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Biology F4 Q & A
Biology F4 Q & A
Biology F4 Q & A
Nervous System
Nervous system is a highly organized network of cells that detects changes and
controls metabolic processes, mental and physical activities and maintains
homeostasis.
Function of dendrites
Dendrites receive signals called impulses from sense organs or other neurones and
conduct the impulses to the cell body.
Function of Axon
Axon carries the nerve impulse from the cell body to other neurons and effectors
such as muscles and glands.
Myelin sheath
Myelin sheath is a fatty material that wraps around nerve cell projections.
Endoneurium
Endoneurim is a delicate tissue, surrounding each individual fibre.
Perineurium
Perineurium is a smooth connective tissue, surrounding each bundle of fibres.
Epineurium
Epineurium is the fibrous tissue which surrounds and encloses a number of bundles
of nerve fibres.
Nerve impulse
A nerve impulse is an electrical charge traveling the length of a neuron.
Resting potential
A non-conducting nerve fibre is described to be in a resting potential.
Action potential
An action potential is a localised change in the resting membrane potential between
inside and outside of the nerve fibre caused by a stimulus.
Threshold
Threshold is the minimum stimulus to cause an action potential to be produced.
Synapse or Neuro-junction
A synapse is a junction between dendrites of two adjacent neurones.
Function of synapse
Synapse allows the transmission of a nerve impulse from neuron to neuron.
Role of neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit an impulse from a neuron
across the synaptic cleft to a target cell.
Examples of neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine 5. Histamine
2. Gamma-aminobutyric acid 6. Serotonin
3. Dopamine 7. Norepinephrine
4. Glutamate
Meninges
Meninges are three protective membranes (layers) covering the brain and spinal
cord.
Sub-arachnoid space
Sub-arachnoid space is a narrow space between the arachnoid and pia mater. It is
filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Cerebrum
Cerebrum is the largest and most complex parts of the brain and constitutes about
90% of the brain’s volume.
Corpus callosum
Corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibres found between cerebral hemispheres.
Corpus callosum connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex is the superficial part of the cerebrum that is composed of cell
bodies.
The three main types of activities associated with the cerebral cortex
a) Higher order functions: The mental activities involved in memory, sense of
responsibility, thinking, reasoning, moral decision making and leaning.
b) Sensory perception: including the perception of pain, temperature, touch, sight,
hearing, taste and smell.
c) Initiation and control: initiation and control of the skeletal muscle contractions
and therefore voluntary movement.
Parts of diencephalon
1. Thalamus 2. Hypothalamus
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Function of diencephalon
Diencephalon connects the cerebrum and the midbrain.
Function of thalamus
The thalamus relays and redistributes impulses from most parts of the brain to the
cerebral cortex.
Function of hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls
1. The output of hormones from pituitary gland.
2. The autonomic nervous system
3. Appetite and satiety
4. Thirst and water balance
5. Body temperature
6. Emotional reactions such as pleasure, fear, and rage.
7. Sexual behavior and child rearing
8. Sleeping and waking cycle.
Reflex Action
Reflex action is a rapid automatic response to a certain stimulus.
Cranial nerves
Cranial nerves are nerves that arise from the brain and innervate areas in the head
and face.
Meningitis
Meningitis refers to inflammation of the subarachnoid space.
Meningitis refers to inflammation of the meninges.
Sensory receptors
Sensory receptors are specialized cells in the body that enable us to taste, smell,
hear, see, and to detect touch, pressure, motion and temperature.
Cornea
Cornea is a transparent, durable, layer of cells that helps to focus the light through
an opening called the pupil.
Iris
Iris is the colored part of the eye.
Function of lens
Lens inverts the image and projects it onto the retina.
Vitreous humor
Vitreous humor is a colorless, gelatin-like liquid between the lens and the retina.
Rods
Rods are light-sensitive cells that are excited by low levels of light.
Cones
Cones are light-sensitive cells that function in bright light and provide information
about color to the brain.
Function of cochlea
The cochlea is the structure responsible for hearing.
1. Which number indicates the structure from which the neuron receives
information from other neurons?
