isn’t just one pier being submerged, but many along the Maine coast.
STEP 4 Propose tentative answers to our questions, called hypotheses (singular,
hypothesis). Some versions of the scientific method suggest proposing a single
hypothesis, but when we first look at problems, we usually find that more than
one hypothesis can explain our observations. We therefore come up with as
many hypotheses as we can—a practice called multiple working hypotheses.
STEP 5 Test the hypotheses by getting more data. The new information may support
some hypotheses, rule out others, and possibly lead to new ones. Some of
this testing can be done in a classic laboratory experiment, but there are also
other types of tests, such as field trips to gain additional information, detailed
measurements where there had been only eyeball estimates, and so forth.
STEP 6 Based on the new information, reject or modify those hypotheses that don’t
fit, continue testing those that do, and propose new ones as needed to in-
corporate all the information. If your test supports a hypothesis, continue to
perform additional tests to further verify your result.
Continue cycling through steps 4, 5, and 6 as needed until a single hypothesis

remains. Then, to be sure, continue testing it. If this hypothesis survives years of fur-
ther testing, it is considered to be a theory. Nonscientists often don’t understand the
difference between hypothesis and theory; when they say, “Oh, that’s just a theory,”
they really mean, “That’s just a hypothesis”—a possible explanation that has not yet
been proved. A theory has been tested and proved. Some theories with which you
may be familiar are the theory of evolution, the germ theory of disease, and Einstein’s
theory of relativity. And during this course you will become very familiar with plate
tectonics theory, which explains how the Earth’s major features form and change.
1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System

Now that you know how geologists study things, let’s look at what we study. The
Earth is a dynamic planet. Unlike the airless, oceanless Moon, which has remained
virtually unchanged for billions of years, the Earth has gases in its atmosphere and
water on its surface that are in constant motion and cause the solid planet beneath
them to change rapidly (in relation to geologic time, that is). Modern scientists
envisage an Earth System that includes all of the Earth’s materials—gases, liquids,
solids, and life forms—and the energy that drives their activity. The first step in
understanding the Earth System is to understand the nature of its matter and energy
and how they interact with each other.
1.2.1 The Nature of Matter

Matter is the “stuff” of which the Universe is made; we use the term to refer to any
material on or in the Earth, within its atmosphere, or within the broader Universe
in which the Earth resides. Geologists, chemists, and physicists have shown that
matter consists of ninety-two naturally occurring elements and that some of these
1.2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EARTH SYSTEM 5

TABLE 1.1 Basic definitions
●
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down chemically into other
substances.
●
The smallest piece of an element that still has all the properties of that element is
an atom.
●
Atoms combine with one another chemically to form compounds; the smallest
possible piece of a compound is called a molecule.
●
Atoms in compounds are held together by chemical bonds.
●
A simple chemical formula describes the combination of atoms in a compound.
For example, the formula H2O shows that a molecule of water contains two atoms
of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
elements are much more abundant than others. Keep the definitions in TABLE 1.1
in mind as you read further about the composition of matter.
Matter occurs on the Earth in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Atoms in solids,
such as minerals and rocks, are held in place by strong chemical bonds. As a result,
solids retain their shape over long periods. Bonds in liquids are weak enough that
atoms or molecules move easily, and as a result, liquids adopt the shape of their
containers. Atoms or molecules in gases are barely held together at all, so a gas
expands to fill whatever container it is placed in. Matter changes from one state to
another in many geologic processes, as when the Sun evaporates water to produce
water vapor, or when water freezes to form ice, or when lava freezes to become
solid rock.
We describe the amount of matter in an object by indicating its mass and the
amount of space it occupies by specifying its volume. The more mass packed into
a given volume of matter, the greater the density of the matter. You notice density
differences every day: it’s easier to lift a large box of popcorn than a piece of rock of
the same size because the rock is much denser—it has much more mass packed into
the same volume and therefore weighs much more.
1.2.2 Distribution of Matter in the Earth System

