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Eberhard Abele · Joachim Metternich ·
Michael Tisch · Antonio Kreß
Learning
Factories
Featuring New Concepts, Guidelines,
Worldwide Best-Practice Examples
Second Edition
Learning Factories
Eberhard Abele · Joachim Metternich ·
Michael Tisch · Antonio Kreß
Learning Factories
Featuring New Concepts, Guidelines,
Worldwide Best-Practice Examples
Second Edition
Eberhard Abele Joachim Metternich
Institute for Production Management, Institute for Production Management,
Technology and Machine Tools (PTW) Technology and Machine Tools (PTW)
Technical University of Darmstadt Technical University of Darmstadt
Darmstadt, Germany Darmstadt, Germany
Michael Tisch Antonio Kreß

Institute for Production Management, Institute for Production Management,
Technology and Machine Tools (PTW) Technology and Machine Tools (PTW)
Technical University of Darmstadt Technical University of Darmstadt
Darmstadt, Germany Darmstadt, Germany
ISBN 978-3-031-46427-0 ISBN 978-3-031-46428-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46428-7
1st edition: © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

2nd edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2024
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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Preface
Empowering Production in the Face of Current Global

Challenges
Production-related competencies remain important for economic growth and long-

term competitiveness. As societies face pressing challenges like climate change,
political crises, and the rising importance of artificial intelligence, there is a growing
need to develop competencies to cope with these challenges successfully. However,
the complexity of production systems can be hardly understood with classical lectures
based on theory only. Consequently, more practical approaches are needed.
Learning factories offer the chance to develop these competencies in a real-
istic environment. Production employees, engineers, and students will be enabled
to improve manufacturing systems using established methods in different fields.
Furthermore, learning factories facilitate the development of essential social and
personal competencies such as team building and leadership. Considering the success
achieved so far, the adoption of learning factories worldwide increased notably in
the last years with a strong community.
In the light of these developments, this book aims to provide a comprehensive
overview of the state of the art in learning factories. The latest concepts are explained
in a practical way. In addition, guidelines for planning, developing, and improving
learning factories are presented step by step. Forty-six existing Best Practice Exam-
ples of learning factories, their overall goals, equipment, and products, as well as
their operational concepts are given.
We firmly believe that learning factories significantly contribute to the excellence
of future generations of production employees, engineers, and students.
Darmstadt, Germany Eberhard Abele

Joachim Metternich
Michael Tisch
Antonio Kreß
v
Contents
1 Challenges for Future Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 New Global Value Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Digitalisation of Value Streams and Artificial Intelligence . . . . . 9
1.3 Uncertainty and New Pandemics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Scarcity of Natural Resources and Circular Economy . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Learning and Knowledge Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6 Demographic Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7 Wrap-Up of This Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Competences for Future Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Importance of Competences for Competitiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 The Concept of Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.1 Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.2 Qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.3 Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Learning Targets in Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.1 Classification of Competences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.2 Addressed Competences in Learning Factories . . . . . . . 38
2.4 Competence Development and Learning Target Tracking . . . . . . 45
2.5 Learning Factories as Part of a Competence Strategy . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3 Learning in Production, Learning for Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1 Definition of Basic Terms and Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Historical Development of Work-Related Learning . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3 Forms of Work-Related Learning for Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4 Types of Perceived Learning Concepts in Production . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5 Need for Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
vii
viii Contents
4 Historical Development, Terminology, and Definition

of Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1 Historical Development of the Learning Factory Concepts . . . . 81
4.2 Terminology of Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3 Definition of Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5 The Variety of Learning Factory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1 Learning Factory Morphology: Dimension 1 “Operational
Model” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.1.1 Economic or Financial Sustainability
of the Learning Factory Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.1.2 Content-Related or Thematic Sustainability
of the Learning Factory Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.3 Personal Sustainability of the Learning Factory
Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2 Learning Factory Morphology: Dimension 2 “Targets
and Purpose” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.3 Learning Factory Morphology: Dimension 3 “Process” . . . . . . . 107
5.4 Learning Factory Morphology: Dimension 4 “Setting” . . . . . . . . 109
5.5 Learning Factory Morphology: Dimension 5 “Product” . . . . . . . 113
5.6 Learning Factory Morphology: Dimension 6 “Didactics” . . . . . . 116
5.7 Learning Factory Morphology: Dimension 7 “Metrics” . . . . . . . 118
5.8 Learning Factory Morphology: Dimension 8 “Research” . . . . . . 118
5.9 Database for Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6 The Life Cycle of Learning Factories for Competence
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.1 Learning Factory Planning and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.1.1 Overview Planning and Design Approaches . . . . . . . . . 130
6.1.2 The IALF Approach to Competence-Oriented
Planning and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2 Learning Factory Built-Up, Sales, and Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.2.1 Analysis and Concept Definition for the Built-Up
of a Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.2.2 Built-Up of Standardised Turnkey Learning
Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2.3 Design and Built-Up of Customer-Individual
Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Contents ix
6.3 Learning Factory Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

6.3.1 Offer of Learning Factory Trainings for Industrial
Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.3.2 Training Management for Learning Factories
in Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.4 Learning Factory Evaluation and Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.4.1 Quality System for Learning Factories Based
on a Maturity Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.4.2 Evaluation of the Success of Learning Factories . . . . . . 170
6.5 Remodelling Learning Factory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7 Overview on Existing Learning Factory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.1 Learning Factories in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.1.1 Active Learning in Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.1.2 Action-Oriented Learning in Learning Factories . . . . . . 231
7.1.3 Experiential Learning and Learning Factories . . . . . . . . 232
7.1.4 Game-Based Learning in Learning Factories
and Gamification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.1.5 Problem-Based Learning in Learning Factories . . . . . . 240
7.1.6 Project-Based Learning in Learning Factories . . . . . . . . 242
7.1.7 Research-Based Learning in Learning Factories . . . . . . 244
7.1.8 Best Practice Examples for Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.1.9 Example: Learning Factories for Industrie 4.0
Vocational Education in Baden-Württemberg . . . . . . . . 247
7.1.10 MecLab—A Learning Factory for Secondary
Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.2 Learning Factories in Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
7.2.1 Developing Competences in Learning Factories . . . . . . 257
7.2.2 Best Practice Examples for Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
7.2.3 Success Factors for Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.2.4 Learning Factory Trainings as a Part of Change
Management Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.2.5 Technology and Innovation Transfer in Course
of Learning Factory Trainings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.3 Learning Factories in Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
7.3.1 Learning Factories as Research Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.3.2 Learning Factories as Platforms
for Production-Oriented Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
x Contents
8 Overview on Learning Factory Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

8.1 Learning Factories for Lean Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.2 Learning Factories for Industrie 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.3 Learning Factories for Resource and Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . 299
8.4 Learning Factories for Industrial Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.5 Learning Factories for Product Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.6 Other Topics Addressed in Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
8.6.1 Learning Factories for Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . 307
8.6.2 Learning Factories for Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
8.6.3 Changeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8.6.4 Complete Product Creation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
8.6.5 Global Production Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.6.6 Intralogistics and Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.6.7 Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.6.8 Worker’s Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
8.7 Learning Factories for Specific Industry Branches
or Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
9 Overview on Potentials and Limitations of Existing Learning
Factory Concept Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
9.1 Potentials of Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
9.2 Limitations of Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
9.3 Learning Factory Concept Variations of Learning
Factories in the Narrow Sense—Advantages
and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
9.3.1 The Learning Factory Core Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
9.3.2 Model Scale Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.3.3 Physical Mobile Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
9.3.4 Low-Cost Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
9.3.5 Digitally and Virtually Supported Learning
Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.3.6 Producing Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
9.4 Learning Factory Concept Variations of Learning
Factories in the Broader Sense—Advantages
and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.4.1 Digital, Virtual, and Hybrid Learning Factories . . . . . . 347
9.4.2 Remotely Accessible Learning Factories
and Teaching Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Contents xi
10 International Association of Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

10.1 History of the IALF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
10.2 Mission of the IALF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
10.3 Working Groups of the IALF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
10.4 Conferences on Learning Factories (CLF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
10.5 Past Activities of the IALF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
11 Best Practice Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
11.1 Overview Best Practice Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
11.1.1 Best Practice Example 1: 5G Learning Factory
at AMTC, Tongji University, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
11.2 Best Practice Example 2: Aalto Factory of the Future
at Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Aalto
University, Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
11.3 Best Practice Example 3: Additive Manufacturing Center
(AMC) at TU Darmstadt, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
11.4 Best Practice Example 4: A Distributed Learning Factory
with a Central Hub (SEPT LF) at McMaster University,
Hamilton, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
11.5 Best Practice Example 5: Aquaponics 4.0 Learning
Factory (AllFactory) at University of Alberta, Canada . . . . . . . . 416
11.6 Best Practice Example 6: Demonstration Factory Aachen
DFA at WZL & FIR, RWTH Aachen University, Germany . . . . 420
11.7 Best Practice Example 7: Digital Capability Center
Aachen Led by ITA Academy GmbH Aachen, Germany . . . . . . 425
11.8 Best Practice Example 8: Die Lernfabrik at IWF, TU
Braunschweig, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
11.9 Best Practice Example 9: E|Drive-Center at FAPS,
Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg
(FAU), Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
11.10 Best Practice Example 10: ETA-Factory at PTW, TU
Darmstadt, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
11.11 Best Practice Example 11: Fábrica do Futuro at University
of São Paulo (USP), Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
11.12 Best Practice Example 12: FIM Learning Factory
at Faculty of Industrial Management, Universiti Malaysia
Pahang, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
11.13 Best Practice Example 13: FlowFactory at PTW, TU
Darmstadt, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
11.14 Best Practice Example 14: Globale Learning Factory
at wbk, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe,
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
xii Contents
11.15 Best Practice Example 15: Global McKinsey Innovation &

