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Leadership Coaching,
Mentoring, Counselling
or Supervision?

One Way Is Not Enough

Leadership Coaching,
Mentoring, Counselling
or Supervision?

One Way Is Not Enough

By

Eileen Piggot-Irvine and Karene Biggs

Leadership Coaching, Mentoring, Counselling or Supervision?
One Way Is Not Enough

By Eileen Piggot-Irvine and Karene Biggs

This book first published 2020

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2020 by Eileen Piggot-Irvine and Karene Biggs

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-5429-5

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-5429-0

Graphics provided by Lucy Dyke,

https://www.lucydykecreative.com/
With acknowledgement to wonderful colleagues in the supervision,
mentoring, coaching and counselling fields: Agnes Hermans, Vicki Hirst
and Janne Belton for early thinking critique and contribution. Special
thanks to Lucy Dyke, an exceptionally talented young designer who has
created the graphics for this book.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables and Figures ......................................................................... ix

Chapter 1 .................................................................................................... 1
Introduction

Chapter 2 .................................................................................................... 7
Generic Modalities and Models
Modalities of supervision, coaching, mentoring and counselling ......... 7
Models defined ................................................................................... 13
Generic models of supervision ............................................................ 14
Merging models relevant to LIS ......................................................... 24

Chapter 3 .................................................................................................. 25
The LIS Model
Action research (AR) .......................................................................... 26
LIS as a model of AR.......................................................................... 28
A model for LIS ................................................................................. 35
Underpinning features of the model.................................................... 45
Values ................................................................................................. 49
Advantages of LIS ............................................................................. 50
Evidence of effectiveness of LIS ........................................................ 50

Chapter 4 .................................................................................................. 55
Authentic Collaboration in LIS
What is collaboration? Why authentic collaboration? ........................ 55
Non-defensive interactions ................................................................. 58

Chapter 5 .................................................................................................. 69
Keeping Yourself Safe in LIS
Importance of contracting ................................................................... 69
What safety involves ........................................................................... 71
Transparent expectations .................................................................... 71
Ethics .................................................................................................. 76
Cultural responsibility......................................................................... 82
LIS for LIS facilitators ........................................................................ 84
viii Table of Contents

Chapter 6 .................................................................................................. 86
Differing Contexts of LIS
Differing contexts ............................................................................... 86
Education sector .................................................................................. 87
Public service ...................................................................................... 91
Not for Profit....................................................................................... 93
Health .................................................................................................. 97
Corporate ............................................................................................ 98

Chapter 7 ................................................................................................ 103

Evaluating Leadership One-to-one External Support
What evaluation means: Rationale and purposes .............................. 104
Definitions and process ..................................................................... 106
Deciding who will conduct evaluation .............................................. 107
Establishing an evaluation framework: Categories, criteria, data
sources and tools ......................................................................... 107
Determining the data collection tools for evidence gathering ........... 110
Reporting and making recommendations from the evaluation ......... 119
A broader evaluation of LIS ............................................................. 120

References .............................................................................................. 122

Index ....................................................................................................... 131

 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Tables
Table 1: Focus areas for different modalities – supervision, coaching,
mentoring and counselling.......................................................................... 9
Table 2: Functions and Tasks of Supervision shown in the Supervisory
Alliance Model ........................................................................................ 20
Table 3: Shared activities of LIS .............................................................. 30
Table 4: Functions of LIS in the relationship with leaders ....................... 34
Table 5: An example of how the functions of LIS are utilised ................ 35
Table 6: Examples of possible issues to discuss in LIS ............................ 41
Table 7: The role of supervision in relation to leader’s well-being .......... 52
Table 8: Levels of Collaborative Challenge ............................................. 57
Table 9: Becoming Productive – Advocacy and Inquiry in Dialogue ...... 62
Table 10: Dialogue Steps.......................................................................... 64
Table 11: LIS content summary ............................................................... 73
Table 12: Contract content ....................................................................... 73
Table 13: Example LIS facilitator-leader contract.................................... 74
Table 14: LIS Code of Ethics ................................................................... 78
Table 15: LIS Evaluation Framework .................................................... 109
Table 16: Feedback form for LIS ........................................................... 111
Table 17: Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) ............................................... 116

Figures
Figure 1: Van Ooijen’s ‘Double Helix Model’ (2003) ............................ 19
Figure 2: The Double Matrix Model ........................................................ 22
Figure 3: Page and Wosket’s Cyclical Model .......................................... 23
Figure 4: Proctor’s (1986) functions adapted to LIS ................................ 31
Figure 5: LIS model ................................................................................. 38
Figure 6: Ladder of Inference ................................................................... 66
Figure 7: Single and Double-Loop Learning ............................................ 67
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The leadership coaching, mentoring and supervision sphere is densely

populated with books proposing different models and methodologies drawn
from diverse fields. Each of these fields has its own language, and the
authors are often strong proponents of their particular field to the exclusion
of others. In work providing one-to-one support with multiple leaders, we
have found some aspects of each of these fields to be useful. However, when
the authors seem to be zealously advocating their approach as ‘the right
way’ the potential value is substantially diminished.

In our experience, there is never one right way to support leaders in this type
of activity. For example, no standardised set of reflective coaching
questions has been sufficient to deal with the complexity of issues that
varied leaders bring to our meetings: no single model has had enough
flexibility to be responsive enough to meet our own or our client needs. For
these reasons, we have struggled to find a suitable name for the approach
that we have been adopting, and the title of this book reflects that struggle.
‘Leadership Coaching, Mentoring, Counselling or Supervision? One Way
is Not Enough’ was the closest we could come to describing this struggle.