Matter is stored in the Earth System in five major realms, or reservoirs (FIG. 1.3a).
Most gases are in the atmosphere, a semi-transparent blanket composed of about
78% nitrogen (N2) and 21% oxygen (O2), as well as minor amounts of water vapor
(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), and methane (CH4). Nearly all liquids
occur as water in the hydrosphere—the Earth’s oceans, rivers, lakes, and groundwa-
ter, which is found in cracks and pores beneath the surface. Frozen water makes up
the cryosphere, which includes snow, thin layers of ice on the surfaces of lakes or
oceans, and huge masses of ice in glaciers and the polar ice caps.
Geologists divide the solid Earth, called the geosphere, into concentric layers
like those in a hard-boiled egg (FIG. 1.3b). The outer layer, the crust, is relatively
thin, like an eggshell, and consists mostly of rock. We say mostly because about
2% of the crust and mantle has melted to produce liquid material called magma
(known as lava when it erupts on the surface). Below the crust is the mantle,
which also consists mostly of different kinds of rock; it contains most of the Earth’s
volume, just as an egg white contains most of an egg’s volume. The central part
of the Earth, comparable to the egg yolk, is the core. The outer core consists
mostly of a liquid alloy of iron and nickel, and the inner core is a solid iron-nickel
alloy. Humans have never drilled through the crust; during this course, you will

FIGURE 1.3 The Earth System.
The atmosphere: Earth’s Cryosphere: Continental

gaseous envelope and mountain glaciers,
polar sea ice
White
Crust
Yolk (least dense)
Geosphere: Mantle
The solid Earth (denser)
Core
Shell
(most dense)
Hydrosphere:
Oceans, rivers, Biosphere:
lakes, underground water All living things
(a) The Earth’s major reservoirs of matter. (b) A simple image of the Earth’s internal layering and the hard-boiled egg
analogy for its pattern of layers.
learn how we figured out that our planet is layered, how thick those layers are, and
what they are made of.
Continents, which are composed of relatively low-density rocks, make up about
30% of the crust. The remaining 70% of the crust is covered by the oceans. Oce-
anic crust is both thinner and denser than continental crust. Three types of solids
are found at the Earth’s surface: bedrock, a solid aggregate of minerals and rocks
attached to the Earth’s crust; sediment, unattached mineral grains such as boulders,
sand, and clay; and soil, sediment and rock modified by interactions with the atmos-
phere, hydrosphere, and organisms that can support plant life.
The biosphere—the realm of living organisms—extends from a few kilometers
below the Earth’s surface to a few kilometers above. Geologists have learned that
organisms, from bacteria to mammals, are important parts of the Earth System
because they contribute to many geologic processes by exchanging gases with the
atmosphere, absorbing and releasing water, breaking rock into sediment, and play-
ing major roles in converting sediment and rock to soil.
The movement of materials from one reservoir to another is called a flux. Fluxes
happen in many geologic processes. For example, rain is a flux in which water moves
from the atmosphere to the hydrosphere. Rates of flux depend on the materials, the
reservoirs, and the processes involved. In some cases, a material moves among sev-
eral reservoirs but eventually returns to the first. We call such a path a geologic cycle.
In this class you will learn about several geologic cycles, including the rock cycle (the
movement of atoms from one rock type to another) and the hydrologic cycle (the
movement of water in the hydrosphere to and from the other reservoirs). Exercises
1.2 and 1.3 will help you understand the distribution and fluxes of matter.
1.2.3 Energy in the Earth System

Natural disasters in the headlines remind us of how dynamic the Earth is: rivers
flood cities and fields; mudslides, lava, and volcanic ash bury villages; earthquakes
topple buildings; and hurricanes ravage coastal regions. However, many geologic
processes are much slower and less dangerous, such as the movement of ocean

EXERCISE 1.2 Reservoirs in the Earth System
Name: Section:
Course: Date:
What Earth materials did you encounter in the past 24 hours? List at least ten in the following table without worrying
about the correct geologic terms (for example, “dirt” is okay for now). Place each Earth material in its appropriate reservoir
and indicate whether it is a solid (S), liquid (L), or gas (G).
Atmosphere Hydrosphere Geosphere Cryosphere Biosphere
EXERCISE 1.3 Selected Fluxes Involving the Hydrologic Cycle
Name: Section:
Course: Date:
You already have an instinctive sense of how water moves from one reservoir to another in the Earth System. Based on your
experience with natural phenomena, complete the following table, in which the first column lists several geologic processes.
Describe what happens during each process in the second column, using plain language. In the third column, indicate what
transfer, if any, has occurred between the major reservoirs of the Earth System. The first process is given as an example.
Process What happens? Did matter move from one reservoir
to another? If so, from
to
Sublimation Solid ice becomes water vapor without Yes: cryosphere to atmosphere
melting.
Antarctic ice melts
A puddle evaporates
(continued)