Learning Center Network (ILC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
11.16 Best Practice Example 16: Hybrid Teaching Factory
for Personalised Education—Towards Teaching Factory
5.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
11.17 Best Practice Example 17: IFA-Learning Factory, Leibniz
University Hannover (LUH), Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
11.18 Best Practice Example 18: Industry 4.0 Lab
at the Politecnico di Milano, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
11.19 Best Practice Example 19: LEAD Factory at IIM, TU
Graz, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.20 Best Practice Example 20: LEAN-Factory at Fraunhofer
IPK, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
11.21 Best Practice Example 21: Lean Learning Factory
at FESB, University of Split, Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
11.22 Best Practice Example 22: Lean School at Faculty
of Industrial Engineering, University of Valladolid, Spain . . . . . 501
11.23 Best Practice Example 23: Learning and Research
Factory (LFF) at the Chair of Production Systems,
Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
11.24 Best Practice Example 24: Learning Factory
(CUBE) at the Department of Design, Production
and Management (Faculty of Engineering Technology),
University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
11.25 Best Practice Example 25: Learning Factory jumpING
at Heilbronn University, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
11.26 Best Practice Example 26: Learning Factory of Advanced
Industrial Engineering aIE (LF aIE) at IFF, University
of Stuttgart, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
11.27 Best Practice Example 27: Learning Factory SUM
Mostar, Bosnia, and Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
11.28 Best Practice Example 28: Lernfabrik für schlanke
Produktion (LSP) at the iwb, Technical University
of Munich (TUM), Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
11.29 Best Practice Example 29: Manufacturing Systems
Learning Factory (iFactory) at University of Windsor,
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
11.30 Best Practice Example 30: Model Factory @ Singapore
Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . 540
11.31 Best Practice Example 31: MPS Lernplattform
at Mercedes-Benz AG in Sindelfingen, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
11.32 Best Practice Example 32: Operational Excellence
at Department of Engineering, University of Luxembourg,
Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Contents xiii
11.33 Best Practice Example 33: Pilotfabrik Industry 4.0 at TU

Wien, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
11.34 Best Practice Example 34: Process Learning Factory CiP
at PTW, TU Darmstadt, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
11.35 Best Practice Example 35: Recycling Atelier Augsburg
at the Institut für Textiltechnik Augsburg and University
Augsburg for Applied Sciences, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
11.36 Best Practice Example 36: SDFS Smart Demonstration
Factory Siegen at PROTECH, University Siegen, Germany . . . . 570
11.37 Best Practice Example 37: Smart Factory AutFab at
h_da, University of Applied Sciences Darmstadt, Germany . . . . 575
11.38 Best Practice Example 38: Smart Factory at SZTAKI
(Institute for Computer Science and Control), Budapest,
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
11.39 Best Practice Example 39: SmartFactory-KL
at the German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence
(DFKI), Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
11.40 Best Practice Example 40: Smart Mini Factory, Free
University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
11.41 Best Practice Example 41: Stellenbosch Learning
Factory (SLF), Department of Industrial Engineering,
Stellenbosch University, South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
11.42 Best Practice Example 42: SZTAKI Industry 4.0 Learning
Factory, Győr, Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
11.43 Best Practice Example 43: The Centre for Industry
4.0 at Chair of Business Informatics, esp. Processes
and Systems, University of Potsdam, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
11.44 Best Practice Example 44: The Learning Factory at Penn
State University, Pennsylvania, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
11.45 Best Practice Example 45: The Purdue Learning Factory
Ecosystem—Preparing Future Engineers, West Lafayette,
USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
11.46 Best Practice Example 46: Werk150, ESB Business
School, Reutlingen University, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
11.47 List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
12 Conclusion and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
About the Authors
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Prof. E.h. Eberhard Abele born in 1953,

studied mechanical engineering. He is a research fellow
and head of the Department “Industrial Automation” at
the Fraunhofer Institute IPA in Stuttgart.
From 1986 to 1999, he worked in the automotive
supply industry as the head of manufacturing technology
and technical director for factories in Spain and France.
The focus of his industrial activities was on production
management of highly automated factories and system-
atical productivity improvement. From 2000 to 2021,
he was the head of the Institute PTW, which today is
managed by Prof. Metternich and Prof. Weigold.
Professor Abele contributed to more than 200 publi-
cations in the field of manufacturing organisation,
machine tool technology, and manufacturing processes.
The Process Learning Factory (CIP), which he initi-
ated in 2008, and the Learning factory for energy effi-
ciency (ETA-Factory, opened in 2013) have shown a
novel path in the long-term qualification of university
graduates and employees from companies.
He is a founding member of the International Associ-
ation of Learning Factories (IALF). He is a fellow in the
Scientific Society for Production Engineering (WGP),
CIRP, acatech, and a member of the supervisory board
of EIT Manufacturing, Festo-Didactic, Zahoransky AG,
and Datron AG.
He is a fellow in the Scientific Society for Production
Engineering (WGP), in the International Academy for
Production Engineering (CIRP) and acatech.
xv
xvi About the Authors
He was a member of the supervisory board of

European Institute of Innovation & Technology (EIT)
Manufacturing and Festo Didactic.
Currently, he is member of the supervisory board of
Zahoransky AG and Datron AG.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Joachim Metternich studied industrial

engineering at the Technical University of Darmstadt
and received his doctorate in 2001. After his time as an
assistant of the CEO of TRUMPF Werkzeugmaschinen
GmbH, he headed a production group at Bosch Diesel
s.r.o. in the Czech Republic. He then took over the
responsibility for the worldwide lean production system
of Knorr-Bremse SfS GmbH, a manufacturer of systems
for rail vehicles. Since 2012, he has been a director of the
Institute of Production Management, Technology and
Machine Tools (PTW).
His research interests include lean manufacturing and
its digital upgrading and the use of learning factories for
competence development in manufacturing. He is the
author and co-author of more than 200 articles and book
chapters. He is also a member and past president of the
International Association of Learning Factories (IALF)
and the Scientific Society for Production Engineering
(WGP).
Dr.-Ing. Michael Tisch studied industrial engineering

with a technical specialisation in mechanical engi-
neering at the Technical University of Darmstadt. Until
July 2018, he worked as a chief engineer at the Institute
of Production Management, Technology and Machine
Tools at the Technical University of Darmstadt. In his
research and in his doctoral thesis (2018), he dealt with
the design of learning factories for lean production.
Since 2018, he has been at MTU Maintenance Hannover
GmbH and currently as a senior manager of a repair
department for engine parts.
About the Authors xvii
Dr.-Ing. Antonio Kreß studied industrial engineering

with a technical specialisation in mechanical engi-
neering at the Technical University of Darmstadt. Until
June 2023, he worked as a research associate and post-
doc at the Institute of Production Management, Tech-
nology and Machine Tools at the Technical University
of Darmstadt. In his research and in his doctoral thesis
(2022), he dealt with the configuration of learning facto-
ries. Since 2023, he has been at Schunk Holding GmbH
and currently as a senior manager for global operations.
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Effect of education and training, to be considered

in different time spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fig. 1.2 Qualification for e-mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fig. 1.3 Sectoral analysis of enterprise size in manufacturing
(Eurostat, 2023) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Fig. 1.4 Megatrends with crucial importance for production
and products (Abele & Reinhart, 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 1.5 Identified megatrends in literature shown in Adolph
et al. (2014), based on Abele and Reinhart (2011),
Arndt (2008), Graf (2000), Grömling and Haß (2009),
Herrmann (2010), Jovane et al. (2009), Krys (2011),
Warnecke (1999), and Wartenberg and Haß (2005) . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 1.6 Chinese acquisitions in Europe in recent years
(will) lead to various challenges for production, data
from China-EU-FDI Radar (Datenna, 2023) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 1.7 Exemplary Industrie 4.0 concepts implemented
in the Process Learning Factory CiP in Darmstadt . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.8 Additive process chain changes the possibilities
and requirements of manufacturing processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 1.9 Aim of the research project ETA-Factory (PTW, TU
Darmstadt, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 1.10 Current challenges in production technology require
efficient forms of knowledge and competence
management, with slight changes according to Abele
and Reinhart (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 1.11 Population pyramid in the EU from 2007 to 2022
(Eurostat, 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 1.12 Age structure of the national and non-national
populations in EU-28, January 2016 (in %) (Eurostat,
2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
xix
xx List of Figures
Fig. 1.13 Extended production targets: Always affected

by megatrends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 2.1 Overview of the structure of this structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 2.2 Human–technology–organisation approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 2.3 Survey on learning success of further education
(Achenbach et al., 2022) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 2.4 Relation of competence, qualification, skills,
and knowledge (Heyse & Erpenbeck, 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Fig. 2.5 Knowledge stair according to North (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Fig. 2.6 Exemplary qualification matrix for deployment
and development of production staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 2.7 Professional and interdisciplinary qualification
as the basis for vocational professional competence . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 2.8 Catalogue of competences (Erpenbeck & Rosenstiel,
2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 2.9 Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains can be
addressed in learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 2.10 Curriculum for modern lean production of the Process
Learning Factory CiP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 3.1 Overview over the structure of this chapter
on the learning in production and the learning
for production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 3.2 Learning factory concept between formal and informal
learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Fig. 3.3 Vocational training workshop of German company AEG
in Mühlheim-Saarn, approximately taken in the year
1956 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 3.4 Coaching in industrial environments as a form of work
integrated learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 3.5 Historical development of work-related learning
approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 3.6 Learning approaches using enriched working processes . . . . . 66
Fig. 3.7 Job instruction approach in production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fig. 3.8 Learning approaches using simulated production
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Fig. 4.1 Overview of the structure of this chapter regarding
the historical development, terminology, and definition
of learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Fig. 4.2 Historical development of learning factory approaches
and the number of indexed documents on Google
Scholar regarding learning and teaching factories (based
on Tisch and Metternich, 2017 and extended) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fig. 4.3 Key characteristics of learning factories and learning
factories in the narrow sense (Abele et al., 2015
developed by Metternich) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
List of Figures xxi
Fig. 4.4 Key characteristics of learning factories and learning

factories in the broader sense (Abele et al., 2015,
developed by Metternich) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Fig. 5.1 Overview over the structure of this chapter regarding
the variety of learning factory concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig. 5.2 Learning factory morphology, dimension 1: operational
model, according to Tisch et al. (2015b), Tisch (2018)
and Kreß et al. (2023) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 5.3 Three sustainability dimensions of learning factory
operational models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 5.4 Common types of ongoing learning factory financing
for academic operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 5.5 Common types of ongoing learning factory financing
for industrial operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 5.6 Dependencies of research, transfer, education
and training, industry projects, and business creation
in learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. 5.7 Learning factory morphology, dimension 2: targets
and purpose, with small adaptions according to Tisch
et al. (2015b), Tisch (2018), and Kreß et al. (2023) . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 5.8 Current and future application areas of learning factories
in producing and non-producing sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 5.9 Learning factory morphology, dimension 3: process,
according to Tisch et al. (2015b), Tisch (2018), and Kreß
et al. (2023) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Fig. 5.10 Life cycles of production (phases of production
highlighted in red) according to Tisch (2018) based
on Bauernhansl et al. (2014), Westkämper (2006),
Westkämper et al. (2006), Umeda et al. (2012), Schenk
et al. (2014), Grundig (2015), Schuh (2006), Dürr (2013) . . . . 109
Fig. 5.11 Learning factory morphology, dimension 4: setting,
according to Tisch et al. (2015b), Tisch (2018), and Kreß
et al. (2023) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 5.12 Examples for physical, virtual, life-size,
and scaled-down learning environments in learning
factories based on Tisch (2018), from left to right
and top to bottom pictures were taken from Festo
Didactic (2017a, 2017b, 2017c), PTW, TU Darmstadt
(2017a, 2017b), BMW (2015), Jäger et al. (2015),
Hammer (2014), IFA (2017), FBK (2015), and Görke
et al. (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Fig. 5.13 Learning factory morphology, dimension 5: product,
according to Tisch et al. (2015b), Tisch (2018) and Kreß
et al. (2023) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
xxii List of Figures
Fig. 5.14 Examples for learning factory products (Abele et al.,