The purpose of this book is to share a much less rigid, contextually flexible
way of thinking about one-to-one support for leaders. We have previously,
often inaccurately, described what we do as supervision or coaching but we
have always known it did not strongly conform to any of those roles and
some clients have not hesitated to tell us this! The thinking and its practices
do not fit under any of the popularised approaches. They do, however, have
roots in an action research (AR) oriented philosophy to the extent that we
have adopted the term Leadership Inquiry Support (LIS), and an attendant
model, to describe what we are doing.

The introduction of LIS into our role in one-to-one support has not been
something we have actively promoted, but it has created such a distinction
in practice that many of our supervisor, mentor and coach colleagues, and
2 Chapter 1

leadership clients, have urged us to write about what we think is distinctive

about what we are doing. We hope this book will make that clear in a way
which will be useful to those wishing to explore a more multi-faceted
approach. We also hope that the elaboration of the approach will trigger
debate and challenge with others who are expert supervisors, mentors and
coaches. Such dialogue generates new learning.

Before outlining the content of this book, we offer a brief background to our
professional journeys in both one-to-one leadership support and action
research. We think this background is important as a preface to later sections
of the book which show the way these two areas have collided in our
practice.

Eileen: I started my career in teaching biological sciences and was deeply

immersed in scientific principles and research approaches. Like most
teachers in Higher Education, I was shipped off to a course on how to teach
adult learners using the principles of ‘andragogy’ rather than child centred
learning or ‘pedagogy’ as it is frequently named. My fascination with the
course was not with the content, but instead, on the way, the course
facilitators were running the course and engaging us as learners! The latter
has become a feature of my whole career; it seems because I am still
absorbed in the unpacking process about how we best learn more than I am
about content! That aside, this fascination led to my appointment as a
director of a professional development centre that ran programs for
teachers of adults. The role plunged me into the world of leadership and
subsequently, the development of leaders. I increasingly became aware in
this work that the role of a facilitator telling others what to do in their
leadership was substantially ineffective. My increasing discomfort with the
traditional ‘instructor’ ways of teaching leadership led me into the field of
AR: a field which strongly proposes a more ‘experiential’ and ‘autonomous’
approach to growth, development and learning.

In AR, what attracted me was a push for practitioners to collect evidence

around their practice so that they could improve. Self-directness, self-
awareness, and self-responsibility are valued, but so is the importance of
dialoguing with others to challenge and critique self-perceptions. In AR,
both research (evidence gathering) and action (improvement) is critical.
The appeal of AR was so great that I have spent almost twenty years
promoting it, writing about it in multiple books and articles, and developing
hundreds of people in its use. The principles I have outlined for AR, in fact,
underpin almost every facet of my work and life, whether in teaching,
 Introduction 3

leading, developing systems and models, researching, evaluating, or

consultancy work. Although I am now a professor of leadership, it is vital
for me to have credibility and to keep my feet on the ground in my work. For
this reason, I have deliberately retained a proportion of my work with one-
to-one support for real leaders outside academia, and the approach adopted
for this support is LIS.

I am not suggesting that the LIS based approach is a ‘gold standard’ or

should replace supervision or coaching. What I am saying is that what we
do is somewhat different and it works for us and has worked for many of the
leaders I have as clients because I receive about twice as many requests for
this work as I can handle.

Karene: I have moved through middle and senior leadership positions

throughout New Zealand before becoming a Principal in a Secondary
School. During this time, I became aware of the lack of training and support
for middle and senior leaders. Subject experts usually gain leadership
positions in education. Understanding the complex role of leadership,
rather than merely becoming good managers is often left to chance, and
individuals must develop these skills for themselves.

I was introduced to AR during my Master’s degree study. AR fitted well with

my interest in looking at data and in evidence-based development. I was
particularly interested in finding out from non-leadership staff what their
experience was and how that matched with their success or otherwise. AR
completely changed my way of working with staff and leaders. The AR
approach provides a robust framework for leadership inquiry, as it grounds
all inquiry in action and reflection rather than the ad hoc approach many
leaders take presently.

In my work with leaders, I have previously provided time and the

opportunity to connect and work collaboratively. With experience as a
senior leader, I have become aware that this was not sufficient and that I
needed to look for ways to provide 1:1 support for leadership inquiry and
support and I believe LIS provides this. In the often-lonely position of a
leader, the support that LIS provides in developing leaders has a ripple
effect throughout the organisation as lessons learned filter to all levels of
the organisation.

This book outlines the LIS approach.

4 Chapter 1

In Chapter 2 we begin by exploring concepts associated with the most

common, generic modalities of the one-to-one external support usually
offered to organisations, i.e. supervision, coaching, mentoring and counselling,
as understood and practised, where possible, within the leadership context.
Following the outline of modalities, we then background previous models
which have been particularly associated with supervision: models that have
influenced our thinking about the LIS model introduced in this book.

Chapter 3 focuses on the LIS model, exploring its distinctiveness and

application in practice. It outlines how our increasing experience of overlaps
between the modalities led to a conclusion that crisp distinctions can be
over-prescriptive and simplistic. As an example, supervision could gain
much from the more goal focused and questioning oriented coaching
approach, and coaching could be enhanced by the stronger expert or
informed input from mentoring, plus sometimes the broader professional
and personal orientation (often with more in-depth use of counselling skills)
that supervision offers. In varying contexts, it could be possible to
incorporate all four modalities within one session with leaders. Further, the
employment of a stronger developmental approach to supporting sustained
improvement with leaders is needed. Such thinking has led us to develop
this new LIS model, which is more responsive, inclusive of different
modalities, and developmentally oriented. The LIS model, its AR
underpinnings, functions and application are discussed in Chapter 3.

LIS offers a piece to enhance other modalities

Chapter 4 focuses on how to create authentic collaboration in LIS. We

consider that establishing such collaboration is critical to the implementation
of the model. The notions of recognising and overcoming defensive routines
 Introduction 5

are discussed first, followed by an extensive elaboration of how to establish

non-defensive, productive, trust engendering collaboration. Case study
conversations are employed to illustrate the skills required for such
collaboration.