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
4. If the portion indicated by the arrow was damaged due to trauma, what
effects would this person most likely experience?
a. Partial or complete memory loss
b. Trouble maintaining balance
c. Body temperature fluctuations
d. Rapid breathing
6. If there were a power outage in a movie theater and only a few dim
emergency lights were lit, which cells of the retina would be most important
for seeing your way to the exist?
a. Rods
b. Cones
c. Rods and cones are equally important
7. Which represents the correct sequence as sound waves travel in the ear to
trigger an impulse?
a. Cochlea, incus, stapes, eardrum.
b. Tympanum, bones in the middle ear, cochlea, hair cells.
c. Auditory canal, tympanum, hair cells, cochlea.
d. Hair cells, auditory canal, cochlea, malleus.
9. Some rides at amusement parks cause a person to become dizzy when the
ride stops. Which structure in the diagram is most likely involved with the
dizzy feeling?
a. A c. C
b. B d. D
11. As you sit quietly reading this sentence, the part of the nervous system that
is most active is the
a. Somatic nervous system
b. Sympathetic nervous system
c. Parasympathetic nervous system
d. None of the choices is correct
4. The word pons is derived from the Latin pons, which means, “bridge.” Using
this information, explain how pons is an appropriate term for the part of the
brain it describes.
Answer
Pons is an appropriate term for the part of the brain it describes because the
pons acts as a bridge between two hemispheres of the cerebellum and
between higher levels of the brain and the spinal cord.
8. Describe the roles of the two main organs of the central nervous system.
Answer
The brain controls all functions of the body, interprets information from the
outside world, the brain controls our intelligence, creativity, emotion, memory,
speech, learning, thoughts, movement of the arms and legs, and the function
of many organs within our body.
The spinal cord transfer nervous information between the brain and other
parts of the body except the head region. It also controls the simple reflex
actions.
10. Summarize the roles of sensory and motor divisions of peripheral nervous
system.
Answer
Sensory division of the peripheral nervous system carries sensory
information from outside and inside of the body to the central nervous
system.
11. Relate the relationship between motor neurons, interneurons and sensory
neurons.
Answer
Sensory neurons get information about what is going on inside and outside of
the body and bring that information into the brain or the spinal cord.
Motor neurons get information from the brain or spinal cord and convey
commands to the effector organs such as muscles and glands.
Interneurons receive information from sensory neurons and transmit that
information to the motor neurons.
13. List five different types of sensory receptors in the human body.
Answer
1. Photoreceptors
2. Mechanoreceptors
3. Chemoreceptors
4. Thermoreceptors
5. Nocireceptors (pain receptors)
14. Identify the parts of the ear responsible for hearing and for balance.
Answer
Semi-circular canals are responsible for balance and Cochlea is responsible for
hearing.
17. State the type of receptors that function in taste and smell.
Answer
The type of receptors that function in taste and smell are Chemoreceptors.
18. Explain the role of skin in sensing touch, temperature, and pain.
Answer
The skin acts as a sense organ because the layers of skin contain sensory
receptors that detect touch, temperature and pain.
19. State the types and roles of the peripheral nervous system
Answer
Functionally, there are two types of peripheral nervous system
1. Sensory division of the peripheral nervous system which carries sensory
information from outside and inside of the body to the central nervous
system.
2. Motor division of the peripheral nervous system which carries motor
information from central nervous system to the effector organs such as
muscles and glands throughout the body.
Hormones
Hormones are substances (chemical messengers) secreted by endocrine glands
that act to regulate the activity of other cells in the body.
Exocrine glands
Exocrine glands are duct glands that secrete substances through ducts to specific
locations inside and outside the body.
Lipophilic hormones
Lipophilic hormones are fat-soluble hormones
Hydrophilic hormones
Hydrophilic hormones are water soluble hormones
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is defined as a stable internal environment.
Feedback mechanism
Feedback mechanism is one in which the last step in a series of events controls
the first.
Positive feedback
Positive feedback is a type of feedback mechanisms in which the release of an
initial hormone stimulates release of other hormones that stimulate further
release of the initial hormone.
Antagonistic hormones
Antagonistic hormones are hormones that their actions have opposite effects.
Pituitary gland
Pituitary gland is a small gland with the diameter of 1 cm that is located at the
base of the hypothalamus.
Functions of Oxytocin
1. Oxytocin stimulates milk ejection reflex during suckling or breastfeeding.
2. Oxytocin also stimulates uterine contractions in women during childbirth.
Function of pancreas
As endocrine gland the function of pancreas is to regulate the levels of sugar in
the blood by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon.
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Islets of Langerhans (Islands of Langerhans)
Islets of langerhans are endocrine cells within the pancreas that are responsible
for the release of hormones that regulate the level of sugar in the blood.