2017b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 5.15 Comparison of traditional product design process
(a) and the product design process for learning factories
(b,c), with changes inspired by Wagner et al. (2014),
similar also in Abele et al. (2017a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Fig. 5.16 Learning factory morphology, dimension 6: didactics,
according to Tisch et al. (2015a) and Kreß et al. (2023) . . . . . 117
Fig. 5.17 Learning factory morphology, dimension 7: learning
factory metrics, according to Tisch et al. (2015a)
and Kreß et al. (2023) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Fig. 5.18 Learning factory morphology, dimension 8: research,
according to Kreß et al. (2023) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Fig. 5.19 Screenshot of the “learning factories morphology web
application” (LMS, 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Fig. 5.20 Screenshot of the map function of the “learning factories
morphology web application” (LMS, 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 6.1 Learning factory life cycle (Tisch & Metternich, 2017) . . . . . . 130
Fig. 6.2 Levels of learning factory design (Tisch et al., 2015a) . . . . . . . 135
Fig. 6.3 Conceptual relationships in the two didactic
transformations in learning factory design (Kreß &
Metternich, 2020; Tisch et al., 2015a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 6.4 Simplified learning factory design process at the macro
level according to Tisch (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fig. 6.5 Morphological description for the general target
and framework definition (Kreß et al., 2023; Tisch, 2018) . . . 138
Fig. 6.6 Components of the competence formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 6.7 Subdivision of a learning factory into factory areas
and configuration alternatives (Kreß, 2022) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 6.8 Procedure for the configuration of learning factories
(Kreß, 2022) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 6.9 Simplified learning factory design process on meso level
according to Tisch (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 6.10 Checklist for the learning module framework definition
(Tisch, 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig. 6.11 Roles in the shopfloor management; tasks and activities
of a shopfloor management expert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 6.12 Structure of the competence transformation
for the design and redesign of learning modules
according to Tisch et al. (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Fig. 6.13 Extract from the competence transformation chart
of the learning module “Quality Techniques of Lean
Production” (Enke et al., 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 6.14 Possible sequences of activities, according to Abele
et al. (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
List of Figures xxiii
Fig. 6.15 Overview of sequence steps and application areas

of sequencing strategies for learning factory modules
(Tisch, 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 6.16 Sequence of activities for the sub-competence “ability
to develop an andon-concept for production” (Enke
et al., 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 6.17 Simplified learning factory design process on micro
level according to Tisch (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 6.18 Business models for the built-up of learning factories . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 6.19 Overview of operators and target groups of the turnkey
learning factory projects mentioned (Enke et al., 2017b) . . . . . 155
Fig. 6.20 Examples for turnkey learning factories built up around
the world after the model of the Process Learning
Factory CiP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 6.21 Phases of typical turnkey learning factory projects
according to Enke et al. (2017b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig. 6.22 Success barriers and countermeasures regarding turnkey
learning factory projects according to Enke et al. (2017b) . . . . 158
Fig. 6.23 Exemplary questions for the design of company-specific
learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Fig. 6.24 Scope of support by external learning factory experts
(Abele et al., 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Fig. 6.25 Exemplary value-adding architecture for the design
and construction of individualised learning factories
(Abele et al., 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fig. 6.26 Offer of learning factory trainings for industry (Abele
et al., 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Fig. 6.27 Issues for training management in learning factories . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 6.28 Challenges for a quality system for learning factories
in the operation phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 6.29 Structure of the maturity model (Enke et al., 2017a) . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 6.30 Structure of maturity and capability level relations
of the learning factory maturity model (Enke et al., 2018) . . . 169
Fig. 6.31 Definition of capability levels for all statements
to enable a classification of particular learning factories
(Enke et al., 2017a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Fig. 6.32 Evaluation in learning factories along the CIPP model
according to Stufflebeam (1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fig. 6.33 Evaluation possibilities for the effects of learning
factories according to Tisch et al. (2014) based
on Alliger et al. (1997), Becker et al. (2010), Gessler
(2005) and Kirkpatrick (1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fig. 6.34 Two variants of feedback sheets for the use in learning
factory trainings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
xxiv List of Figures
Fig. 6.35 Exemplary subjective self-evaluation sheet for different

competence classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fig. 6.36 General possible experimental designs for learning
success evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 6.37 Competence-oriented learning success evaluation
approaches in learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fig. 6.38 Exemplary operationalised competences of a learning
module for “flexible production systems” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Fig. 6.39 Exemplary knowledge tests regarding different
knowledge levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fig. 6.40 Combination of knowledge and performance perspective
to evaluate learning success in learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fig. 6.41 Integrated learning factory training and transfer concept . . . . . 189
Fig. 6.42 Process of planning, implementation, and evaluation
using learning factory modules in combination
with transfer projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fig. 6.43 Simplified example for the parallel planning of learning
modules and transfer projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Fig. 6.44 Training- and project-based approach
for the implementation phase of the integrated
training and transfer concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 6.45 Monetary, indirect monetary, and non-monetary effects
of learning factories on the cost and benefit side . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Fig. 6.46 Categorised indirect and non-monetary effects
of learning factories on individual, academic, industrial,
and societal level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Fig. 6.47 Learning factory remodelling cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Fig. 7.1 Structure of the overview of existing learning factories
in this chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Fig. 7.2 Detailed structure of the overview on existing learning
factory concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Fig. 7.3 Use of learning factories in education in connection
with stand-alone and industry-partnered projects . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Fig. 7.4 Long-cycled and short-cycled steered courses
in connection with learning factories in education . . . . . . . . . . 230
Fig. 7.5 Most important active learning concepts in the field
of engineering education in learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 7.6 Experiential learning cycle in learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Fig. 7.7 Framework and example of game elements used
for gamification purposes according to Werbach
and Hunter (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig. 7.8 Game-based learning and gamification in learning
factories. Classification according to Deterding et al.
(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
List of Figures xxv
Fig. 7.9 Civil and military paper airplanes and respective process
steps of the paper airplane game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 7.10 RoboCup Logistics League 2016 in Leipzig, Germany.
Screenshot taken from RoboCup (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Fig. 7.11 Steps of a learning method using gamification elements,
according to Böhner et al. (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Fig. 7.12 Advanced Design Project regarding the optimisation
of a Lean Machining Line in the Process Learning
Factory CiP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fig. 7.13 Classification of forms of teaching linked
with research—the research-teaching nexus (Healey,
2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Fig. 7.14 Research process for research-based learning in learning
factories according to Blume et al. (2015), adapted
from Creswell (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fig. 7.15 Sixteen learning factories in Baden-Württemberg
(Germany) on the map (Ministerium für Wirtschaft,
Arbeit und Wohnungsbau Baden-Württemberg, 2017) . . . . . . 248
Fig. 7.16 Impression of learning factory 4.0 in Balingen
as example for one of the 16 learning factories 4.0
in Baden-Württemberg, pictures taken from Festo
Didactic (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Fig. 7.17 Three stations: handling, conveyor, and stack magazine . . . . . 251
Fig. 7.18 MecLab workpiece: top and bottom parts of a cylinder
in three different colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Fig. 7.19 Setup with a MecLab station and laptop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Fig. 7.20 Samples for the production lines created by the pupils
during Ideenpark 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Fig. 7.21 Learning factories in training to speed up transformation
and project implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Fig. 7.22 Role of learning factories in “information assimilation”
and “experiential learning” (Tisch & Metternich, 2017) . . . . . 258
Fig. 7.23 Learning as a feedback process according to Sterman
(1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Fig. 7.24 Extended feedback loop using the learning factory
as virtual world, shown in Abele et al. (2017), inspired
by Sterman (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Fig. 7.25 General process of integrating the learning factory
concept in a change management approach according
to Dinkelmann et al. (2014) and Dinkelmann (2016) . . . . . . . . 265
Fig. 7.26 Research process of applied sciences and the integration
of practical experience through learning factories (Abele
et al., 2017), according to Schuh and Warschat (2013)
on the basis of Ulrich et al. (1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
xxvi List of Figures
Fig. 7.27 Learning factories as research enablers according