In Chapter 5, we discuss keeping safe as an LIS facilitator, the leader

supported, and their organisation. Just knowing the principles and process,
and a model is insufficient for becoming an expert and safe LIS facilitator.
The complexity of the role, its conflict potential, and the politics of the
organisations it is conducted within, all contribute to contention. Because
of the ever-present risk of contention in such fraught circumstances, it is
vital that both the LIS facilitator, the leader, and their organisation have
clarity and safety around boundaries, roles, and practice. This chapter
covers issues such as how to establish transparency via contracting, and how
to meet ethical standards. Cultural considerations taken into account in LIS
are also discussed. The chapter concludes with the elaboration of
maintaining safe practice via the use of meta-support for LIS facilitators
themselves.

Chapter 6 covers the differences and overlaps between sectors that employ
the LIS type of support engaged in. The chapter begins with a brief
discussion of different contexts as a notion, followed by an outline of the
varied sectors. We then consider the sectors that we have experienced have
the lowest and the highest employment of this support type activity –
looking in particular at the education sector (lowest) and the corporate
sector (highest). We emphasise that this is based upon our own experience
and accept that these perceptions may be contested.

Evaluation of LIS, and potentially other similar one-to-one modalities, is

the focus in Chapter 7. Of all of the material in this book, we consider
evaluation to be the least explored in other publications. Evaluation is
designed to ensure that we are maintaining the standards and integrity
(outlined in a code of conduct) alongside ‘measuring’ how well we meet the
standards of effectiveness in practice. The meaning of evaluation is
explored alongside discussion of how important this is for assuring the
safety both for ourselves and the leaders with whom we work. Purposes,
definitions and process are discussed as well as an elaboration of the process
issues. Process issues include deciding who will conduct evaluations,
establishing an evaluation framework (that includes categories, criteria, data
sources and tools), determining the data collection tools for evidence
gathering, and reporting and making recommendations from evaluations.
6 Chapter 1

Broader approaches to evaluating one-to-one support type activity are also

examined.

Overall, we have deliberately adopted a semi-academic style in exploring

theory and the conceptual underpinnings in this book. The style underscores
our commitment to showing evidence to verify the ideas we present. Just as
importantly, we have tried to put that theory into a practice context to
demonstrate application of the theory. Therefore, if your interest is first and
foremost to get a feel for how LIS works and how it could be applied to your
work situation, we suggest that you skim the contextualising sections and
focus on the tables and case studies. Each of the anecdotes has been
carefully selected to illustrate principles and theory.

The writing of this book is strengthened with the input of several

contributors to some of the chapters. We have acknowledged each in
specific chapters but comment here about their contribution. All are
experienced supervisors, mentors or coaches and have considerable
reputations in their fields. We will always be grateful for the openness they
showed because they do differ in several areas of their approach.
Fundamentally however, regardless of the varied approaches they adopt
compared to our own, they all work with the same principles of integrity
about supporting leaders and their ethics promoted are of the highest level
in this book.
 CHAPTER 2

GENERIC MODALITIES AND MODELS

In this chapter, you will learn:

¥ Modalities of supervision, coaching, mentoring and counselling

¥ Models defined
¥ Generic models of supervision
¥ Merging models relevant to LIS

Introduction
The complex nature of the modalities of one-to-one support has invariably
led to not only a different definition but also varied models that link to such
definition. This chapter begins with an overview of the modalities of
supervision, coaching, mentoring and counselling. A definition follows of
what a model is, as well as what models do and do not provide. Next, generic
models associated with supervision are shown alongside their various
stages, features and application. We consider that it is essential for a LIS
facilitator to know about such models so that they have a rich repertoire of
material to draw upon in the adopting and adapting process. The chapter
ends with a discussion of how merging models are relevant to LIS itself.

Modalities of supervision, coaching, mentoring

and counselling
External (rather than from someone internal to the organisation)
supervision, coaching, mentoring and counselling as modalities all had
something to offer to the development of the LIS model and are therefore
worthy of summary comparison. Each modality (summarised in Table 1,
and loosely adapted from Inskipp & Proctor, 2001) has shared elements of
listening skills, active reflection, clarifying and questioning. Coaching has
a stronger focus on goal clarification and questioning, while mentoring is
often associated with content expert knowledge. Supervision, mentoring
and coaching all usually have a work or a career focus, and all have
8 Chapter 2

overlaps. For example, as Johnson, Skinner, and Kaslow (2014) have noted
that: “effective clinical supervision naturally incorporates many elements of
mentoring” (p.1073). Coaching can also sometimes have a personal focus,
and counselling substantially has this focus but frequently at a more
emotional level. The premise of a functioning adult with aspirations to learn
and develop underpins all modalities. Although referring to supervision,
relevant to all modalities is the following comment from Beddoe (2017)
that: “it is a practice that is expected to model effective relationship
building, the sensitive giving and receiving of feedback and the careful
management of power and difference” (p.88).
 Generic Modalities and Models 9
Table 1: Focus areas for different modalities – supervision, coaching, mentoring and counselling

Agenda Process Role of Helper Goal of the ‘learner’

Supervision - General goals - Uses counselling micro - Facilitates reflection - Reflect on practice
contracted between skills on practice experience with another
supervisor and person and learn from
supervisee on long term - Demonstrates awareness - Challenges practice this
basis as well as of psychodynamic
sessional goals for processes - Develops practice - Develop skills, gain new
focus of particular that is aligned to insights
session - Works with a person professional
who has a people- standards - Receive guidance and
- Focus is the service intensive role support to deal with role
provided by the - Supports the complexity
supervisee to - Low power differential supervisee to cope
clients/staff/ supports mutuality and with the demands - To have a safe,
organisation/community collegiality and stresses of role supportive, and learning
environment to express
- Promotion of learning - Relationship usually - Instructs supervisee anxieties and disclose
about role, including contracted for and as relevant to their ‘not knowing’
some personal growth reviewed from time to specific issues about their work with
content time brought to session another experienced
professional
- Endpoint may be - All information is - Support through
undetermined confidential unless supervisee’s
otherwise agreed developmental stages
10 Chapter 2