EXERCISE 1.3 Selected Fluxes Involving the Hydrologic Cycle (continued)
Name: Section:
Course: Date:
A lake freezes
Plant roots absorb water from the soil
Clouds form in the sky
Steam erupts from a volcano
currents and the almost undetectable creep of soil downhill. All are caused by
energy, which acts on matter to change its character, move it, or split it apart.
Energy for the Earth System comes from (1) the Earth’s internal heat, which
melts rock, causes earthquakes, and builds mountains (some of this heat is left over
from the formation of the Earth, but most is being produced today by radioactive
decay); (2) external energy from the Sun, which warms air, rocks, and water on the
Earth’s surface; and (3) the pull of the Earth’s gravity. Heat and gravity, working
independently or in combination, drive most geologic processes.
Heat energy is a measure of the degree to which atoms or molecules in matter—
including those in solids—vibrate. When you heat something in an oven, for exam-
ple, the atoms in the material vibrate faster and move farther apart. Heat energy
drives the change of matter from one state to another and the flux of matter from
one reservoir of the Earth System to another. For example, heating of ice causes
melting (solid → liquid; cryosphere → hydrosphere) and heating of water causes
evaporation (liquid → gas; hydrosphere → atmosphere). Cooling slows the vibra-
tion, causing condensation (gas → liquid, atmosphere → hydrosphere) or freezing
(liquid → solid, hydrosphere → cryosphere). Exercise 1.4 explores evidence for the
sources of the heat energy involved in geologic processes.
Gravity, as Isaac Newton showed more than three centuries ago, is the force
of attraction that every object exerts on other objects. The strength of this force
depends on the amount of mass in each object and how close the objects are to one
another, as expressed by the equation
m1 3 m2
G5k
d2
geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 9 9/11/18 6:29 PM

EXERCISE 1.4 Sources of Heat for Geologic Processes
Name: Section:
Course: Date:
Some of the heat that affects geologic processes comes from the Sun and some comes from inside the Earth. What role
does each of these heat sources play in Earth processes?
(a) If you take off your shoes on a beach and walk on it on a hot, sunny day, is the sand hot or cold? Why?
(b) Now, dig down in the sand just a few inches. What do you feel now, and why?
(c) What do these observations suggest about the depth to which heat from the Sun can penetrate the Earth?
(d) Based on this conclusion, is the Sun’s energy or the Earth’s internal heat the cause of melting of rock within the
Earth? Explain.
where G 5 force of gravity; k 5 a gravitational constant; m1 and m2 5 the masses of

two objects; and d 5 the distance between them.
The greater the masses of the objects and the closer they are, the stronger the
gravitational attraction between them. The smaller the masses of the objects and
the farther apart they are, the weaker the attraction. The Sun’s enormous mass
produces a force of gravity sufficient to hold the Earth and the other planets of
the Solar System in their orbits. The Earth’s gravitational force is far less than
the Sun’s, but it is strong enough to hold the Moon in its orbit, hold you on the
Earth’s surface, cause rain or volcanic ash to fall, and enable rivers and glaciers
to flow.
The pull of the Earth’s gravity produces a force called pressure. For exam-
ple, the pull of gravity on the atmosphere creates a pressure of 1.03 kg/cm2
(14.7 lb/in2) at sea level. This means that every square centimeter of surface of
the ocean, the land, or your body is affected by a pressure of 1.03 kg. We call
this amount of pressure 1 atmosphere (atm). Scientists commonly specify pres-
sures using a unit called the bar (from the Greek barros, meaning weight), where
1 bar ≈ 1 atm.
Two kinds of pressure play important roles in the hydrosphere and geosphere,
respectively. Hydrostatic pressure, pressure caused by the weight of overlying water,
increases with depth in the ocean and can crush a submarine at great depths.
Lithostatic pressure, pressure caused by the weight of overlying rock, increases
with depth in the geosphere and is great enough in the upper mantle to change
the graphite in a pencil into diamond. Rocks weigh a lot more than air or water,
so the pull of gravity causes lithostatic pressure to increase much faster with dis-
tance than either atmospheric or hydrostatic pressure—so much so that the stan-
dard measure of lithostatic pressure is the kilobar (kbar), equivalent to 1,000 times
atmospheric pressure.

