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Symbolic Math Toolbox™
User's Guide
R2020a
How to Contact MathWorks
Latest news: www.mathworks.com
Sales and services: www.mathworks.com/sales_and_services
User community: www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral
Technical support: www.mathworks.com/support/contact_us
Phone: 508-647-7000
The MathWorks, Inc.

1 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098
Symbolic Math Toolbox™ User's Guide
© COPYRIGHT 1993–2020 by The MathWorks, Inc.
The software described in this document is furnished under a license agreement. The software may be used or copied
only under the terms of the license agreement. No part of this manual may be photocopied or reproduced in any form
without prior written consent from The MathWorks, Inc.
FEDERAL ACQUISITION: This provision applies to all acquisitions of the Program and Documentation by, for, or through
the federal government of the United States. By accepting delivery of the Program or Documentation, the government
hereby agrees that this software or documentation qualifies as commercial computer software or commercial computer
software documentation as such terms are used or defined in FAR 12.212, DFARS Part 227.72, and DFARS 252.227-7014.
Accordingly, the terms and conditions of this Agreement and only those rights specified in this Agreement, shall pertain
to and govern the use, modification, reproduction, release, performance, display, and disclosure of the Program and
Documentation by the federal government (or other entity acquiring for or through the federal government) and shall
supersede any conflicting contractual terms or conditions. If this License fails to meet the government's needs or is
inconsistent in any respect with federal procurement law, the government agrees to return the Program and
Documentation, unused, to The MathWorks, Inc.
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more information.
Revision History
August 1993 First printing
October 1994 Second printing
May 1997 Third printing Revised for Version 2
May 2000 Fourth printing Minor changes
June 2001 Fifth printing Minor changes
July 2002 Online only Revised for Version 2.1.3 (Release 13)
October 2002 Online only Revised for Version 3.0.1
December 2002 Sixth printing
June 2004 Seventh printing Revised for Version 3.1 (Release 14)
October 2004 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.1 (Release 14SP1)
March 2005 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.2 (Release 14SP2)
September 2005 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.3 (Release 14SP3)
March 2006 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.4 (Release 2006a)
September 2006 Online only Revised for Version 3.1.5 (Release 2006b)
March 2007 Online only Revised for Version 3.2 (Release 2007a)
September 2007 Online only Revised for Version 3.2.2 (Release 2007b)
March 2008 Online only Revised for Version 3.2.3 (Release 2008a)
October 2008 Online only Revised for Version 5.0 (Release 2008a+)
October 2008 Online only Revised for Version 5.1 (Release 2008b)
November 2008 Online only Revised for Version 4.9 (Release 2007b+)
September 2009 Online only Revised for Version 5.3 (Release 2009b)
April 2011 Online only Revised for Version 5.6 (Release 2011a)
October 2014 Online only Revised for Version 6.1 (Release 2014b)
Contents
Getting Started
1
Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Key Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Create Symbolic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Create Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Create Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Reuse Names of Symbolic Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Create Symbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Create Symbolic Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

Use Existing Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Generate Elements While Creating a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Create Matrix of Symbolic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Perform Symbolic Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

Differentiate Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11
Integrate Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12
Solve Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Simplify Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
Plot Symbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
Use Assumptions on Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24

Default Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
Set Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
Check Existing Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-25
Delete Symbolic Objects and Their Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-25
Using Symbolic Math Toolbox Software

2
Find Symbolic Variables in Expressions, Functions, Matrices . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Find a Default Symbolic Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Choose syms or sym Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Add Subscripts, Superscripts, and Accents to Symbolic Variables . . . . . . 2-8
Change Output Display Format of Symbolic Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
v
Copy and Paste Symbolic Output in Live Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Units of Measurement Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19

Define and Convert Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Use Temperature Units in Absolute or Difference Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Verify Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Use Units in Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22
Units and Unit Systems List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25

Units List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
SI Unit Prefixes List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35
Unit Systems List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36
Defining Constants of SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37
Unit Conversions and Unit Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39

Convert Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39
Temperature Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40
Convert to SI, CGS, or US Unit Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40
Define Custom Unit System from Existing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Define Custom Unit System Directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43
Unit System Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-44
Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46
Derivatives of Expressions with Several Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47
More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
Functional Derivatives Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51
Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-56
One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-56
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-59
Integration with Real Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Integration with Complex Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62
High-Precision Numerical Integration Using Variable-Precision Arithmetic
..................................................... 2-63
Symbolic Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65

Comparing symsum and sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
Computational Speed of symsum versus sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
Output Format Differences Between symsum and sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66
Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67
Padé Approximant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69
Find Asymptotes, Critical, and Inflection Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-76
Simplify Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-81

Simplify Using Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82
Simplify Using Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-84
Simplify Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-84
Solve Algebraic Equation Using Live Editor Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-86
vi Contents
Simplify Symbolic Expressions Using Live Editor Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-94
Abbreviate Common Terms in Long Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-101
Choose Function to Rearrange Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-104

Combine Terms of Same Algebraic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-104
Expand Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-105
Factor Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-106
Extract Subexpressions from Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-108
Collect Terms with Same Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-108
Rewrite Expressions in Terms of Other Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-109
Compute Partial Fraction Decompositions of Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . 2-110
Compute Normal Forms of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-110
Represent Polynomials Using Horner Nested Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-111
Clear Assumptions and Reset the Symbolic Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-112

Check Assumptions Set on Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-113
Effects of Assumptions on Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-114
Extract Numerators and Denominators of Rational Expressions . . . . . 2-115
Substitute Variables in Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-117
Substitute Elements in Symbolic Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-119
Substitute Scalars with Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-121
Evaluate Symbolic Expressions Using subs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-123
Choose Numeric or Symbolic Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-124