Coaching - Inventing a future based - Defined stages of - Skilful use of - Personal and
on coachee’s own coaching: questions to professional
possibilities goal/reality/explore identify goals, reduce performance
options/and way forward barriers, select
- Setting goals and strategies and - To achieve success
forward action - Question and answer support action
process - Clarification and
- Aim for improved - Encourages coachee achievement of personal
performance and - Focus on coachee to stretch and or professional goals
productivity finding own solutions provides support if
coachee falters or - Gain support in
- Focus is the realm of - Endpoint of coaching is gets out of their overcoming barriers to
accomplishment usually predetermined depth success

- Explores values, vision - Reduces/ reframes

and standards barriers to maintain
forward momentum
- Acknowledges historical
issues, but does not - Gives suggestions,
explore them in depth advice, requests and
challenges freely
- All information is
confidential unless - Reflects pro-active
otherwise agreed behaviours and
moving the coachee
forward out of their
feelings and into
action
 Generic Modalities and Models
Mentoring - Chosen by mentor and - Advice-giving and
‘mentee’ and influenced support for mentee in
by an ‘external’ such as their work
a workplace or
educational setting - Mentors have power and
often can influence
- Inventing a future based promotion
on expertise and
wisdom of mentor - High power differential,
mentor has higher level
- Career focus achievements
- Endpoint may be - Solves problems, sets
undetermined goals and creates an
action plan
- All is confidential unless
otherwise agreed
- Facilitate the
development of
professional skills and
competence
11
- Has professional Career development and
expertise advancement
- Is a role model Receiving support in
dealing with challenges and
- Has a broad learning from a more
knowledge of power, experienced/knowledgeable
organisational colleague
culture, structure,
policies etc
- Instils professional/
organisational
standards and norms
- Indirectly influences
mentee’s
promotability
12 Chapter 2
Counselling - Focus on resolution of - Problem-solving - Listens and reflects - Personal progress in
old wounds and issues dealing with issues
- Crisis management - Investigates and
- Deals with vague or clarifies values - To resolve old wounds
specific dysfunction - Healing of past wounds and be more emotionally
- Assists client to healthy
- Focuses on past related - High power differential, recognise the
feelings therapists less self- potential - An expectation of a
disclosing destructiveness of therapeutic relationship
- Goal is to achieve level their actions and
of wellbeing and - Client centred feeling
effective personal
functioning - All information is - Recognises strengths
confidential unless and weaknesses
otherwise agreed
- Explores resistance
and negative
transference

- Rarely gives advice

 Generic Modalities and Models 13

The following sections of this chapter begin with a definition of what a

model is as well as what models do and do not provide. Next, generic
models often associated with supervision particularly are shown alongside
their various stages, features and application. Although supervision is
focused explicitly upon, mostly because it is those models which have most
significantly influenced the development of the LIS model discussed in this
book, skills linked to coaching, mentoring and counselling are consciously
drawn upon also in the LIS model.

Models defined
The complex nature of supervision for one-to-one support and its
application to an increasing range of disciplines has led to the development
of a range of models to describe and delineate various stages and features.
Before considering such models of relevance to the leadership context, it is
essential to clarify what a model is.

Proctor (2000) offered that models are essential for “ordering complex data
and experience” (p.12). We would extend that to include that they also
provide a guide to practice to enable us to clarify both how and why we
conduct our practice. Models are useful as a loose structure, especially for
those who are in the early stage of their role, as they consciously use them
as maps to negotiate a way through the issues brought by the leader.
However, as the support person develops in experience, they are likely to
move out of conscious or tight adherence to this ‘map' or model and will
skilfully integrate it with the other knowledge, experience, resources and
competencies they bring to their role.
14 Chapter 2

Tight adherence to a map or model reduces with experience

Generic models of supervision

Models of supervision abound, and classifications of models are also
numerous and varied. Ely, Boyce, Nelson, Zaccaro, Hernez-Broome and
Whyman (2010) summarised the process generally “… consists of three to
seven phases and may include various assessment techniques and
instruments” (p.587).

Glamcevski (2007) suggested that early supervision models “…mirrored

theories of counselling” (p.106) and, as such, were “counselling-bound”
(p.106) and quite insular. As a result of this development from counselling
roots, it is unsurprising the names of the models such as ‘supervision in
relative-emotive therapy’ were based on counselling theories and in
Glamcevski's view they provided few directions for practice. In subsequent
years the realisation that counselling and supervision have several
significant points of difference (as shown earlier in this chapter) has seen
these models replaced with what the latter author described as ‘cross-
theoretical models’.
 Generic Modalities and Models 15

Despite the cross-theoretical shift, Kilminster and Jolly (2000) argued that
most models “… tend to be narrative and philosophical with little or no
empirical base … support an instrumental rather than a questioning
approach” (p. 829). By instrumental, the authors are referring to a technical
rather than an inquiring approach. Tudor (2002) questioned whether there
is ONE model of supervision but instead considers there is a range of
models. He classified models of supervision under the headings of:

x Functions
x Tasks
x Differing theoretical approaches
x Development
x Roles
x Supervisory relationship
x Process and dynamics
x Organisation of supervision
x Context of supervision
x Systems of supervision
(Adapted from Tudor, 2002, p.39).