Function of Insulin
Insulin lowers the blood sugar level by stimulating body cells, especially muscles,
to store or use it for energy.
Function of Glucagon
Glucagon raises the blood sugar level by stimulating release of glucose into the
bloodstream by liver cells.
Function of calcitonin
Calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels by stimulating the uptake of calcium into
bones.
Parathyroid glands
Parathyroid glands are four small glands attached to the thyroid gland that
secrete parathyroid hormone.
Function of cortisol
Cortisol promotes the production of glucose from proteins making usable energy
available to cells.
Gonads
Gonads are gamete-producing organs that also produce a group of steroid sex
hormones.
Types of gonads
1. Ovaries
2. Testes
Function of gonads
The function of gonads is to produce gametes and a group of sex hormones.
Diabetes
Diabetes is a disease that results from the body not producing enough insulin or
not properly using insulin.
Hyperthyroidism
Overproduction of thyroid hormones is called hyperthyroidism
Symptoms of hyperthyroidism
1. Weight loss
2. High blood pressure, heart rate and body temperature
Treatment of hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism can be treated with medication or by surgical removal of part of
thyroid gland.
Symptoms of hypothyroidism
1. Growth retardation
2. Lethargy
3. Weight gain
4. Low heart rate and body temperature
Treatment of hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism can be treated with supplementary thyroxine. Hyperthyroidism
can also be treated by frequent consumption of seafood or iodized table salt.
Cause of dwarfism
Dwarfism can cause too low growth hormone
Cause of gigantism
Gigantism can cause too much growth hormone
Acromegaly
Acromegaly is a hormonal disorder that develops when your pituitary gland
produces too much growth hormone during adulthood.
a. antidiuretic hormone
b. growth hormone
c. glucagon
d. Insulin
2. Which hormones are released from nerve cells rather than endocrine
glands?
a. antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
b. growth hormone and thyroxine
c. insulin and glucagon
d. norepinephrine and epinephrine
4. Endocrine glands
a. function only after puberty
b. function only before puberty
c. release products through ducts
d. release products into the bloodstream
6. Which hormones are primarily responsible for the changes in blood glucose
levels about 2 hours after food is eaten? Study the graph below to answer
this question.
a. insulin
b. estrogen and progesterone
c. epinephrine and norepinephrine
d. aldosterone and parathyroid hormones
7. Steroid hormones
a. can diffuse through the membrane without a carrier
b. have a direct effect on gene expression
c. bind to membrane receptors
d. both a and b are correct
2. List six major endocrine glands and the function of these glands.
Answer
1. The pituitary gland: The function of pituitary gland is to secrete a number of
hormones that regulate and control a number of other endocrine glands.
2. The pancreas: As endocrine gland the function of pancreas is to regulate the
levels of sugar in the blood by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon.
3. The thyroid gland: The function of the thyroid gland is to secrete thyroid
hormones which maintain normal heart rate, blood pressure and temperature.
The thyroid hormones also regulate body’s metabolic rate, growth and
development.
4. Gonads: The function of gonads is to produce gametes and a group of sex
hormones.
5. The parathyroid glands: The function of the parathyroid glands is to secrete
parathyroid hormone which increases blood calcium levels by stimulating the
bones to release calcium.
6. The adrenal glands: The function of adrenal glands is to secrete the hormones
epinephrine and norepinephrine which orchestrate the nervous system’s
reaction to stress and its “fight or flight” response to danger, regulate
metabolism and maintain salt and water balance in blood.
8. Explain how most amino-acid based hormones affect their target cells.
Answer
Amino-acid based hormones bind to receptors found on the plasma membrane
of a target cells. Once the hormone binds to the receptor, the receptor, the
receptor activates an enzyme found inside the plasma membrane. This usually
initiates a biochemical pathway, eventually causing the target cells to produce
the desired response.
10. Explain why the pancreas is considered to be both an exocrine gland and an
endocrine gland.
Answer
The pancreas acts as both an exocrine and endocrine gland. As an exocrine
gland, the pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct. As an
endocrine gland, the pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon hormone that
regulate the level of sugar in the blood.
12. Describe the conditions of gigantism and dwarfism, their causes and treatment
methods.
Answer
Dwarfism is caused by too low growth hormone. Dwarfism is treated with
regular injections of synthetic human growth hormone.
Gigantism is caused by too much growth hormone. Treatment of gigantism is by
surgically remove pituitary tumor. In cases when surgery is not an option, drugs
which reduce growth hormone release such as somatostatin analogs is used to
treat gigantism.