to Seifermann et al. (2014a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Fig. 7.28 Problem identification and abstraction of the problem
in a learning factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Fig. 7.29 Solution finding, realisation into practice,
and verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Fig. 7.30 Learning factories as a research enabler with the example
of artificial intelligence in manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Fig. 7.31 Combining the advantages of field and laboratory
experiments for research in learning factories according
to Schuh et al. (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Fig. 8.1 Detailed structure of the overview on content of existing
learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Fig. 8.2 Process Learning Factory CiP at PTW, TU Darmstadt . . . . . . . 289
Fig. 8.3 Overview over the regional Mittelstand-Digital
competence centers (left) and the structure
and impressions of the Hessen Digital Competence
Center in Darmstadt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Fig. 8.4 Part of the Festo Learning Factory Scharnhausen . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Fig. 8.5 Learning factory ETA at TU Darmstadt (PTW, TU
Darmstadt, 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Fig. 8.6 12 Green Factory Bavaria locations for resource
and energy efficient production (FAPS, 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Fig. 8.7 Impression of the teaching course in the Learning
and Research Factory at RU Bochum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fig. 8.8 Impressions from the learning module at the Learning
and Innovation Factory, TU Wien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Fig. 9.1 Structure of the overview over concept variations
of existing learning factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Fig. 9.2 Required resources along the learning factory life cycle
(Tisch & Metternich, 2017), life cycle similar to general
product life cycle according to VDI (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Fig. 9.3 Exemplary limits regarding space- and time-related
mapping ability (Abele et al., 2017b; Tisch, 2018) . . . . . . . . . . 331
Fig. 9.4 Virtual factories and learning factories
from McKinsey&Company, Festo, and Siemens
(Abele et al., 2017b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Fig. 9.5 Advantages and disadvantages of the learning factory
core concept (learning factories in the narrow sense) . . . . . . . . 337
Fig. 9.6 Advantages and disadvantages of model scale learning
environments compared to the learning factory core
concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Fig. 9.7 Advantages and disadvantages of physical mobile
learning factories compared to the learning factory core
concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
List of Figures xxvii
Fig. 9.8 Advantages and disadvantages of low-cost learning

factories compared to the learning factory core concept . . . . . 341
Fig. 9.9 Tec2Screen® enables individual learning paths related
to learning speed and preferred media, picture taken
from Festo Didactic (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Fig. 9.10 Use of virtual extensions and simulation depending
on the implementation effort for a physical environment
and the feedback time to actions of the learners based
on Thiede et al. (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Fig. 9.11 Advantages and disadvantages of digitally and virtually
supported learning factories compared to the learning
factory core concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Fig. 9.12 Advantages and disadvantages of producing learning
Fig. 9.13 Virtual model of the FlowFactory at PTW;
visTable®touch Software (visTABLE, 2017b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Fig. 9.14 Virtual learning factory XPRES at KTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Fig. 9.15 Real assembly environment and its virtual model
of the ESB Logistics Learning Factory (LLF) (Abele
et al., 2017a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Fig. 9.16 Advantages and disadvantages of digital and virtual
learning factories compared to the learning factory core
concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Fig. 9.17 Infrastructure and interfaces of physical, digital,
and virtual learning factories (Abele et al., 2017a) . . . . . . . . . . 358
Fig. 9.18 Interrelation of digital, physical, and hybrid learning
factories (Abele et al., 2017a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Fig. 9.19 Advantages and disadvantages of hybrid learning
Fig. 9.20 Teaching Factory sessions for factory-to-classroom
and lab-to-factory knowledge communication, shown
in Abele et al. (2017a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Fig. 9.21 Advantages and disadvantages of remotely accessible
learning and teaching factories compared to the learning
factory core concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 9.22 Effects of concept variations and methods
and approaches along the learning factory life cycle
on current limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Fig. 10.1 Learning factory networks, starting from local efforts
in 1980s to a worldwide association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Fig. 10.2 Structure of projects and groups related to learning
factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
xxviii List of Figures
Fig. 10.3 Founding members of the Initiative on European

Learning Factories (from left to right: Professor
Laszlo Monostori, Professor Wilfried Sihn, Professor
Friedrich Bleicher, Professorin Vera Hummel, Professor
Kurt Matyas, Professor Eberhard Abele, Dr. Thomas
Lundholm, Dr. Dimitris Mavrikios, Christian Morawetz,
Professor Ivica Veza, Professor Toma Udiljak, Jan
Cachay, Professor Bengt Lindberg. Not in the picture:
Professor Gunther Reinhart, Professor Pedro Cunha) . . . . . . . 375
Fig. 10.4 Names of the founding members of the Initiative
on European Learning Factories in 2011 and their
institutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Fig. 10.5 Presidencies in the IALF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fig. 10.6 Group picture of the members of the International
Association of Learning Factories in Darmstadt, 2017 . . . . . . 379
Fig. 10.7 Impressions of the conferences on learning factories
from 2011 to 2018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Fig. 10.8 Impressions of the conferences on learning factories
from 2019 to 2023 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Fig. 10.9 Students in the NIL winter school playing a logistics
game (Bauer, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Fig. 11.1 Value stream of the 5G Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Fig. 11.2 Teaching model in the 5G Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Fig. 11.3 Aalto Factory of the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Fig. 11.4 Cylindrical piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Fig. 11.5 Mobile phone or battery module replica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Fig. 11.6 QR code for the Aalto Factory of the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Fig. 11.7 Additive Manufacturing Center and the connected
institutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Fig. 11.8 Value stream of the Additive Manufacturing Center . . . . . . . . 405
Fig. 11.9 Workshop program for qualification along the process
chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Fig. 11.10 Equipment installed in the SEPT LF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Fig. 11.11 Electronic screwdriver and solenoid valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Fig. 11.12 SEPT LF Architecture and SEPT Learning Factory Hub . . . . . 412
Fig. 11.13 Focusing on products assembly reduced the cost
of running the W. Booth Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Fig. 11.14 Laboratory and learning factory infrastructure
for teaching vibrations-based machine condition
monitoring competence-based learning modules . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Fig. 11.15 Production systems, factory design, and virtual models
in AllFactory, University of Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fig. 11.16 Fish and leafy green plants production at AllFactory . . . . . . . . 420
Fig. 11.17 Service portfolio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Fig. 11.18 Factory layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
List of Figures xxix
Fig. 11.19 Smart wristband for human–machine interaction.

Operators personal log in for smart assistance system
and ergonomic workspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Fig. 11.20 Overview on digital solutions along the textile value chain . . . 427
Fig. 11.21 Modular system for workshops at the DCC Aachen . . . . . . . . 428
Fig. 11.22 Excerpt from training portfolio: clients can choose their
individual training modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Fig. 11.23 Didactic approach of ITA Academy’s consulting model:
identify clients digitisation level and create customised
project approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Fig. 11.24 Organisational structure and core topics of Die
Lernfabrik and its three laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Fig. 11.25 Impressions and results of survey among the participants
of the events HoloHack and GameJam at Die Lernfabrik . . . . 435
Fig. 11.26 Electric machine learning factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Fig. 11.27 Process chain of hairpin stators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Fig. 11.28 Manufactured products in the Process Learning Factory
E|Drive-Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Fig. 11.29 Building of the ETA-Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Fig. 11.30 ETA-Factory shopfloor—Greenfield process chain . . . . . . . . . 442
Fig. 11.31 Learning factory for energy productivity
(LEP)—Brownfield process chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Fig. 11.32 Overview of existing workshop modules
in the ETA-Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Fig. 11.33 Layout and equipment at Fábrica do Futuro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Fig. 11.34 Designed and assembled product at Fábrica do Futuro . . . . . . 448
Fig. 11.35 Information technology environment and support
software at Fábrica do Futuro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Fig. 11.36 Process flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Fig. 11.37 Products in the Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Fig. 11.38 Workstation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Fig. 11.39 Busbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Fig. 11.40 3D printer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Fig. 11.41 Teaching framework (class lecture, practical learning,
benchmarking, project presentation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Fig. 11.42 Production concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Fig. 11.43 MES architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Fig. 11.44 System in the Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Fig. 11.45 Smart office station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Fig. 11.46 Impressions of the FlowFactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Fig. 11.47 Different variants of the electrical gear drive assembled
in the learning factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Fig. 11.48 Exemplary configuration of the learning factory
in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Fig. 11.49 McKinsey Innovation & Learning Center network . . . . . . . . . . 467
xxx List of Figures
Fig. 11.50 “From-to” journey covering lean, digital,

and sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Fig. 11.51 Selected support formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Fig. 11.52 Model Factory in a Box (MFIB) concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Fig. 11.53 Cloud-based education model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Fig. 11.54 a AR assembly GUI, b Real-time Remote-Control Car
Assembly, c Real-time Field of View of Technician . . . . . . . . 474
Fig. 11.55 Teaching Factory concept as a closed-loop control system . . . 474
Fig. 11.56 Architecture of the Cloud-based Personalised Learning
Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Fig. 11.57 Product(s) within the IFA-Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Fig. 11.58 Impressions of the IFA-Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Fig. 11.59 Industry 4.0 Lab at the Politecnico di Milano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Fig. 11.60 Exploded view of the IIM scooter; Connection plate
after cutting, drilling, and electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Fig. 11.61 Layout and selected technologies of the LEAD Factory . . . . . 489
Fig. 11.62 Comparison of “current state” and “digital state”
of the LEAD Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Fig. 11.63 Layout, process, equipment, and products
of the production environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Fig. 11.64 Didactical design of the LEAN-Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Fig. 11.65 Layout of Lean Learning Factory at FESB, University
of Split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Fig. 11.66 Assembly line for gearbox in accordance with Industry
4.0 trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Fig. 11.67 Assembly line of Karet with vertical integration of ERP
and MES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Fig. 11.68 General view of the Lean School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Fig. 11.69 Two basic versions of the educational toy car (minivan
and pickup) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Fig. 11.70 Initial layout of the Lean School to manufacture cars
(L34N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Fig. 11.71 Basic training process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Fig. 11.72 Evolution of the main learning KPIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Fig. 11.73 Learning and Research Factory (LFF) of the Chair
of Production Systems (LPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Fig. 11.74 Manufactured products in the Learning and Research
Factory (LFF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Fig. 11.75 Examples of digitisation solutions in the LFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Fig. 11.76 Chronological development of the Learning
and Research Factory, LFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Fig. 11.77 Envisaged layout for part of the generic workshop
in the “CUBE” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
List of Figures xxxi
Fig. 11.78 Students of different educational programmes