Most of these categories fall under a slightly more abbreviated classification

from Van Ooijen (2003) and it is this classification we have chosen as a
framework for discussion of supervision models because it is relatively
simple, albeit with limitations. Van Ooijen (2003) classified models into the
four following categories:

1. Models of reflection;
2. Psychological type models;
3. Developmental models; and
4. Focus-based supervision specific models.

In the first category, Van Ooijen included methods and tools to assist the
process of reflection. We do not consider that these, grouped as ‘models of
reflection’, are models as such. Instead, we view reflection as one of the
fundamental processes occurring within a model, and we discuss reflection
specifically later under the LIS model.

Psychological type models fall into several categories, according to Van

Ooijen, primarily derived from the characteristics of the supervisor and their
preferred way of working. In commenting on these models, we will refer to
various counselling theories. Many supervisors and coaches often consciously
16 Chapter 2

work using a favoured specific theoretical (and aligned strategy) approach

or “approach-specific” (Van Ooijen, 2003, p.19) model. The specific theory
could fall anywhere along the continuum of counselling theories from the
relatively structured and tightly focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
(CBT) theory through to a less directive, long-term, psychodynamic theory
such as narrative therapy. This therapy is a form of psychotherapy using
narrative where the focus is on the stories of people’s lives from which the
meaning of their life might be derived. Van Ooijen noted that it is common
for novice supervisors to replicate the ‘same theory’ approach to supervision
in which they have trained. For example, a supervisor trained in CBT is
likely to use this theory in supervision.

Tudor (2002) outlined a transactional analysis (TA) model for supervision,

which fits into the ‘approach-specific’ category. Tudor suggested that TA
organising framework which has dynamic, interconnecting, elements of
practice (task, process, operations), theory (contracts and TA scripts) and
philosophy (principles of TA, method and motivation), with the
practitioner/supervisee at the centre of these elements. In this model, the
language (slogans), attitude, philosophy and methods (including establishing
equal power relationships, whether bilateral or multilateral) of TA are
employed.

The T.A.P.E.S (C) model (Clarkson, 1992) for supervision is another which
fits under the psychological type model categorisation because it is closely
aligned to the TA field. The acronym is expanded as:

T= Theory, provision of theory alternatives if information is lacking

A= Assessment, how to think about the situation
P= Parallel process, finding out what is going on in the situation
E= Ethics, exploring what should happen in the situation
S= Strategies, intervention techniques guiding what to do about the
situation
C= Context, the overview of what is going on between the supervisor
and supervisee.

The T.A.P.E.S (C) model might help a supervisor identify or categorise, or

‘band’, the key issues to work on in a supervision session. ‘Banding’ is then
useful as a sorting tool, helping prioritise areas to be worked on in the
session. The banding provides a useful tool for guiding the session, but the
order of use of the bands does not necessarily need to follow the order of
the acronym. Instead, they can be employed in any order or over several
 Generic Modalities and Models 17

sessions. This is demonstrated in the following example of the way a

leadership supervisor used the T.A.P.E.S(C) model in one session only. It
also shows how the ‘bands’ might be employed over several sessions.

Scenario: Mary is a team leader who is having problems accepting the

feedback provided by some members of her staff in a recent external audit
of the organisation. She brings the issue to her supervision session where
she spends about 10 minutes talking about how stressful it has been to
receive the feedback, how angry she is with some staff for being so
negative, how difficult it is to be in her role and the impact of the role
overload on her ability to lead well.

After hearing all this from Mary, her leadership supervisor, Joe, starts
exploring the issues from the ‘P’ (parallel process) band. Joe uses
extensive probing, paraphrasing and open-ended questioning to explore
whether Mary had ever had previous experience of receiving feedback
from other people in different situations, and how she had responded to
that. Mary's response to this line of enquiry revealed she had a pattern
of defensiveness in response to feedback in a range of situations. In short,
Mary had much difficulty accepting criticism.
With this awareness, Joe gently took Mary through a deeper examination
or assessment (‘A’ band) of the exact nature of her defensive response.
In doing so, Joe helped Mary to identify what triggered her defensiveness
and how it could be problematic for both her learning and relationships
with staff, what she could do about it, and what could be some goals to
improve in this area.

Joe then explained an alternative theory of non-defensive response called

productive reasoning, which encouraged Mary to investigate further
information on the topic. This was the Theory, ‘T’, band that
intentionally integrated new learning but not in a directive way. By using
this process Joe sought to shift ownership for the learning to Mary but
he provided overall guidance in doing so.

By the time Joe got to this point in the session, he had noticed that Mary
was quite thoughtful and reflective. He felt Mary had a lot to deal with
and thought she might need some time to notice her defensive reactions
and consider some of the alternative approaches he had suggested. Joe
decided not to go on to explore specific Strategies for Intervention, ‘S’,
at this stage. Instead, he thought he would wait until Mary had a chance
to integrate more of the learning she had gained, so he suggested they
18 Chapter 2

check in on this issue again in their next session. At that time, Joe planned
to negotiate some specific goals for Mary in order to widen her repertoire
of non-defensive strategies.

We did not find evidence of extensive use of the T.A.P.E.S model, although
McKenna, Thom, Howard and Williams (2008) indicate that the model may
be less utilised due to the high cost of training in the T.A.P.E.S model.

Developmental type models of supervision have a learning or ‘educative’

intent. Van Ooijen (2003) and multiple other authors have shown that not
only do supervisors shift in their application of models with experience
(from novice through to expert as mentioned earlier), but also it is essential
for the supervisor to match the developmental approach they employ to the
level of experience of the supervisee. Hawkins and Shohet (2000) for
example, stated that new supervisees tend to focus on the provision of
content, what they did with their staff, as well as their anxiety about their
performance. Later in the supervision process, this shifts to a stronger focus
on the more sophisticated levels of critically evaluating what they did. This
material requires sensitivity by the supervisor in knowing how to quickly
ascertain the level of experience and then matching the level of supervision
to that. In other words, the supervisor should be able to tailor the
development effectively. For the supervisor to over or under-estimate the
level of experience could result in the supervisee feeling shame (over-
estimating), embarrassment (under or over-estimating), a sense of being
patronised (under-estimating), boredom (under-estimating) or other
responses.