13. Identify and describe the type of feedback mechanism operating in the
diagram shown below.
Answer
Negative feedback mechanism
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LESSON SUMMARY (CHAPTER THREE)
The two main types of skeleton in animals
1. Exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
Exoskeleton
Exoskeleton is a rigid, hard external skeleton that surrounds the body, protects the
internal organs and provides attachment sites for the muscles.
Endoskeleton
Endoskeleton is a rigid internal skeleton that forms the body’s framework and offers
surfaces for muscle attachment.
Axial skeleton
Axial skeleton is the part (division) of the skeletal system that consists of the skull,
the vertebral column, the ribs and the sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton
Appendicular skeleton is the part (division) of the skeletal system that consists of
the bones of the shoulders, arms, hands, hips, legs and feet.
Appendicular skeleton is the part (division) of the skeletal system that consists of
the bones of the limbs and the supporting bones (Pectoral and pelvic girdles) that
connect the limbs to the trunk.
The skull
The skull is a bony structure which encases and protects the brain and gives form to
the head and face.
Foramen magnum
Foramen magnum is a large oval opening found at the base of the skull.
The sternum
The sternum or the breast bone is a flat bone that can be felt just under the skin in
the middle of the chest.
Ribs
Ribs are long, curved, flattened bones and each of us, regardless of sex, has 12 pairs
of ribs.
True ribs
True ribs are the first seven pairs of ribs that articulate directly with the sternum.
False ribs
False ribs are the 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of ribs that articulate indirectly with the
sternum.
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Floating ribs
Floating ribs are the lowest two pairs of ribs that do not join the sternum at all.
Types of bones
1. Long bones (Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna and radius)
2. Short bones (carpal bones and tarsal bones)
3. Irregular bones (Vertebrae and some skull bones)
4. Flat bones (sternum, ribs, and most skull bones)
5. Sesamoid bones (patella)
Bone
Bone is a strong and durable connective tissue that forms the skeleton of a
vertebrate.
Collagen
Collagen is the main structural protein in extracellular matrix of bone that is
responsible for its flexibility.
Ossification
The formation of bone from osteoblasts is called ossification.
Osteoblasts
Osteoblasts are specialized cells that form or synthesize bone.
Osteoblasts are specialized cells that are responsible for the formation, growth
and repair of bones.
Cartilage
Cartilage is an elastic supportive tissue that can withstand constant pressure and
friction which covers and protects the ends of bones at the joints.
Chondrocytes
Chondrocytes are cartilage cells that produce large amounts of chondrin and
collagen protein.
Ligaments
Ligaments are tough bands of connective tissue that attach one bone to another.
Joint
Joint is the place where two or more bones meet.
Fixed joints
Fixed joints are joints that prevent movement. Fixed joints are found in the skull.
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Semi-movable joints
Semi-movable joints are joints that permit only limited movement. Semi-movable
joints are found in the vertebral column and the rib-cage.
Movable joints
Movable joints are joints that enable the body to perform a wide range of
movements and activities.
Hinge joints
Hinge joints are joints found in the elbows, knees and ankles and allow only bending
and straightening the limb.
Ball-and-socket joints
Ball-and-socket joints are shoulder joints, which enable you to move your arms up,
down, forward and backward, as well as to rotate them in a complete circle.
Pivot joints
Pivot joints are joints formed by the top two vertebrae of your spine which allows
you to turn your head from side to side.
Saddle joints
Saddle joints are joints found at the base of each thumb, allow you to rotate your
thumbs and help you grasp objects with your hands.
Gliding joints
Gliding joints are joints allow bones to slide over one another.
Simple fracture
Simple fracture is when a bone breaks but does not come through the ski.
Compound fracture
Compound fracture is a fracture in which the bone protrudes through the skin.
Stress fracture
Stress fracture is a thin crack in the bone.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a bone disease characterized by the decrease of bone density, mass
and strength that causes bones to become weak and brittle.
Arthritis
Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints
Tendons
Tendons are tough fibrous connective tissues that connect muscle to bone.
Flexor muscle
Flexor muscle is a muscle that bends a joint. Biceps muscle is a flexor muscle.
Extensor muscle
Extensor muscle is a muscle that straightens the limb. Triceps muscle is an extensor
muscle.
Muscle cramp
Muscle cramp is a state of sudden and involuntary contractions in one or a group of
muscles.