interacting with the learning factory—and with each
other—at different levels of aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Fig. 11.79 Floor layout and arrangement of equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Fig. 11.80 Examples of typical learning factory products with QR
code to video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Fig. 11.81 Project timeline with due dates and milestones . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Fig. 11.82 Development of competences in jumpING students . . . . . . . . . 520
Fig. 11.83 Modules of the Learning Factory aIE, picture from Festo
Didactic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Fig. 11.84 Product of the Learning Factory aIE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Fig. 11.85 Layout of the initial situation in the Learning Factory aIE . . . 523
Fig. 11.86 Learning by doing simulation game in the Learning
Factory aIE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Fig. 11.87 FSRE Learning Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Fig. 11.88 FSRE Learning Factory structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Fig. 11.89 Lifting platform-3D model and real product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Fig. 11.90 Overview of the main areas and the equipment of the LSP . . . 533
Fig. 11.91 Manufactured products in the LSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Fig. 11.92 Overview of research and development projects
in the LSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Fig. 11.93 Modular and reconfigurable iFactory at the IMS center . . . . . . 537
Fig. 11.94 Integrated products and systems design, planning,
and control demonstrated within the learning Factory
environment at the IMS center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Fig. 11.95 Assembled products families in the Integrated Systems
Learning Factory (automobile belt tensioners family
variants and desk set family variants) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Fig. 11.96 Manufactured products in the Model Factory@SIMTech . . . . 542
Fig. 11.97 Smart Engineering System (SES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Fig. 11.98 Smart Engineering System (SES) product range
and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Fig. 11.99 Layout and impressions of the MPS Lernplattform
in Sindelfingen at Daimler AG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Fig. 11.100 MPSfactory at Daimler AG in Sindelfingen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Fig. 11.101 Process sequences for (dis)assembly of hole puncher . . . . . . . 552
Fig. 11.102 Augmented reality Manual Work Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Fig. 11.103 QR code to a video of the Operational Excellence Factory . . . 553
Fig. 11.104 Machining area in TU Wien Pilot Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Fig. 11.105 TU Wien Pilot Factory and its simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Fig. 11.106 Manufactured products in the TU Wien Pilotfabrik . . . . . . . . . 557
Fig. 11.107 Exemplary use cases in the TU Wien Pilotfabrik . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Fig. 11.108 Building of the Process Learning Factory CiP . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Fig. 11.109 Value stream of the Process Learning Factory CiP . . . . . . . . . . 562
xxxii List of Figures
Fig. 11.110 Manufactured products in the Process Learning Factory