Focus-based type models of supervision can also be sub-classified as:

x the whole process of supervision - seeking to understand what

supervision is about;
x the tasks and functions of supervision - seeking to understand what
supervision is for;
x the process of supervision - seeking to understand how to ‘do’
supervision; and
x the structure and process of supervision - combining the last two
categories.

Whole process supervision models cover all aspects of implementing

supervision from the ‘structure’ (for example, the more technical,
establishment stage of setting up a contract) through to the ‘process’
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Steamships
and their story
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Title: Steamships and their story

Author: E. Keble Chatterton

Release date: November 5, 2023 [eBook #72045]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Cassell and company, ltd, 1910

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK

STEAMSHIPS AND THEIR STORY ***
 Transcriber’s Note
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STEAMSHIPS AND THEIR
STORY
THE WHITE STAR LINER “OLYMPIC”
(Drawn by Charles Dixon, R.I.)
 STEAMSHIPS
AND THEIR STORY
BY
E. KEBLE CHATTERTON
Author of “Sailing Ships and Their Story”
WITH 153 ILLUSTRATIONS

CASSELL AND COMPANY, LTD.

London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne
1910
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
 PREFACE
The exceptionally kind reception on the part of both Press and
public which greeted the appearance of my history of the sailing ship
last year, and the numerous expressions of appreciation that have
reached me from so many parts of the world, have encouraged me
to attempt in a similar manner to set out the story of the steamship
from the earliest times to the present day.
I am by no means unaware that between the sailing ship and the
steamship there is a wide difference, as well in character as in their
respective development. But that is no reason for supposing that the
steamship is less interesting in her history or less deserving of
admiration in her final presentation. Around the sailing ship there
hovers eternally a halo of romance; that is undeniable even by the
most modern enthusiast. But, on the other hand, the sailing ship in
the whole of her career has not done more for the good of humanity
than the steamship within a century or less. It requires but a moment
of thought to realise the truth of this statement; and for that reason
alone, the history of the steamship makes its appeal not to a special
class of reader, but to all who interest themselves in progress, in the
development of their own country and empire, in the welfare of the
world generally, and the evolution from stagnation to beneficial
activity and prosperity. There are but few civilised people nowadays
who have not been brought into contact with the steamship in one
way or another. Perhaps sometimes it has been unwillingly, though
at other times to their great gain. In some of those moments which
have seemed to drag on wearily during the enforced idleness of a
voyage, the inquiring mind has over and over again exhibited a
desire to know something of the nature of the fine creature which is
carrying him from one distant country to another. He has desired to
know in plain, non-technical language, how the steamship idea
began; how it developed; how its progress was modified, and what
were the influences at work that moulded its character as we know it
to-day. Further, he has felt the desire to show an intelligent interest in
her various characteristics and to obtain a fair grasp of the principles
which underlay the building and working of the steamship. As a
normal being himself, with mind and sympathy, he has wished to be
able to enter into the difficulties that have been overcome so
splendidly by the skill and enterprise of others, both past and
present. If he talks to the professional sailor or marine engineer, they
may not, even if they have the inclination to unbend, be able easily
to separate their explanation from the vesture of technicality, and the
inquirer is scarcely less satisfied than before. It is, then, with a view
of supplying this want that I have aimed to write such a book as will
interest without, I trust, wearying, the general reader.
The plan on which I have worked has been to give the historical
continuity of the steamship from the most reliable and authoritative
material obtainable, and to supplement and correct a number of false
statements by comparison with the latest researches. At the same
time, my object has been not merely to ensure absolute historical
accuracy, but to show how in a special manner and peculiar to itself
the steamship is every bit as romantic, and equally deserving of our
affectionate regard, as her predecessor the sailing ship, whose
sphere of utility she has succeeded so materially in limiting. After
having been brought safe and sound through gales of wind, across
many thousands of miles of ocean, past cruel coast, and through
treacherous channels, until at last the fairway and the harbour of
safety have been reached, no one who has any heart at all can step
ashore without feeling that he is parting from one of the noblest and
best friends that a man ever had. True, there are some people, as an
officer on one of the crack liners once remarked to me, who, as soon
as ever the big ship is tied up alongside the landing-stage, hurry
ashore from her as if she were a plague-ship. But such, let us hope,
are the few rather than representative of the majority who have been
brought into intimate relationship with the steamship.
Nor only to the history and the glamour of the great steam-driven
vessel have I confined myself. The sea is not merely a wide ocean,
but contains within its mighty bosom many smaller areas such as
channels and bays wherein the steamboat is able to ply as well for
pleasure as for profit; and besides the big, brave sisters with their
enormous displacement and their powerful engines, there are other
children which run across smaller sea-ways, and these, too, are not
to be passed over lightly. Then there are fleets of special steamships