Muscle fatigue
Muscle fatigue is the physiological inability of a muscle to contract.
Dermis
Dermis is the inner layer of skin and it is composed of living cells and specialized
structures such as sensory receptors, blood vessels, muscle fibers, hair follicles, and
glands.
Melanocytes
Melanocytes are cells in the skin that produce melanin.
Function of melanin
Melanin is responsible for skin color, it also helps to protect the skin from harmful
effects of ultraviolet rays in sunlight.
Function of sebum
The sebum coats the surface of the skin and shafts of the hairs, preventing excess
water loss and softening the skin and hair. Sebum is also toxic to some bacteria.
Hair shaft
Hair shaft is the part of the hair above the skin.
Lunula
Lunula is the place where each nail begins growing.
Cuticle
Cuticle is the part of the skin covering at the base of the nails.
Free edge
Free edge is the end of the nail plate.
Skin disorders
The diseases and disorders of skin include
a. Eczema e. Cold sores
b. Acne f. Impetigo
c. Seborrheic dermatitis g. Hives
d. Psoriasis h. Warts
Eczema
Eczema is an allergic reaction that manifests as dry, itchy patches of skin that
resembles rashes.
Acne
Acne is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of skin when ducts of oil
glands become clogged with excessive amounts of sebum, dead cells, and bacteria.
a. Hip c. Elbow
b. Vertebrae d. Skull
a. A c. C
b. B d. D
12. Which of the following statements best describes the sliding filament
mechanism of muscle contraction?
a. Actin and myosin filaments do not shorten, but rather, slide past each
other.
b. Actin and myosin filaments shorten and slide past each other.
c. As they slide past each other, actin filaments shorten, but myosin filaments
do not shorten.
d. As they slide past each other, myosin filaments shorten, but actin filaments
do not shorten.
17. Sebaceous glands are located in all of the following areas, EXCEPT the
a. Palms and soles
b. Scalp
c. Abdominal region
d. Thoracic region
22. Which tissue type is responsible for the standing the hair upright?
a. A c. C
b. B d. D
8. What is osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis is a bone disease characterized by the decrease of bone density,
mass and strength that causes bones to become weak and brittle.
10. What are the major kinds of joints in the human body?
Answers
The major kinds of joints found in human body are
1. Fixed joints 2. Semi-movable joints 3. Movable joints
12. Compare between the types of muscles with respect to form and function.
Answer
There are three types of muscles based on their structure.
1. Cardiac muscles are muscles located in the walls of the heart, appear
striated, and are under involuntary control.
2. Smooth muscles are muscles located in the walls of visceral organs except
the heart, they are not striated in appearance, and are also under
involuntary control.
3. Skeletal muscles are muscles attached to the bones (skeleton), appear
striated and are under voluntary control.
Three are two types of muscles according to their function:
1. Voluntary muscles: are muscles that their movement is under conscious
control.
2. Involuntary muscles: are muscles that their movement is not under
conscious control.
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13. Describe microscopic structure of striated muscle fibers.
Answer
The microscopic structure of striated muscle fibers is sarcomere.
14. Explain the mechanism of muscle contraction or the sliding filament theory.
Answer
When a nerve impulse stimulates a muscle to contract, the myosin filaments’
heads attach to the actin filaments. The myosin heads then bend, pulling the
actin filaments. The myosin head then let go, return back into their original
position, attach to a new point on the actin filament, and pull again. This
action shortens the sarcomere. The synchronized shortening of sarcomeres
causes the whole muscle to contract.
15. Give an account of the common muscle injuries inflicted on football players.
Answer
1. Hamstring strains 3. Rotator cuff tear
2. Quadriceps contusion 4. Muscle cramps
18. What causes muscles to become fatigued? And why do you think the heart
muscle never suffers from fatigue?
Answer
Muscle fatigue is caused by a relative depletion of ATP. Because, cardiac
muscle resists fatigue so well because it has more mitochondria.
21. Identify two types of glands found in the skin, and describe their functions.
Answer
1. Sweat glands release sweat that is composed of water, salts and
sometimes urea.
2. Sebaceous glands (oil glands) secrete a fatty substance called sebum.
24. Identify the substance that prevents the hair and skin from drying out, and
the gland where this substance is produced.
Answer
The substance that prevents the hair and skin from drying out is sebum. The
gland which produces sebum is sebaceous gland (oil gland).