1.2.4 Temperatures and Pressures in the Earth’s Crust
Both temperature and lithostatic pressure increase with depth in the Earth, and
the temperature in the core is estimated to be about 5,000°C. The increase in
temperature with depth, called the geothermal gradient, ranges from 15°C to
50°C per kilometer in the upper 10 km of the crust, with an average beneath
the continents of about 25°C/km. The increase in pressure with depth, called
the geobaric gradient, is about 1 kbar for every 3.3 km of the crust. Exercise 1.5
explores conditions at varying depths in the crust based on the geothermal and
geobaric gradients.
EXERCISE 1.5 Temperature-Pressure Conditions in the Crust
Name: Section:
Course: Date:
(a) Draw lines representing the minimum (15°C/km), maximum (50°C/km), and average (25°C/km) geothermal
gradients on the diagram below, using a different color for each. Assume for this exercise that the temperature at the
Earth’s surface is 0°C.
Pressure (kbar)
0 1 2 3 4
0
4
Depth (km)
10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Temperature (˚C)
(b) The deepest mine on the Earth penetrates to a depth of about 2 km. Using the geothermal gradients you just drew,
what range of temperatures would you expect halfway down the mine shaft? At the bottom of the
mine?
(c) Using the pressure scale at the top of the diagram, draw the average geobaric gradient in a fourth color, with an
increase of 1 kbar per 3.3 km.
(d) What will the pressure be at the lowest level of the mine? kbar
(e) What will the pressure be 8 km below the surface? kbar
(f) What will temperature and pressure conditions be at
5 km, assuming an average geothermal gradient?
●
4 km, assuming the minimum geothermal gradient?

●
The maximum geothermal gradient?

1.3 Units for Geologic Measurement
Before we begin to examine the components of the Earth System scientifically, it is
important to be familiar with the units of measurement used to quantify them. We
can then examine the challenges of scale that geologists face when studying the
Earth and the atoms of which it is made.
1.3.1 Units of Length and Distance

People have struggled for thousands of years to describe size in a precise way with
widely accepted standard units of measurement. Scientists everywhere and people
in nearly all countries except the United States use the metric system to meas-
ure length and distance. The largest metric unit of length is the kilometer (km),
which is divided into smaller units: 1 km 5 1,000 meters (m); 1 m 5 100 centim-
eters (cm); 1 cm 5 10 millimeters (mm). Metric units differ from each other by
a factor of 10, making it very easy to convert one unit into another. For example,
5 km 5 5,000 m 5 500,000 cm 5 5,000,000 mm. Similarly, 5 mm 5 0.5 cm 5 0.005
m 5 0.000005 km.
The United States uses the U.S. customary system (called the English system
until Great Britain adopted the metric system) to describe distance. Distances
are given in miles (mi), yards (yd), feet (ft), and inches (in), where 1 mile 5
5,280 feet; 1 yard 5 3 feet; and 1 foot 5 12 inches. As scientists, we use metric
units in this book, but when appropriate, U.S. customary equivalents are also
given (in parentheses).
Appendix 1.1, at the end of this chapter, provides basic conversions between U.S.
customary and metric units.
1.3.2 Other Dimensions, Other Units