CiP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Fig. 11.111 Alternative value stream for trainings in the field
of Industrie 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Fig. 11.112 Extensions of the Process Learning Factory CiP . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Fig. 11.113 Seven stations of the Recycling Atelier Augsburg . . . . . . . . . . 567
Fig. 11.114 Card sliver made from recycled post-consumer
jeans (left) and pre-consolidated nonwoven made
from recycled carbon fibres (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Fig. 11.115 Textile cycle envisioned by the Recycling Atelier . . . . . . . . . . 568
Fig. 11.116 Trainings conducted at the Recycling Atelier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Fig. 11.117 Production facility of the SDFS Smart Demonstration
Factory Siegen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Fig. 11.118 Grand opening of the Campus Buschhütten
with the partners of the SDFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Fig. 11.119 Working stations of the Learning Factory AutFab of h_da . . . 578
Fig. 11.120 Industrie 4.0-techologies in the AutFab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Fig. 11.121 General view of the SZTAKI Smart Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Fig. 11.122 Recent additions to the Smart Factory infrastructure.
Left: mobile robot with workpiece rack; right: embedded
computing framework on a test stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Fig. 11.123 AR extension for the material handling robot added
recently to the Smart Factory infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Fig. 11.124 Factory concept of the SmartFactory-KL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Fig. 11.125 Asset administration shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
Fig. 11.126 Logo of the project “smartMA-X” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Fig. 11.127 Logo of the project TWIN4TRUCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Fig. 11.128 Exemplary pictures of the lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
Fig. 11.129 Pneumatic cylinder from Kuhnke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Fig. 11.130 Products in the SLF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Fig. 11.131 Layout and equipment of the SLF assembly facility . . . . . . . . 600
Fig. 11.132 Layout and equipment of the STC manufacturing facility . . . . 601
Fig. 11.133 One of several configurable collaborative assembly
stations installed in the SZTAKI Industry 4.0 Learning
Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Fig. 11.134 Left: replica of the robot gripper sent to students
attending remotely. Right: ball valve subject
to assembly, with parts pre-packaged for supporting
remote attendance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Fig. 11.135 Left: elements used in the assembly fixtures—different
colours are marking their function. Right: lightweight
assembly pallet for manual tests during remote
attendance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Fig. 11.136 Screenshot captured during a hybrid session
of the summer school course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
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slaughtered in camp and the presents at the end of the journey are
exclusively his. A man guilty of preceding the Pagazi is liable to fine,
and an arrow is extracted from his quiver to substantiate his identity
at the end of the march. Pouring out of the kraal in a disorderly mob,
the porters stack their goods at some tree distant but a few hundred
yards, and allow the late and lazy and the invalids to join the main
body. Generally at this conjuncture the huts are fired by neglect or
mischievousness. The khambi, especially in winter, burns like tinder,
and the next caravan will find a heap of hot ashes and a few charred
sticks still standing. Yet by way of contrast, the Pagazi will often take
the trouble to denote by the usual signposts to those following them
that water is at hand; here and there a little facetiousness appears in
these directions, a mouth is cut in the tree trunk to admit a bit of
wood simulating a pipe, with other representations still more
waggish.
“After the preliminary halt, the caravan forming into the order of
march, winds like a monstrous land serpent over hill, dale, and plain.
The kirangozi is followed by an Indian file; those nearest to him are
heavily laden with ivory. When the weight of the tusk is inordinate it
is tied to a pole and is carried palanquin fashion by two men. The
ivory carriers are succeeded by the bearers of cloth and beads, each
man poising on either shoulder, and sometimes raising upon the
head for rest, packs that resemble huge bolsters, six feet long by two
in diameter, cradled in sticks which generally have a forked
projection for facility in stacking and reshouldering the load. The
sturdiest fellows are usually the lightest loaded in Eastern Africa; as
elsewhere, the weakest go to the wall. The maximum of burden may
be two farasilah, or seventy pounds avoirdupois. Behind the cloth
bearers straggles a long line of porters and slaves laden with the
lighter stuff—rhinoceros teeth, hides, salt, tobacco, brass wire, iron
hoes, boxes and bags, beds and tents, pots and water gourds, mats,
and private stores. With the Pagazi, but in separate parties, march
the armed slaves, who are never seen to quit their muskets; the
women and the little toddling children, who rarely fail to carry
something, be it only of a pound weight; and the asses neatly laden
with saddle-bags of giraffe and buffalo hide. A Mganga also
universally accompanies the caravan, not disdaining to act as a
common porter. The rear is brought up by the master, or the
masters, of the caravan, who often remain far behind for the
convenience of walking and to prevent desertion.
“All the caravan is habited in its worst attire; the East African
derides those who wear upon a journey the cloth which should be
reserved for display at home. If rain fall they will doff the single goat-
skin hung round their sooty limbs and, folding it up, place it between
the shoulders and the load. When grain is served out for a long
march, each porter bears his posho or rations fastened like a large
‘bustle’ to the small of his back. Upon this again he sometimes binds,
with its legs projecting outwards, the three-legged stool, which he
deems necessary to preserve him from the danger of sitting upon the
damp ground. As may be imagined, the barbarians have more
ornament than dress. Some wear a strip of zebra’s mane bound
round the head with the bristly parti-coloured hair standing out like a
saint’s gloria, others prefer a long bit of stiffened ox-tail rising like a
unicorn’s horn at least a foot above the forehead. Other ornaments
are the skins of monkeys and ocelots, roleaus and fillets of white,
blue, or scarlet cloth, and huge bunches of ostrich, crane, and jay’s
feathers crowning the heads like the tufts of certain fowls. Their arms
are decorated with massive ivory bracelets, heavy bangles of brass
and copper, and thin circlets of the same metal, beads in strings and
bands adorn their necks, and small iron bells strapped below the
knee or round the ancle by the more aristocratic. All carry some
weapon; the heaviest armed have a bow and a bark quiver full of
arrows, two or three long spears and assegais, and a little battle-axe,
borne on the shoulder.
“The normal recreations of a march are whistling, singing,
shouting, hooting, horning, drumming, imitating the cries of birds and
beasts, repeating words which are never used except on journeys.
There is gabble enough and abundant squabbling; in fact, perpetual
noise, which the ear, however, soon learns to distinguish for the
hubbub of a halt. The uproar redoubles near a village where the flag
is unfurled and where the line lags to display itself. All give vent to
loud shouts: ‘Hopa, hopa! go on, go on—Mgogolo! a stoppage—
food, food—don’t be tired—the kraal is here—home is near—hasten,
Kirangozi—oh! we see our mothers—we go to eat.’ On the road it is
considered prudent, as well as pleasurable, to be as loud as
possible, in order to impress upon plunderers an exaggerated idea of
the caravan’s strength; for equally good reasons silence is
recommended in the kraal. When threatened with attack, and no
ready escape suggests itself, the porters ground their loads and
prepare for action. It is only self-interest that makes them brave. I
have seen a small cow trotting up with tail erect break a line of 150
men carrying goods not their own. If a hapless hare or antelope
cross the path, every man casts his pack, brandishes his spear, and
starts in pursuit; the animal, never running straight, is soon killed and
torn limb from limb, each hunter devouring his morsel raw. When two
parties meet, that commanded by an Arab claims the road. If both
are Wanyamwezi, violent quarrels ensue; fatal weapons, which are
too ready at hand, are turned to more harmless purposes, the bow
and spear being used as whip and cudgel. These affrays are not
rancorous till blood is shed. Few tribes are less friendly for so trifling
an affair as a broken head; even a slight cut, or a shallow stab, is
little thought of; but if returned with interest great loss of life may
arise from the slenderest cause. When friendly caravans meet, the
two Kirangozis sidle up with a stage pace, a stride and a stand, and
with sidelong looks prance till arrived within distance, then suddenly
and simultaneously ducking, like boys ‘give a back,’ they come to
loggerheads and exchange a butt violently as fighting rams. Their
example is followed by all with a crush which might be mistaken for
the beginning of a faction; but it ends, if there be no bad blood, in
shouts of laughter. The weaker body, however, must yield
precedence and offer a small present as blackmail.”
After all, however, there is some reason in the African’s objection
to be hurried on a march, or to exert himself overmuch in the
interests of a traveller, whose private affairs are nothing to him and
whom, when discharged, he will in all probability never see again. He
does not particularly wish to see him, as he is perfectly comfortable
at home. According to the last quoted authority he rises with the
dawn from his couch of cow’s-hide. The hut is cool and comfortable
during the day; but the barred door, impeding ventilation at night,
causes it to be close and disagreeable. The hour before sunrise
being the coldest time, he usually kindles a fire and addresses
himself to his constant companion the pipe. When the sun becomes
sufficiently powerful, he removes the reed-screen from the entrance
and issues forth to bask in the morning beams. The villages are
populous, and the houses touching one another enable the
occupants, when squatting outside and fronting the central square,
to chat and chatter without moving. About 7 a.m., when the dew has
partially disappeared from the grass, the elder boys drive the flocks
and herds to pasture, with loud shouts and sounding applications of
the quarter staff. They return only when the sun is sinking behind the
western horizon. At 8 p.m. those who have provisions at home enter
the hut to refection with ugali or holcus-porridge, those who have not
join a friend. Pombe, when procurable, is drunk from the earliest
dawn.
After breaking his fast, the African repairs, pipe in hand, to the
Iwanza, the village public previously described. Here in the society of
his own sex he will spend the greater part of the day talking and
laughing, smoking, or torpid with sleep. Occasionally he sits down to
play. As with barbarians generally, gambling in him is a passion. The
normal game is our “heads and tails,” the implement, a flat stone, a
rough circle of tin, or the bottom of a broken pot. The more civilised
have learned the “bas” of the coast, a kind of “tables” with counters
and cups hollowed in a solid plank. Many of the Wanyamwezi have
been compelled by this indulgence to sell themselves into slavery
after playing through their property; they even stake their aged
mothers against the equivalent of an old lady in these lands,—a cow
or a pair of goats. As may be imagined, squabbles are perpetual,
they are almost always, however, settled amongst fellow-villagers
with bloodless weapons. Others, instead of gambling, seek some
employment which, working the hands and leaving the rest of the
body and the mind at ease, is ever a favourite with the Asiatic and
the African; they whittle wood, pierce and wire their pipe sticks—an
art in which all are adepts,—shave one another’s heads, pluck out
their beards, eyebrows, and eyelashes, and prepare and polish their
weapons.
“At about one p.m., the African, unless otherwise employed,
returns to his hut to eat the most substantial and the last meal of the
day, which has been cooked by his women. Eminently gregarious,
however, he often prefers the Iwanza as a dining room, where his
male children, relatives, and friends meet during the most important
hour of the twenty-four. With the savage and the barbarian food is
the all and all of life, food is his thought by day, food is his dream by
night. The civilized European who never knows hunger nor thirst
without the instant means of gratifying every whim of appetite, can
hardly conceive the extent to which his wild brother’s soul is swayed
by stomach; he can scarcely comprehend the state of mental
absorption in which the ravenous human animal broods over the
carcase of an old goat, the delight which he takes in superintending
every part of the cooking process, and the jealous eye with which he
regards all who live better than himself. After eating, the East African
invariably indulges in a long fit of torpidity from which he awakes to
pass the afternoon as he did the forenoon, chatting, playing,
smoking, and chewing sweet earth. Towards sunset all issue forth to
enjoy the coolness; the men sit outside the Iwanza, whilst the
women and the girls, after fetching water for household wants from
the well, collecting in a group upon their little stools, indulge in the
pleasures of gossiping and the pipe. This hour, in the more favoured
parts of the country, is replete with enjoyment. As the hours of
darkness draw nigh, the village doors are carefully closed, and after
milking his cows, each peasant retires to his hut, or passes his time
squatting round the fire with his friends in the Iwanza. He has not yet
learned the art of making a wick, and of filling a bit of pottery with oil.
When a light is wanted he ignites a stick of the oleaginous msásá-
tree—a yellow, hard, close-grained, and elastic wood with few knots,
much used in making spears, bows, and walking staves—which
burns for a quarter of an hour with a brilliant flame. He repairs to his
hard couch before midnight and snores with a single sleep till dawn.
For thorough enjoyment, night must be spent in insensibility, as the
day is in inebriety, and though an early riser he avoids the ‘early to
bed’ in order that he may be able to slumber through half the day.
“Such is the African’s idle day, and thus every summer is spent.
As the wintry rains draw nigh, the necessity of daily bread suggests
itself. The peasants then leave their huts about six or seven a.m.,
often without provision which now becomes scarce, and labour till
noon or two p.m., when they return home, and find food prepared by
the wife or the slave girl. During the afternoon they return to work,
and sometimes, when the rains are near, they are aided by the
women. Towards sunset all wend homeward in a body, laden with
their implements of cultivation, and singing a kind of ‘dulce domum’
in a simple and pleasing recitative.”
Let us conclude this brief sketch of the perils and inconveniences
that menace the explorer of savage shores by presenting the reader
with a picture of the approach of one of the ships bearing some of
the earliest English visitants to the cannibal shores of the Southern
Seas:
“Notwithstanding,” says Mr. Ellis, “all our endeavours to induce the
natives to approach the ship, they continued for a long time at some
distance viewing us with apparent surprise and suspicion. At length
one of the canoes, containing two men and a boy, ventured
alongside. Perceiving a lobster lying among a number of spears at
the bottom of the canoe, I intimated by signs my wish to have it, and
the chief readily handed it up. I gave him in return two or three
middle-size fish-hooks, which, after examining rather curiously, he
gave to the boy, who having no pocket to put them in, or any article
of dress to which they might be attached, instantly deposited them in
his mouth, and continued to hold with both hands the rope hanging
from the ship.
“The principal person in the canoe appeared willing to come on
board. I pointed to the rope he was grasping and put out my hand to
assist him up the ship’s side. He involuntarily laid hold of it, but could
scarcely have felt my grasp when he instantly drew back his hand
and raising it to his nostrils smelt at it most significantly as if to
ascertain with what kind of being he had come in contact. After a few
moments’ pause he climbed over the ship’s side, and as soon as he
had reached the deck our captain led him to a chair on the quarter-
deck, and pointing to the seat signified his wish that he should be
seated. The chief, however, having viewed it for some time, pushed
it aside and sat down on the deck. Our captain had been desirous to
have the chief aboard that he might ascertain from him whether the
island produced sandal-wood, as he was bound to the Marquesas in
search of that article. A piece was therefore procured and shown
him, with the qualities of which he appeared familiar, for after
smelling it and calling it by some name he pointed to the shore.
“While we had been thus engaged, many of the canoes had
approached the ship, and when we turned round a number of the
natives appeared on deck, and others were climbing over the
bulwarks. They were certainly the most savage-looking natives I had
ever seen; and these barbarians were as unceremonious as their
appearance was uninviting. A gigantic, fierce-looking fellow seized a
youth as he was standing by the gangway and endeavoured to lift
him over the deck, but the lad struggling escaped from his grasp. He
then seized our cabin-boy, but the sailors coming to his assistance
and the native finding that he could not disengage him from their
hold, pulled his woollen shirt over his head and was about to leap
into the sea when he was arrested by the sailors. We had a large
ship-dog chained to his kennel on the deck, and although this animal
was not only fearless but savage, yet the appearance of the natives
seemed to terrify him. One of them caught the dog in his arms and
was proceeding over the ship’s side with him, but perceiving him
fastened to his kennel by the chain he was obliged to relinquish his
prize, evidently much disappointed. He then seized the kennel with
the dog in it, when, finding it nailed to the deck, he ceased his
attempts to remove it and gazed round the ship in search of some
object which he could secure. We had brought from Port Jackson
two young kittens; one of these now came up from the cabin, but she
no sooner made her appearance on the deck, than a native,
springing like a tiger on its prey, caught up the unconscious animal
and instantly leaped over the ship’s side into the sea. Hastening to
the side of the deck I looked over the bulwarks and beheld him
swimming rapidly towards a canoe which lay about fifty yards from
the ship. As soon as he had reached this canoe, holding the cat with
both hands, he exhibited it to his companions with evident exultation.
“Orders were given to clear the ship. A general scuffle ensued
between the islanders and the seamen, in which many of the former
were driven headlong into the sea, where they seemed as much at
home as on solid ground; while others clambered over the vessel’s
sides into their canoes. In the midst of the confusion and the
retreating of the natives the dog, which had hitherto slunk into his
kennel, recovered his usual boldness and not only increased the
consternation by his barking, but severely tore the leg of one of the
fugitives who was hastening out of the ship near the spot where he
was chained. The decks were now cleared; but as many of the
people still hung about the shrouds and chains the sailors drew the
long knives with which, when among the islands, they were
furnished, and by menacing gestures, without wounding any,
succeeded in detaching them altogether from the ship. Some of
them seemed quite unconscious of the keenness of the knife, and I
believe had their hands deeply cut by snatching at the blades.”
Boatmen of Rockingham Bay.
The True Word expounded to a Potentate of Western Africa.
PART XI.
RELIGIOUS RITES AND SUPERSTITIONS.
CHAPTER XXVI.
The mysterious “still small voice”—Samoan mythology—The man who
pushed the Heavens up—The child of the Sun—A Figian version
of the “Flood”—The Paradise of the Figian—Lying Ghosts—
Singular case of abduction—The disobedient Naiogabui—All fair
in love and war—The fate of poor Rokoua—The Samoan hades
—Miscellaneous gods of the Samoans—A god for every village—
The cup of truth—Mourning the destruction of a god’s image—
The most fashionable god in Polynesia—Families marked for
human sacrifice—“Tapu” or “tabu”—Its antiquity and wide-spread
influence—Muzzled pigs and blindfolded chickens—Ceremony of
releasing the porkers—Tremendous feast of baked pig—The tapu
in New Zealand—A terrible tinder box—The sacred pole and the
missionaries—The chief’s backbone—The Pakeka and the iron
pot—One of the best uses of tapu—Its general advantages and
disadvantages—Tapu among the Samoans—Witchcraft in New
Zealand—Visit of a European to a “retired” witch—The religion of
the Dayak—“Tapa,” “Tenahi,” “Iang,” and “Jirong”—Warriors’
ghosts—Religious rites and superstitions of the Sea Dayaks—
The great god Singallong Burong—Belief in dreams among the
Sea Dayaks—Story of the stone bull—Of the painted dog.
eligion, as signifying reverence of God and a belief in