which in a quiet, unostentatious manner do their noble work, and are
none the less efficient, even if they escape the limelight of general
publicity. I shall seek to show in the following pages not merely the
conditions which in the past have hindered or helped the ship-maker,
but to indicate the modern problems which have still to be faced and
overcome.
The difficulty that awaits an author who writes on a technical
subject for the benefit of the non-technical, average reader, is always
to make himself intelligible without being allowed the full use of the
customary but technical terms. In order that, as far as possible, the
present volume may be both a full and accurate account of the
steamship, in all times and in all the phases of her development,
whilst yet being capable of appreciation by those to whom
technicalities do not usually appeal, I have endeavoured whensoever
possible to explain the terms employed.
The story of the steamship may at the first mention seem to be
bereft of any interest beyond that which appeals to an expert in
marine engineering. Pipes and boilers and engines, you are told, are
not suggestive of romance. To this one might reply that neither were
sails and spars during the first stages of their history; and I shall
hope that after he has been so kind as to read the following pages,
the reader may feel disposed to withdraw the suggestion that the
steamship is a mere inanimate mass of metal. On the contrary, she
is as nearly human as it is possible to made a steel shell, actuated
by ingenious machinery; and, after all, it is the human mind and hand
which have brought her into being, and under which she is kept
continuously in control. It would be surprising, therefore, since she
has been and continues to be related so closely to humanity, if she
should not exhibit some of the characteristics which a human
possesses.
 It is fitting that the history of the steamship should be written at
this time, for if final perfection has not yet arrived, it cannot be very
far distant. It is but three or four years since the Lusitania and
Mauretania came into being, and only during the present year have
they shown themselves to possess such exceptional speed for
merchant ships. On the 20th of October, 1910, will be launched the
Olympic, whose size will dominate even the Mauretania. Much
further than a 45,000-ton ship, surely, it cannot be possible to go;
and the likelihood is that with the commercial steamship’s
manifested ability to steam at the rate of over thirty-one land miles
per hour, we are in sight of the limitations which encompass her. As
to the future of transport, changes happen so quickly, and possess
so revolutionary a character, that it is hardly safe to prophesy; but it
is significant that the week before this preface was written, an
aeroplane succeeded in flying, in perfect ease and safety, the 150
miles which separate Albany from New York; and thus, just a century
after Fulton had convinced the incredulous by traversing the same
course through water in his steamship, the latest means of travelling
from one place to another has caused to look insignificant the
wonderful record which Fulton, in his Clermont, was the first to set
up. If, then, as will be seen from this volume, the steamship has
done so much within a hundred years, what, we may legitimately
ask, will be accomplished by the airship or aeroplane before another
century has come to an end? Those who have the temerity to give
expression to their opinions, suggest that the steamship will
ultimately be made obsolete by the flying craft. If that be a true
forecast, it is perhaps as well that the steamship’s story should be
told here and now whilst yet she is at her prime.
Of the matter contained within this volume, much has been
obtained at first hand, but much has also been derived from the
labours of others, and herewith I desire to acknowledge my
indebtedness. I would especially wish to mention in this connection:
“A Chronological History of the Origin and Development of Steam
Navigation, 1543–1882,” by Geo. Henry Preble, Rear-Admiral U.S.N.
(1883); certain articles in the “Dictionary of National Biography”;
“Ancient and Modern Ships: Part II., The Era of Steam, Iron and
Steel,” by Sir George C. V. Holmes, K.C.V.O., C.B. (1906); “The
Clyde Passenger Steamer: Its Rise and Progress,” by Captain
James Williamson (1904); “The History of American Steam
Navigation,” by John H. Morrison (1903); “The History of North
Atlantic Steam Navigation,” by Henry Fry (1896); “The American
Merchant Marine,” by W. L. Martin (1902); “The Atlantic Ferry: Its
Ships, Men, and Working,” by Arthur J. Maginnis (London, 1893);
“Ocean Liners of the World,” by W. Bellows (1896); “Life of Robert
Napier,” by James Napier (1904); “Handbook on Marine Engines and
Boilers,” by Sir G. C. V. Holmes (1889); “The Royal Yacht Squadron,”
by Montague Guest and W. B. Boulton (1903); “The Rise and
Progress of Steam Navigation,” by W. J. Millar (1881); “Practical
Shipbuilding,” by A. Campbell Holms; “The Boy’s Book of
Steamships,” by J. R. Howden (1908); “The Steam Turbine,” by
R. M. Neilson (1903); “Our Ocean Railways, or Ocean Steam
Navigation,” by A. Macdonald (1893); “Life of R. Fulton and a History
of Steam Navigation,” by T. Wallace Knox (1887); “Life on the
Mississippi,” by Mark Twain; “American Notes,” by Charles Dickens;
“The Orient Line Guide,” by W. J. Loftie (1901); “The History of the
Holyhead Railway Boat Service,” by Clement E. Stretton (1901); the
“Catalogue of the Naval and Marine Engineering Collection in the
Science Division of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South
Kensington” (1899); “Catalogue of the Mechanical Engineering
Collection in the Science Division” of the above (1907); “The
Progress of German Shipbuilding” (1909); “Leibnizens und Huygens
Briefwechsel mit Papin,” by G. W. Von Leibnitz (1881); “British
Shipbuilding,” by A. L. Ayre (1910); “Lloyd’s Calendar.” In addition to
the above, I have laid myself under obligation to a number of articles
which have appeared at one time and another in the newspapers
and periodicals within the last century, and especially to certain
contributions in the Century Magazine, the Yachting Monthly, the