Length and distance are just two of the dimensions of the Earth that you will
examine during this course. Other units are used to describe other aspects of the
Earth, its history, and its materials: units of time, velocity, temperature, mass, and
density.
Time is usually measured in seconds (s), minutes (min), hours (h), days (d),
years (yr), centuries (hundreds of years), and millennia (thousands of years). A
year is the amount of time it takes for the Earth to complete one orbit around
the Sun. Because the Earth is very old, geologists have to use larger units of
time: a thousand years ago (abbreviated Ka, for kilo-annum), a million years ago
(Ma, for mega-annum), and a billion years ago (Ga, for giga-annum). The for-
mation of the Earth 4,560,000,000 years ago can thus be expressed as 4.56 Ga,
or 4,560 Ma.
Velocity, or the rate of change of the position of an object, is described by units
of distance divided by units of time, such as meters per second (m/s), feet per sec-
ond (ft/s), kilometers per hour (km/h), or miles per hour (mph). You will learn
later that the velocity at which geologic materials move ranges from extremely slow
(mm/yr) to extremely fast (km/s).
Temperature is a measure of how hot an object is relative to a standard. It
is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) in the metric system and degrees Fahren-
heit (°F) in the U.S. customary system. The reference standards in both systems
are the freezing and boiling points of water: 0°C and 100°C or 32°F and 212°F,
respectively. Note that there are 180 Fahrenheit degrees between freezing and
boiling, but only 100 Celsius degrees. A change of 1°C is thus 1.8 times larger

than a change of 1°F (180°/100°). To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius or vice versa,
see Appendix 1.1.
Mass refers to the amount of matter in an object, and weight refers to the force
with which one object is attracted to another. The weight of an object on the Earth
therefore depends not only on its mass, but also on the strength of the Earth’s gravi-
tational field. Objects that have more mass than others also weigh more than others
on the Earth because of the force of the Earth’s gravity. But whereas the mass of an
object remains the same whether it is on the Earth or on the Moon, the object weighs
less on the Moon because of the Moon’s weaker gravity.
Grams and kilograms (1 kg 5 1,000 g) are the units of mass in the metric sys-
tem; the U.S. customary system uses pounds and ounces (1 lb 5 16 oz). For those
who don’t read the metric equivalents on food packages, 1 kg 5 2.2046 lb and
1 g 5 0.0353 oz.
We saw earlier that the density (d) of a material is a measure of how much mass
is packed into each unit of volume. Density, a property useful in studying minerals
and rocks, is generally expressed in units of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).
We instinctively distinguish unusually low-density materials such as Styrofoam and
feathers from low-density materials such as water (d 5 1 g/cm3) and high-density
materials such as steel (d 5 ∼7 g/cm3) because the very low-density materials feel
very light for their sizes and the high-density materials feel unusually heavy for their
sizes (FIG. 1.4).
FIGURE 1.4 Weights of materials with different densities.

High density Low density Very low density
(Steel) (Water) (Feathers)
To measure the density of a material, we need to know its mass and volume.
Mass is measured with a balance or scale, and the volumes of regular geomet-
ric shapes such as cubes, bricks, spheres, or cylinders can be calculated from
simple formulas. For example, to calculate the volume of a bar of gold, you
would multiply its length times its width times its height (FIG. 1.5a). But rocks
rarely have regular geometric shapes; more typically, they are irregular chunks.
To measure the volume of a rock (or another irregular object), submerge it in
a graduated cylinder partly filled with water (FIG. 1.5b). Measure the volume of
the water before the rock is added and then with the rock in the cylinder. The
rock displaces a volume of water equivalent to its own volume, so simply subtract
the initial volume of the water from that of the water plus the rock to obtain the
volume of the rock. The density of a rock can then be calculated simply from the
definition of density: density 5 mass 4 volume. Exercise 1.6 provides practice
in determining density.
1.3 UNITS FOR GEOLOGIC MEASUREMENT 13

FIGURE 1.5 Measuring the volume of materials.
Second reading
First reading
Length Height
Width
(a) For a rectangular solid, volume 5 length 3 width 3 height. (b) For an irregular solid, the volume of the solid is the volume of
the liquid it displaces in a graduated cylinder, which is the difference
between the first and second readings.
EXERCISE 1.6 Measuring the Density of Earth Materials
Name: Section:
Course: Date:
(a) Determine the density of a liquid provided by your instructor using a balance, a graduated cylinder, and a container
of the liquid. Consider how to go about this, and then do it. Make sure to provide the proper units with your answer.
The density of the liquid is .
(b) Your instructor will give you samples of granite, a light-colored rock that makes up a large part of the continental
crust, and basalt, a dark-colored rock that makes up most oceanic crust and the lower part of the continental crust.
Determine their densities, and record your answers with units included.
●
What is the density of granite?
●
What is the density of basalt?
●
If the volume of continental crust is half granite and half basalt, what is its density?
(c) Modern ships are made of steel, which has a density of about 7.85 g/cm3—much greater than the density of water
that you just calculated. So how can these ships float?
1.3.3 Some of the Earth’s “Vital Statistics”