future rewards and punishments, may be said to have
no existence among people who are absolutely savage.
Belief in life hereafter is incompatible with non-belief in
the existence of the soul, and difficult indeed would it be
to show a thorough barbarian who did not repudiate that
grand and awful trust. He is too much afraid of the mysterious thing
to confess to being its custodian. Undoubtedly he is quite conscious
of a power within him immensely superior to that which gives motion
to his arms and legs, and invites him to eat when he is hungry. He
“has ears and hears,” and “the still small voice” that speaks all
languages and fits its admonitions to the meanest understanding
bears the savage no less than the citizen company all the day long,
noting all his acts and whispering its approvals and its censures of
them; and when the savage reclines at night on his mat of rushes,
the still small voice is still vigilant, and reveals for his secret
contemplation such vivid pictures of the day’s misdoing, that his
hands ache with so fervently clasping his wooden greegree, and he
is rocked to sleep and horrid dreams with trembling and quaking
fear.
But the savage, while he acknowledges the mysterious influence,
has not the least notion as to its origin. To his hazy mind the word
“incomprehensible” is synonymous with “evil,” and the most
incomprehensible thing to him, and consequently the most evil, is
death. With us it is anxiety as to hereafter that makes death terrible;
with the savage death is detestable only as a gravedigger, a
malicious spirit who snatches him away from the world—where his
children and his wives are, and where tobacco grows, and palm-
trees yield good wine,—who snatches him away from all these good
things and every other, and shuts him in the dark damp earth to
decay like a rotten branch.
Death therefore is, in his eyes, the king of evil, and all minor evils
agents of the king, and working with but one aim though with
seeming indirectness. This it is that makes the savage a miserable
wretch—despite nature’s great bounty in supplying him with food
without reaping or sowing, and so “tempering the wind” that the
shelter of the boughs makes him a house that is warm enough, and
the leaves of the trees such raiment as he requires. Through his
constant suspicion he is like a man with a hundred jars of honey, of
the same pattern and filled the same, but one—he knows not which
—is poisoned. Taste he must or perish of hunger, but taste he may
and perish of poison; and so, quaking all the time, he picks a little
and a little, suspecting this jar because it is so very sweet, and that
because it has a twang of acid, and so goes on diminishing his
ninety-nine chances of appeasing his hunger and living, to level
odds, that he will escape both hunger and poison and die of fright.
Death is the savage’s poisoned honey-pot. He may meet it in the
wind, in the rain; it may even (why not? he has known such cases)
come to him in a sunray. It may meet him in the forest where he
hunts for his daily bread! That bird that just now flitted by so
suddenly and with such a curious cry may be an emissary of the king
of evil, and now hastening to tell the king that there is he—the victim
—all alone and unprotected in the forest, easy prey for the king if he
comes at once! No more hunting for that day though half-a-dozen
empty bellies be the consequence; away with spear and blow-gun,
and welcome charms and fetiches to be counted and kissed and
caressed all the way home—aye, and for a long time afterwards, for
that very bird may still be perched a-top of the hut, peeping in at a
chink, and only waiting for the victim to close his eyes to summon
the grim king once more. In his tribulation he confides the secret of
his uneasiness to his wife, who with affectionate zeal runs for the
gree-gree-man, who, on hearing the case, shakes his head so
ominously, that though even the very leopard-skin that hangs before
the doorway be the price demanded for it, the most powerful charm
the gree-gree-man has to dispose of must be obtained.
It is only, however, to the perfect savage—the Fan and Ougbi of
Central Africa, the Andamaner of Polynesia, and some others—that
the above remarks apply. If we take belief in the soul and its
immortality as the test, we shall find the number of absolute
barbarians somewhat less than at first sight appears; indeed, the
mythological traditions of many savage people, wrapped as they
invariably are in absurdity, will frequently exhibit in the main such
close resemblance to certain portions of our Scripture history as to
fill us with surprise and wonder. Take, for instance, the following
examples occurring in Samoa, furnished by the Rev. George Turner:
“The earliest traditions of the Samoans describe a time when the
heavens alone were inhabited and the earth covered over with water.
Tangaloa, the great Polynesian Jupiter, then sent down his daughter
in the form of a bird called the Turi (a snipe), to search for a resting-
place. After flying about for a long time she found a rock partially
above the surface of the water. (This looks like the Mosaic account
of the deluge; but the story goes on the origin of the human race.)
Turi went up and told her father that she had found but one spot on
which she could rest. Tangaloa sent her down again to visit the
place. She went to and fro repeatedly, and, every time she went up,
reported that the dry surface was extending on all sides. He then
sent her down with some earth, and a creeping plant, as all was
barren rock. She continued to visit the earth and return to the skies.
Next visit, the plant was spreading. Next time it was withered and
decomposing. Next visit it swarmed with worms. And the next time
had become men and women! A strange account of man’s origin.
But how affectingly it reminds one of his end: ‘They shall lie down
alike in the dust, and the worms shall cover them.’
“They have no consecutive tales of these early times; but we give
the disjointed fragments as we find them. They say that of old the
heavens fell down, and that people had to crawl about like the lower
animals. After a time, the arrow-root and another similar plant
pushed up the heavens. The place where these plants grew is still
pointed out, and called the Te’engga-langi, or heaven-pushing place.
But the heads of the people continued to knock on the skies. One
day, a woman was passing along who had been drawing water. A
man came up to her and said that he would push up the heavens, if
she would give him some water to drink. ‘Push them up first,’ she
replied. He pushed them up. ‘Will that do?’ said he. ‘No, a little
further.’ He sent them up higher still, and then she handed him her
cocoa-nut-shell water bottle. Another account says, that a person
named Tütü pushed up the heavens; and the hollow places in a rock,
nearly six feet long, are pointed out as his footprints. They tell about
a man called Losi, who went up on a visit to the heavens. He found
land and sea there, people, houses, and plantations. The people
were kind to him and supplied him with plenty of food. This was the
first time he had seen or tasted taro. He sought for some in the
plantations and brought it down to the earth; and hence they say the
origin of taro. They do not say how he got up and down. When the
taro tree fell, they say its trunk and branches extended a distance of
nearly sixty miles. In this and the following tale we are reminded of
Jacob’s ladder.
“Two young men, named Punifanga and Tafalin, determined one
afternoon to pay a visit to the moon. Punifanga said he knew a tree
by which they could go up. Tafalin was afraid it might not reach high
enough, and said he would try another plan. Punifanga went to his
tree, but Tafalin kindled a fire, and heaped on cocoa-nut shells and
other fuel so as to raise a great smoke. The smoke rose in a dense
straight column, like a cocoa-nut tree towering away into the
heavens. Tafalin then jumped on to the column of smoke, and went
up and reached the moon long before Punifanga. One wishes to
know what they did next, but here the tale abruptly ends, with the
chagrin of Punifanga when he got up and saw Tafalin there before
him, sitting laughing at him for having been so long on the way.
“In another story we are told, that the man came down one
evening and picked up a woman, called Sina, and her child. It was
during a time of famine. She was working in the evening twilight,
beating out some bark with which to make native cloth. The moon
was just rising, and it reminded her of great bread-fruit. Looking up to
it she said, ‘Why cannot you come down and let my child have a bit
of you?’ The moon was indignant at the idea of being eaten, came
forthwith, and took up her child, board, mallet, and all. The popular
superstition of ‘the man in the moon, who gathered sticks on the
Sabbath-day,’ is not yet forgotten in England, and in Samoa, of the
woman in the moon. ‘Yonder is Sina,’ they say, ‘and her child, and
mallet and board.’
“We have a fragment or two, also, about the sun. A woman called
Manquamanqui became pregnant by looking at the rising sun. Her
son grew, and was named ‘Child of the Sun.’ At his marriage he
asked his mother for a dowry. She sent him to his father the Sun, to
beg from him, and told him how to go. Following her directions, he
went one morning, with a long vine from the bush, which is the
convenient substitute for a rope, climbed a tree, threw his rope, with
a noose at the end of it, and caught the Sun. He made his message
known and (Pandora like) got a present for his bride. The Sun first
asked him what was his choice, blessings or calamities? He chose,
of course, the former, and came down with his store of blessings
done up in a basket. There is another tale about this Samoan
Phaeton, similar to what is related of the Hawaiian Mani. They say
that he and his mother were annoyed at the rapidity of the sun’s
course in those days—that it rose, reached the meridian, and set
‘before they could get their mats dried.’ He determined to make it go
slower. He climbed a tree one morning early, and with a rope and
noose all ready, watched for the appearance of the sun. Just as it
emerged from the horizon, he threw, and caught it; the sun struggled
to get clear, but in vain. Then fearing lest it should be strangled, it
called out in distress, ‘Oh! have mercy on me, and spare my life.
What do you want?’ ‘We wish you to go slower, we can get no work
done.’ ‘Very well,’ replied the Sun; ‘let me go, and for the future I will
walk slowly, and never go quick again.’ He let go the rope, and ever
since the sun has gone slowly, and given us longer days. Ludicrous
and puerile as this is, one cannot help seeing in it the wreck of that
sublime description in the book of Joshua, of the day when that man
of God stood in the sight of Israel, and said: ‘Sun, stand thou still
upon Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon. And the Sun
stood still, and the Moon stayed until the people had avenged
themselves upon their enemies.’
“There are but few tales in Samoa in which we can trace the
deluge; nor are these circumstantial as those which obtain in some
other parts of the Pacific. It is the universal belief, however, ‘that of
old, the fish swam where the land now is;’ and tradition now adds,
when the waters abated, many of the fish of the sea were left on the
land, and afterwards were changed into stones. Hence, they say,
there are stones in abundance in the bush and among the mountains
which were once sharks and other inhabitants of the deep.”
The Figians, islanders of the same group, have an advantage
over the Samoans in this last mythological matter of the deluge.
They have at least half-a-dozen versions of the great flood, of which
the two following, furnished by Ellis and Williams, will serve:
“They speak of a deluge which, according to some of their
accounts, was partial, but in others is stated to have been universal.
The cause of the great flood was the killing of Turukana—a favourite
bird belonging to Udengei—by two mischievous lads, the grandsons
of the god. These, instead of apologizing for their offence, added
insolent language to the outrage, and fortifying, with the assistance
of their friends, the town in which they lived, defied Udengei to do his
worst. It is said, that although it took the angry god three months to
collect his forces, he was unable to subdue the rebels, and,
disbanding his army, resolved on more efficient revenge. At his
command the dark clouds gathered and burst, pouring streams on
the devoted earth. Towns, hills, and mountains were successively
submerged; but the rebels, secure in the superior height of their own
dwelling-place, looked on without concern. But when at last the
terrible surges invaded their fortress, they cried for direction to a god,
who, according to various accounts, sent them a shaddock punt, or
two canoes, or taught them to build a canoe themselves. However,
all agree the remnant of the human race was saved: the number was
eighty.”
So says Mr. Williams. Now for a literal translation, furnished by Mr.
Osmond to Mr. Ellis:
“Destroyed was Otaheite by the sea; no man, nor dog, nor fowl
remained. The groves of trees and the stones were carried away by
the wind. They were destroyed, and the deep was over the land. But
these two persons, the husband and the wife (when it came in), he
took up his young pig, she took up her young chickens; he took up
the young dog, and she the young kitten. They were going forth, and
looking at Orofena (the highest hill in the island), the husband said,
‘Up both of us to yonder mountain high.’ The wife replied, ‘No, let us
not go thither.’ The husband said, ‘It is a high rock and will not be
reached by the sea;’ but the wife replied, ‘Reached it will be by the
sea yonder: let us ascend Opitohito, round as a breast; it will not be
reached by the sea.’ They two arrived there. Orofena was
overwhelmed by the waves: Opitohito alone remained and was their
abode. There they watched ten nights; the sea ebbed, and they saw
the two little heads of the mountains in their elevation. When the
waters retired, the land remained without produce, without man, and
the fish were putrid in the holes of the rocks. The earth remained, but
the shrubs were destroyed. They descended and gazed with
astonishment: there were no houses, nor cocoa-nuts, nor palm-
trees, nor bread-fruit, nor grass; all was destroyed by the sea. They
two dwelt together; and the woman brought forth two children, a son
and a daughter. In those days covered was the land with food; and
from two persons the earth was repeopled.”
The Figian believes in a future state of perpetual bliss, but not that
the soul, as soon as it leaves the body, is absolved of all care.
Indeed, according to popular belief, the journey of the soul from
earth to heaven is a very formidable business.
“On the road to Nai Thombothombo, and about five miles from it,
is a solitary hill of hard reddish clay spotted with black boulders,
having on its right a pretty grove, and on the left cheerless hills. Its
name is Takiveleyaiva. When near this spot the disembodied spirit
throws the whale’s tooth, which is placed in the hand of the corpse at
burial, at a spiritual pandanus; having succeeded in hitting this, he
ascends the hill and there waits until joined by the spirits of his
strangled wife or wives. Should he miss the mark he is still supposed
to remain in this solitary resting-place, bemoaning the want of
affection on the part of his wife and friends, who are depriving him of
his expected companions. And this is the lone spirit’s lament: ‘How is
this? For a long time I planted food for my wife, and was also of
great use to her friends. Why, then, is she not allowed to follow me?
Do my friends love me no better than this after so many years of toil?
Will no one in love to me strangle my wife?’
“Blessed at last with the company of his wife or wives, who bear
his train, or sad because of their absence, the husband advances
towards Nai Thombothombo, and, club in hand, boards the canoe
which carries spirits to meet their examiner. Notice of his approach is
given by a paroquet which cries once, twice, and so on, according to
the number of spirits in the canoe, announcing a great number by
chattering. The highway to Mbulu lies through Nambanggatai, which,
it seems, is at once a real and unreal town, the visible part being
occupied by ordinary mortals, while in the unseen portion dwells the
family who hold inquest on departed spirits. Thus the cry of the bird
answers a twofold purpose, warning the people to set open the
doors that the spirit may have a free course, and preventing the
ghostly inquisitors from being taken by surprise. The houses in the
town are built with reference to a peculiarity in the locomotion of
spirits, who are supposed at this stage to pass straight forward:
hence all the doorways are opposite to each other, so that the shade
may pass through without interruption. The inhabitants speak in low
tones, and if separated by a little distance communicate their
thoughts by signs.
“Bygone generations had to meet Samu or Ravuyalo; but as he
died in 1847 by a curious misfortune, his duties now devolve upon
his sons, who, having been long in partnership with their illustrious
father, are quite competent to carry on his office. As it is probable
that the elder son will shortly receive the paternal title, or an
equivalent, we will speak of him as Samuyalo the Killer of Souls. On
hearing the paroquet, Samu and his brothers hide themselves in
some spiritual mangrove bushes just beyond the town and alongside
of the path in which they stick a reed as a prohibition to the spirit to
pass that way. Should the comer be courageous, he raises his club
in defiance of the tabu and those who place it there, whereupon
Samu appears to give him battle, first asking, ‘Who are you, and
whence do you come?’ As many carry their inveterate habit of lying
into another world, they make themselves out to be of vast
importance, and to such Samu gives the lie and fells them to the
ground. Should the ghost conquer in the combat, he passes on to
the judgment seat of Ndengei; he is disqualified for appearing there
and is doomed to wander among the mountains. If he be killed in the
encounter, he is cooked and eaten by Samu and his brethren.
“Some traditions put the examination questions into the mouth of
Samu, and judge the spirit at this stage; but the greater number refer
the inquisition to Ndengei.
“Those who escape the club of the soul-destroyer walk on to
Naindelinde, one of the highest peaks of the Kauvandra mountains.
Here the path of the Mbulu ends abruptly at the brink of a precipice,
the base of which is said to be washed by a deep lake. Beyond this
precipice projects a large steer-oar, which one tradition puts in the
charge of Ndengei himself, but another more consistently in the
keeping of an old man and his son, who act under the direction of
the god. These accost the coming spirit thus: ‘Under what
circumstances do you come to us? How did you conduct yourself in
the other world?’ If the ghost should be one of rank, he answers: ‘I
am a great chief; I lived as a chief, and my conduct was that of a
chief. I had great wealth, many wives, and ruled over a powerful
people. I have destroyed many towns, and slain many in war.’ To this
the reply is, ‘Good, good. Take a seat on the broad part of this oar,
and refresh yourself in the cool breeze.’ No sooner is he seated than
they lift the handle of the oar, which lies inland, and he is thus thrown
down headlong into the deep waters below, through which he passes
to Murimuria. Such as have gained the special favour of Ndengei are
warned not to go out on the oar, but to sit near those who hold it, and
after a short repose are sent back to the place whence they came to
be deified.”
The gods of the Figians would, however, seem to cling with
considerable tenacity to the weaknesses that distinguish the most
ordinary mortals. They quarrel, they fight, and worse still, descend to
act the part of lady-stealers, and this even when the booty is the
daughter of a neighbouring god. The last “pretty scandal” of this
character is related by Mr. Seeman in his recently published work on
Figi:
“Once upon a time there dwelt at Rewa a powerful god, whose
name was Ravovonicakaugawa, and along with him his friend the
god of the winds, from Wairna. Ravovonicakaugawa was leading a
solitary life, and had long been thinking of taking a wife to himself. At
last his mind seemed to be made up. ‘Put mast and sail into the
canoe,’ he said, ‘and let us take some women from Rokoua, the god
of Naicobocobo.’ ‘When do you think of starting?’ inquired his
friends. ‘I shall go in broad daylight,’ was the reply; ‘or do you think I
am a coward to choose the night for my work?’ All things being
ready, the two friends set sail and anchored towards sunset off
Naicobocobo. There they waited, contrary to Figian customs, one,
two, three days without any friendly communication from the shore
reaching them, for Rokoua, probably guessing their intention, had
strictly forbidden his people to take any food to the canoe. Rokoua’s
repugnance, however, was not shared by his household. His
daughter, the lovely Naiogabui, who diffused so sweet and powerful
a perfume, that if the wind blew from the east the perfume could be
perceived in the west, and if it blew from the west it could be