Nucleosome
Nucleosome is a group of eight histone proteins with a DNA molecule.
Nucleotides
Nucleotides are building (structural) units of nucleic acids.
Ribose sugar
Ribose sugar is a type of sugar which is found in the structure of RNA
Deoxyribose sugar
Deoxyribose sugar is a type of sugar which is found in the structure of DNA.
The gene
The gene is part of the DNA, which has special sequence of nitrogenous bases to
represent a specific trait, and has a specific location on the chromosome.
The gene is a segment of DNA that is located on a chromosome and that codes
for a hereditary character. (The best choice)
Mutation
Mutation is a sudden change in the genetic material that controls certain
characteristics, which may result in a change in these characteristics.
Mutagens
Mutagens are substance such as chemicals or radiations which causes mutations.
Chromosomal mutations
Chromosomal mutations are mutations involve changes in whole chromosome set,
chromosome number or parts of chromosomes.
Gene mutations
Gene mutations are mutations due to changes in the structure of the gene.
Central dogma
DNA transcription mRNA translation protein
Protein synthesis
Protein synthesis is the synthesis of proteins based on information in DNA and
carried out by RNA.
Transcription
Transcription is the process by which the genetic instructions in a specific gene are
transcribed or “rewritten” into an RNA molecule.
RNA processing
RNA processing is the process by which primary mRNA is modified and converted it
into mature RNA.
The codon
The codon is triple bases or nucleotides of the mRNA.
The anticodon
The anticodon is a sequence of three nucleotides that is complementary to the
codon in a messenger RNA (mRNA).
Translation
Translation is the process of converting the information of mRNA (codons) into a
sequence of amino-acids in the process of protein synthesis.
8. The bonds that hold two complementary strands of DNA together are
a. Hydrogen bonds
b. Peptide bonds
c. Ionic bonds
d. Phosphodiester bonds
15. If the sequence of (AGC) is the part of the DNA, what is the complementary
codon of mRNA?
a. GGC c. UCG
b. AGC d. GCU
4. What is the meaning of: genetic code, codon, anticodon, intron, exon,
transcription and translation.
Answer
Genetic code: is a sequence of nucleotides in the DNA and RNA that
determines the amino-acid sequence of proteins.
Codon: are triple bases or nucleotides of the mRNA.
Anticodon: is a sequence of three nucleotides that is complementary to the
codon in a messenger RNA (mRNA).
Intron (non-coding region): is a region of DNA or RNA that does not code for
proteins.
Exon (coding region): is a region of DNA or RNA that codes for proteins.
Transcription: is the process by which the genetic instructions in a specific
gene are transcribed or “rewritten” into an RNA molecule.
Translation: is the process of converting the information of mRNA (codons)
into a sequence of amino acids in the process of protein synthesis.
10. List the four ways in which the structure of RNA differs from that of DNA.
Answer
1. DNA has the bases adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine.
RNA has the bases adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine.
2. DNA has deoxyribose sugar.
RNA has ribose sugar.
3. DNA is double stranded.
RNA is single stranded.
4. DNA can duplicate itself
RNA cannot duplicate itself.
Inheritance
Inheritance is the transmission (passing on) of genetic traits from parents to
offspring.
Variation
Variation is an observable difference among living organisms.
Alleles
Alleles are the different forms of a gene.
Character
Character is a heritable feature that varies among individuals, such as a flower color.
Trait
Trait is each variant of a character, such as purple or white color for flowers,
Genotype
Genotype is the genetic makeup of the organism.
Phenotype
Phenotype is the physical appearance of the organism.
Heterozygote
Heterozygote is an organism whose genotype consists of two different alleles.
Homozygote
Homozygote is an organism whose genotype consists of two identical alleles.
Dominant gene
A dominant gene is a gene which can express itself in both its homozygous and
heterozygous state.
Recessive gene
A recessive gene is a gene which can only express itself in its homozygous state.
Dihybrid cross
Dihybrid cross is a cross in which two characters are tracked or considered.
Trihybrid cross
Trihybrid cross is a cross in which three characters are tracked or considered.
Color blindness
Color blindness is the inability to distinguish certain colours by some people.
Hemophilia
Hemophilia is an X-linked recessive disorder defined by the absence of one or
more of the proteins required for blood clotting. (The best choice)
Haemophilia is a sex-linked trait where the blood of the sufferer takes an
abnormally long time to clot.
Breeding
Breeding is the application of genetic principles in animal husbandry, agriculture and
horticulture to improve desirable qualities.