Now that you are familiar with some of the units used to measure the Earth, we can
look at some of the planet’s “vital statistics.”
■ Place in the Solar System: Among the eight Solar System planets, the Earth is the
third from the Sun. It is one of four terrestrial planets, along with Mercury, Venus,
and Mars, which are made of rock, in contrast to the Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune), which are mostly made of methane and ammonia in either
gaseous or frozen forms.
The Earth’s orbit: The Earth takes 1 year (365.25 days, or 3.15 3 107 seconds) to
■
complete one orbit around the Sun.

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Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2012, 2010 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

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W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., 15 Carlisle Street, London W1D 3BS

Preface vii 2.5  rocesses at Plate Boundaries Revealed by

Setting the Stage for Learning 2.5.2 Continental Rifting 39

1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System 5

1.3 Units for Geologic Measurement 12 3.2 Classifying Earth Materials 54

3.6 Mineral Classification 68

2.3.1 Evidence from the Fit of the Continents 28 APPENDIX 3.1

4.1 Introduction 90 6.1 Introduction 144

11.3 Locating Earthquakes 279

10.3 Working with Block Diagrams 246 CHAPTER 13

14.4 The Water Table 370 17.4 H

15.1 Introduction 384 17.5 When Shorelines Become Dangerous 459

16.2 Processes in Arid Regions 413 Credits 497

Hands-on, inquiry-based pedagogy

Innovative exercises that engage students and provide

Superb illustration program

Reader-friendly language and layout

Unique lab on global change

Unique mineral and rock labs

Digital elevation models (DEMs)

Improvements to the Fourth Edition

Instructor’s Manual. Available in electronic format, the revised Instructor’s Manual

Stephen T. Allard, Winona State University

Allan Ludman is Professor of Geology in the School of Earth and

Stephen Marshak is Professor Emeritus of Geology at the University

geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 1 9/11/18 10:25 AM

2 CHAPTER 1SETTING THE STAGE FOR LEARNING ABOUT THE EARTH

geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 2 9/11/18 10:25 AM

Congratulations! You’ve just tackled your first problem as a geologist-in-training.

geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 3 9/11/18 10:25 AM

1.1.2 The Scientific Method

FIGURE 1.2 The scientiﬁc method.

3. Collect data to make

5a. Design test of

6a. Test does not support 6b. Test supports one or

4 CHAPTER 1SETTING THE STAGE FOR LEARNING ABOUT THE EARTH

geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 4 9/11/18 10:25 AM

Continue cycling through steps 4, 5, and 6 as needed until a single hypothesis

1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System

1.2.1 The Nature of Matter

1.2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EARTH SYSTEM 5

geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 5 9/11/18 10:25 AM

1.2.2 Distribution of Matter in the Earth System

6 CHAPTER 1SETTING THE STAGE FOR LEARNING ABOUT THE EARTH

geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 6 9/11/18 10:25 AM

The atmosphere: Earth’s Cryosphere: Continental

1.2.3 Energy in the Earth System

1.2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EARTH SYSTEM 7

geolab4e_ch01_001-024.indd 7 9/11/18 10:25 AM

Preface vii 2.5 rocesses at Plate Boundaries Revealed by

Setting the Stage for Learning 2.5.2 Continental Rifting 39

1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System 5

1.3 Units for Geologic Measurement 12 3.2 Classifying Earth Materials 54

3.6 Mineral Classification 68

2.3.1 Evidence from the Fit of the Continents 28 APPENDIX 3.1

4.1 Introduction 90 6.1 Introduction 144

11.3 Locating Earthquakes 279

10.3 Working with Block Diagrams 246 CHAPTER 13

14.4 The Water Table 370 17.4 H

15.1 Introduction 384 17.5 When Shorelines Become Dangerous 459

16.2 Processes in Arid Regions 413 Credits 497