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Learning Factories: Featuring New

Concepts, Guidelines, Worldwide

Learning Factories Concepts Guidelines Best Practice

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

Data Science Concepts and Practice 2nd Edition Vijay

Learning Factories: The Nordic Model of Manufacturing

Obesity and Diabetes: Scientific Advances and Best

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Concise optics: concepts, examples, and problems 1st

Cost Accounting Fundamentals: Essential Concepts and

Michael Tisch Antonio Kreß

ISBN 978-3-031-46427-0 ISBN 978-3-031-46428-7 (eBook)

1st edition: © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Paper in this product is recyclable.

Empowering Production in the Face of Current Global

Production-related competencies remain important for economic growth and long-

Darmstadt, Germany Eberhard Abele

1 Challenges for Future Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

4 Historical Development, Terminology, and Definition

6.3 Learning Factory Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

8 Overview on Learning Factory Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

10 International Association of Learning Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

11.15 Best Practice Example 15: Global McKinsey Innovation &

11.33 Best Practice Example 33: Pilotfabrik Industry 4.0 at TU

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Prof. E.h. Eberhard Abele born in 1953,

He was a member of the supervisory board of

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Joachim Metternich studied industrial

Dr.-Ing. Michael Tisch studied industrial engineering

Dr.-Ing. Antonio Kreß studied industrial engineering

Fig. 1.1 Effect of education and training, to be considered

Fig. 1.13 Extended production targets: Always affected

Fig. 4.4 Key characteristics of learning factories and learning

Fig. 5.14 Examples for learning factory products (Abele et al.,

Fig. 6.15 Overview of sequence steps and application areas

Fig. 6.35 Exemplary subjective self-evaluation sheet for different

Fig. 7.27 Learning factories as research enablers according

Fig. 9.8 Advantages and disadvantages of low-cost learning

Fig. 10.3 Founding members of the Initiative on European

Fig. 11.19 Smart wristband for human–machine interaction.

Fig. 11.50 “From-to” journey covering lean, digital,

Fig. 11.78 Students of different educational programmes

Fig. 11.110 Manufactured products in the Process Learning Factory

eligion, as signifying reverence of God and a belief in

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