Engineer and in Engineering. For the rest, I have relied on material
which I have myself collected, as well as on much valuable matter
which has been courteously supplied to me by the various
shipbuilding firms and steamship lines.
My thanks are also due for the courteous permission which has
been given to reproduce photographs of many of the steamships
seen within these pages. To the authorities at South Kensington I am
indebted for the privilege of reproducing a number of the exhibits in
the Victoria and Albert Museum. I wish also to thank the City of
Dublin Steam Packet Company for permission to reproduce the
Royal William; Mr. James Napier for the illustration of the British
Queen; the Cunard Steamship Company for the various photographs
of many of their fleet; also the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company,
the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, Messrs.
Ismay, Imrie and Co., Messrs. Anderson, Anderson and Co., the
American Line, the Norddeutscher Lloyd Company, the Liverpool
Steam Towing and Lighterage Company, Messrs. L. Smit and Co.,
the Ymuiden Tug Company, Messrs. Lobnitz and Co., Renfrew, the
Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, Liverpool, Sir W. G. Armstrong,
Whitworth and Co., Messrs. William Doxford and Sons, Sir Raylton
Dixon and Co., Messrs. Cochrane and Sons, Selby, the Fall River
Line, Messrs. A. and J. Inglis, Messrs. Thos. Rhodes and Co., the
Caledon Shipbuilding and Engineering Co., Messrs. Camper and
Nicholson, Messrs. Cammell, Laird and Co., the Great Western
Railway Company, the London and North Western Railway
Company, the London and South Western Railway Company, the
South Eastern and Chatham Railway Company, Messrs. Harland
and Wolff, and Messrs. C. A. Parsons and Co. To the Right Hon. the
Earl of Stanhope, to the New Jersey Historical Society, and also to
the proprietors of the Century Magazine I wish to return thanks for
being allowed to reproduce certain illustrations connected with
Fulton’s early experiments in steam navigation, and to the Yachting
Monthly for permission to reproduce the diagrams of steam yachts
and lifeboats.
Finally, I have to apologise if through any cause it should be
found that in spite of extreme carefulness errrors should have found
their way into this narrative. The nature of the subject is necessarily
such that to have erred herein would have been easy, but I have
been at great pains to prevent such a possibility occurring.
E. Keble Chatterton.
June, 1910.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
1. Introduction 1
2. The Evolution of Mechanically-Propelled
Craft 12
3. The Early Passenger Steamships 63
4. The Inauguration of the Liner 104
5. The Liner in her Transition State 145
6. The Coming of the Twin-Screw Steamship 165
7. The Modern Mammoth Steamship 183
8. Smaller Ocean Carriers and Cross-Channel
Steamers 215
9. Steamships for Special Purposes 233
10. The Steam Yacht 266
11. The Building of the Steamship 282
12. The Safety and Luxury of the Passenger 297
13. Some Steamship Problems 309
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
The “Olympic” Frontispiece
Hero’s Steam Apparatus 18
Jonathan Hulls’ Steam Tug Boat 30
The Marquis de Jouffroy’s Steamboat 40
Patrick Miller’s Double-hulled Paddle-boat 42
Symington’s First Marine Engine 42
Outline of Fitch’s First Boat 45
The “Charlotte Dundas” 46
The “Clermont” in 1807 46
Fulton’s design for a Steamboat submitted to the
Commission appointed by Napoleon in 1803 51
Fulton’s First Plans for Steam Navigation 57
Fulton’s design of Original Apparatus for determining
the Resistance of Paddles for the propulsion of the
“Clermont,” dated 1806 64
The Reconstructed “Clermont” at the Hudson-Fulton
Celebrations, 1909 70
Paddle-wheel of the Reconstructed “Clermont” 70
Fulton’s Preliminary Study for the Engine of the
“Clermont” 75
Fulton’s plans of a later Steamboat than the “Clermont-
North-River,” showing application of the square side
connecting rod Engine 77
The “Comet” 78
Engine of the “Comet” 78
S.S. “Elizabeth” (1815) 84
Russian Passenger Steamer (1817) 84
The “Prinzessin Charlotte” (1816) 90
The “Savannah” (1819) 90
The “James Watt” (1821) 94
Side-Lever Engines of the “Ruby” (1836) 94
The “Sirius” (1838) 96
The “Royal William” (1838) 96
The “Great Western” (1838) 100
Paddle-wheel of the “Great Western” 100
The “British Queen” (1839) 102
The “Britannia,” the First Atlantic Liner (1840) 102
The “Teviot” and “Clyde” (1841) 110
Side-lever Engine 110
Launch of the “Forth” (1841) 112
The “William Fawcett” and H.M.S. “Queen” (1829) 112
Designs for Screw Propellers prior to 1850 118
The “Robert F. Stockton” (1838) 120
The “Archimedes” (1839) 120
Stern of the “Archimedes” 122
The “Novelty” (1839) 122
The “Great Britain” (1843) 126
Propeller of the “Great Britain” 126
Engines of the “Great Britain” 128
Engines of the “Helen McGregor” 128
The “Scotia” (1862) 130
The “Pacific” (1853) 130
Maudslay’s Oscillating Engine. 132
Engines of the “Candia” 132
The “Victoria” (1852) 134
The “Himalaya” (1853) 134
Coasting Cargo Steamer (1855) 134
The “Great Eastern” (1858) 138
Paddle Engines of the “Great Eastern” 140
Screw Engines of the “Great Eastern” 140
The “City of Paris” (1866) 148
The “Russia” (1867) 148
The “Oceanic” (1870) 152
The “Britannic” (1874) 154
The “Servia” (1881) 154
The “Umbria” (1884) 158
The “Orient” (1879) 158
The “Austral” (1881) 162
The “Victoria” (1887) 162
The “Majestic” (1889) 162
The “City of Paris” (1893) (now the “Philadelphia”) 166
The “Ophir” (1891) 166
The “Lucania” (1893) 170
The “Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse” (1897) 174
The “Oceanic” (1899) 176
The “Cedric” 176
The “Celtic” 178
The “Kaiser Wilhelm II.” 180
Giovanni Branca’s Steam Engine (1629) 184
The Blades of a Parsons Turbine 185
The Parsons Turbine 186
The “Carmania” (1905) 188
Lower half of the fixed portion of one of the
“Carmania’s” Turbines 188
A Study in Comparisons: the “Magnetic” and “Baltic” 192
The “Mauretania” when completing at Wallsend-on-
Tyne 198
Stern of the “Mauretania” 200
The “Lusitania” 202
The “Adriatic” 206
The “George Washington” 208
The “Berlin” 208
The “Laurentic” on the Stocks 210
The “Mooltan” 216
The Starting Platform in the Engine Room of the
“Mooltan” 218