Back cross.
A back cross is a test cross where an offspring is crossed with one of its parents
Incomplete dominance
Incomplete dominance is when the phenotypes of the two parents blend
together to create a new phenotype for their offspring. An example is a white
flower and a red flower producing pink flowers.
Incomplete dominance is when the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate
phenotype between two homozygous phenotypes. An example is a white flower
and a red flower producing pink flowers. (Definition of the Book)
Codominance
Codominance is when the two parent phenotypes are expressed together in
their offspring.
Codominance is when both alleles are expressed themselves equally in the
heterozygous condition. (Definition of the Book)
Sickle-cell trait
Sickle-cell trait is a heterozygous condition where less than half the number of red
blood cells are sickle-shaped.
Polygenic inheritance
Polygenic inheritance is when one characteristic is controlled by two or more genes.
Sex-influenced trait
Sex-influenced trait is when an allele is dominant in one sex but recessive in the
other. For example the baldness allele is dominant in males but recessive in females.
Krabbe Disease
Krabbe Disease is a genetic disorder caused by a recessive gene mutation on
chromosome number 14, and causing damage to the myelinated neurons.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disease caused by a recessive gene mutation on
chromosome number 12, leading to a lack of production of the enzyme phenylalaline
hydroxylase.
Non-disjunction
Non-disjunction is when members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not
move apart properly during meiosis I or sister chromatids fail to separate during
meiosis II, which results in daughter cells with abnormal chromosome number.
Aneuploidy
Aneuploidy is when the zygote has an abnormal number of a particular
chromosome.
Trisomy
Trisomy refers to the presence of three copies, instead of the normal two, of a
particular chromosome. Human conditions due to trisomy include Down syndrome.
Polyploidy
Polyploidy is when the organism has more than two complete chromosome sets in
all somatic cells.
Selective Breeding
Selective breeding is the process by which desired traits of certain plants and
animals are selected and passed on to their future generations.
Hybridization
Hybridization is the crossing of parent organisms with different forms of traits to
produce offspring with specific traits.
Inbreeding
Inbreeding is the process in which two closely related organisms are bred to have
the desired traits and to eliminate the undesired ones in future generations.
Inbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness in a given population as a
result of inbreeding.
Biological fitness
Biological fitness refers to an organism’s ability to survive and perpetuate its genetic
material.
The table below shows the genotypes and phenotypes of pattern baldness. Use
the table to answer the questions that follows.
3. Which statement best explains why men and women express the Bb
genotype differently?
a. The trait is polygenic.
b. Pattern baldness is a sex-linked trait.
c. The trait has multiple alleles.
d. Pattern baldness is a sex-influenced trait
4. In garden peas, purple flowers (P) are dominant to white flowers (p), and tall
plants (T) are dominant to short plants (t). If a purple tall plant (PpTt) is
crossed with a white short plant (pptt), what is the resulting phenotypic ratio?
a. 1:1:1:1 purple tall to purple short to white tall to white short
b. 9:3:3:1 purple tall to purple short to white tall to white short
c. 3:2 purple tall to purple short
d. All purple tall
8. For the housefly with its six pairs of chromosomes, how many possible
combinations of gametes can be produced by the random lining up of pairs
in meiosis?
a. 32
b. 48
c. 64
d. 120
11. Which two terms best describe the inheritance of human blood types?
a. Incomplete dominance and Codominance
b. Incomplete dominance and multiple alleles
c. Codominance and multiples alleles
d. Codominance and epistasis
7. In pea plants, yellow seed color is the dominant trait, and green seed color is
the recessive trait. Use a Punnett square to show the results of a cross
between a heterozygous yellow-seed plant and a green-seed plant.
Answer
Heterozygous yellow seed plant: Yy Green seed plant: yy
Offspring phenotypes
Yellow seed plant: ½ or 50%
Green seed plant: ½ or 50%
10. Assume that the genes for seed color and seed shape are located on the
same chromosome. A plant heterozygous for both genes is test-crossed
wrinkled green with the following results:
Green, wrinkled 645
Green, round 36
Yellow, wrinkled 29
Yellow, round 590
What were the genotypes of the parents, and how far apart are these genes?
Answer
Y: Yellow y: Green R: Round r: wrinkled
Parental genotype: RrYy (heterozygous plant) x rryy (green wrinkled plant)
(36+29)/(645+590+36+29) x 100= 5 map units apart.
Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA is a single DNA molecule made DNA fragments from two different
sources.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism’s genes using
biotechnology.
Genome
Genome is the complete set of an organism’s DNA, including all of its genes.
Gel electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a common technique to separate different fragments of cut
DNA so they can be isolated.
Clone
Clone is an exact copy of a DNA segment, whole cell, or a complete organism.
Cloning vector
Cloning vector is a small piece of DNA that can be stably maintained in an organism,
and into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted for cloning purposes.
Plasmid
Plasmid is a small circular DNA molecule that is usually found in bacteria and that
can replicate independently of the chromosomes
DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is the determining the order of DNA nucleotides of an organism.
Taq polymerase
Taq polymerase is a thermostable DNA polymerase isolated from the thermophilic
bacterium, Thermus aquaticus.
DNA fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting is a technique that involves separating DNA fragments from
known sources such as victims and suspects by using gel electrophoresis in order to
observe and identify the distinct banding patterns that are unique to every
individual.
Transgenic organisms
Transgenic organisms are organisms which contain foreign DNA that has been
introduced using biotechnology.
Applications of biotechnology
1. Medical applications 4. Agricultural applications
2. Industrial applications 5. Forensic applications
3. Environmental applications
Gene therapy
Gene therapy is a technique aimed at correcting mutated genes that cause human
diseases.
Gene therapy is the replacement of faulty genes with normal ones aimed at
correcting genetic disorders.
Compiled By: Ustad Dek Hussein Roble (Ducaysane) 0616286642 Page 69
Genomics
Genomics is the study of an organism’s genome.
Proteomics
Proteomics is the large-scale study and cataloging of the structure and function of
proteins in human body.
Bioethics
Bioethics is the study of ethical issues related to DNA technology.
6. What is the term used for inserting a healthy copy of a gene into a person
who has a defective gene?
a. Cloning vector
b. Gene therapy
c. Recombinant DNA
d. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
a. UGGCCU c. ACCGGT
b. TCCGGA d. CTTAAG
2. List two types of medical products that can be produced using DNA
technology.
Answer
1. Insulin
2. Antithrombin
11. Discuss the drastic environmental impacts of oil spills and how the microbes
like bacteria can help mitigate the problem.
Answer
Oil spills are extremely damaging to the environment. It is made of chemicals
filled with countless harmful toxins. Because oil floats on top of the water,
the organisms that are most affected are those found on the water surface.
The oil coats the surface of the water which leads to the organisms unable to
respire, fly or swim. Some microbes like bacteria, however, may be a better
solution for cleaning up oil. These bacteria populate the area where the oil
spill occurs and degrade the oil as an energy source.
Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity is the variety of genes or inheritable characteristics that are
present in a population.
Species diversity
Species diversity is the number of different species and the relative abundance of
each species in a biological community.
Ecosystem diversity
Ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems that are present in the biosphere.
Background extinction
Background extinction is the gradual process of species becoming extinct.
Overexploitation
Overexploitation is the excessive use of species that have economic value that is
increasing the current rate of extinction.
Biological magnification
Biological magnification is the increasing concentration of toxic substances in
organisms as trophic levels increase in a food chain or food web.
Conservation biology
Conservation biology is the management of nature and of earth’s biodiversity with
the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of
extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.
Sustainable use
Sustainable use is using resources at a rate in which they can be replaced or recycled
while preserving the long-term environmental health of the biosphere.
Pollution
Pollution is the release of substances or forms of energy into the environment by
human activities in such quantities whose effects are either harmful or unpleasant to
humans or other living organisms.
Air pollution
Air pollution is the release of substances into the air which are harmful or
poisonous to humans or other living organisms.
Air pollution is any change in the properties and composition of the air. (Form
Four Book)
Water pollution
The pollution of water involves addition of substances or energy forms into water
bodies in quantities that are harmful to the living organisms dependent on that
water.
Soil pollution
Soil pollution is the presence of toxic chemicals in soil which pose a risk to human
health or organisms living in the soil.
Soil pollution is the discharge of chemicals into the soil, which accumulate to
levels that cause harm to soil organisms. (Form Four Book)
4. Which term best describes what the two rabbits in the photo below
demonstrate?
a. Ecosystem diversity
b. Genetic diversity
c. Species richness
d. Species diversity
10. What is the term commonly used to describe the trend in the graph below?
a. Water pollution
b. Global warming
c. Ozone depletion
d. Biodiversity crisis