Double-Precision Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-124
Variable-Precision Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-124
Symbolic Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-125
Comparisons of Numeric and Symbolic Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-126
Increase Precision of Numeric Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-128
Recognize and Avoid Round-Off Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-130

Use Symbolic Computations When Possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-130
Perform Calculations with Increased Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-130
Compare Symbolic and Numeric Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-132
Plot the Function or Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-132
Increase Speed by Reducing Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-134
Numeric to Symbolic Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-136

Conversion to Rational Symbolic Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-137
Conversion by Using Floating-Point Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-137
Conversion to Rational Symbolic Form with Error Term . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-137
Conversion to Decimal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-138
Basic Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-139
Linear Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-141

Symbolic Hilbert Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-141
vii
Symbolic Linear Algebra Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-141
Variable-Precision Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-142
Symbolic Investigation of Singular Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-143
Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-145
Jordan Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-149
Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-151
Solve Algebraic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-153

Solve an Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-153
Return the Full Solution to an Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-153
Work with the Full Solution, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by solve
.................................................... 2-154
Visualize and Plot Solutions Returned by solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-155
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-156
Solve a Second-Order Differential Equation Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . 2-157
Select Numeric or Symbolic Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-159
Solve System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-160

Handle the Output of solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-160
Solve a Linear System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-162
Return the Full Solution of a System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-162
Solve a System of Equations Under Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-164
Work with Solutions, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by solve . . . 2-165
Convert Symbolic Results to Numeric Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-167
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-168
Troubleshoot Equation Solutions from solve Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-169

Return Only Real Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-169
Apply Simplification Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-169
Use Assumptions to Narrow Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-170
Simplify Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-171
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-171
Solve System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-173

Solve System of Linear Equations Using linsolve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-173
Solve System of Linear Equations Using solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-174
Solve Equations Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-176
Solve Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-185

First-Order Linear ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-185
Solve Differential Equation with Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-185
Nonlinear Differential Equation with Initial Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-186
Second-Order ODE with Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-186
Third-Order ODE with Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-186
More ODE Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-187
Solve a System of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-189

Solve System of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-189
Solve Differential Equations in Matrix Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-191
viii Contents
Solve Differential Algebraic Equations (DAEs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-194
Solve Semilinear DAE System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-203

Step 1. Reduce Differential Index with reduceDAEToODE . . . . . . . . . . . 2-203
Step 2. ODEs to Function Handles for ode15s and ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . 2-203
Step 3. Initial Conditions for ode15s and ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-204
Step 4. Solve an ODE System with ode15s or ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-206
Solve DAEs Using Mass Matrix Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-209

Step 1. Convert DAEs to Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-209
Step 2. Find Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-210
Step 3. Solve DAE System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-211
Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214

Fourier Transform Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214
Concept: Using Symbolic Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214
Calculate Beam Deflection Using Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214
Solve Differential Equations Using Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-218

Definition: Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-218
Workflow: Solve RLC Circuit Using Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-218
Solve Difference Equations Using Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-224

Definition: Z-transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-224
Workflow: Solve "Rabbit Growth" Problem Using Z-Transform . . . . . . . 2-224
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-228
Create Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-229

Plot with Symbolic Plotting Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-229
Plot Functions Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-231
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-232
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-233
Combine Symbolic Function Plots and Numeric Data Plots . . . . . . . . . . 2-234
Combine Numeric and Symbolic Plots in 3-D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-236
Plotting in Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-239
Analytical Solutions of the Inverse Kinematics of a Humanoid Robot 2-241
Analytical Model of Cantilever Truss Structure for Simscape . . . . . . . . 2-252
Estimate Model Parameters of a Symbolically Derived Plant Model in

Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-260
Generate C or Fortran Code from Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-266
Generate MATLAB Functions from Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . 2-267

Generating a Function Handle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-267
Control the Order of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-267
Generate a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-268
Name Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-269
ix
Generate MATLAB Function Blocks from Symbolic Expressions . . . . . 2-270
Generate and Edit a Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-270
Control the Order of Input Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-270
Name the Output Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-270
Generate Simscape Equations from Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . 2-272

Convert Algebraic and Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-272
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-273
MuPAD to MATLAB Migration

3
MuPAD Engines and MATLAB Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Convert MuPAD Notebooks to MATLAB Live Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

Convert a MuPAD Notebook .mn to a MATLAB Live Script .mlx . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Convert MuPAD Graphics to MATLAB Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Known Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Troubleshoot MuPAD to MATLAB Translation Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Troubleshoot MuPAD to MATLAB Translation Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
Differences Between MATLAB and MuPAD Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20
Call Built-In MuPAD Functions from MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22

evalin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
feval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
evalin vs. feval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
Floating-Point Arguments of evalin and feval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
Functions
4
x Contents
1
Getting Started
• “Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description” on page 1-2

• “Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions” on page 1-3
• “Create Symbolic Functions” on page 1-7
• “Create Symbolic Matrices” on page 1-9
• “Perform Symbolic Computations” on page 1-11
• “Use Assumptions on Symbolic Variables” on page 1-24
1 Getting Started
Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description

Perform symbolic math computations
Symbolic Math Toolbox provides functions for solving, plotting, and manipulating symbolic math
equations. You can create, run, and share symbolic math code using the MATLAB Live Editor. The
toolbox provides functions in common mathematical areas such as calculus, linear algebra, algebraic
and ordinary differential equations, equation simplification, and equation manipulation.
Symbolic Math Toolbox lets you analytically perform differentiation, integration, simplification,
transforms, and equation solving. You can perform dimensional computations and conversions using
SI and US unit systems. Your computations can be performed either analytically or using variable-
precision arithmetic, with the results displayed in mathematical typeset.
You can share your symbolic work with other MATLAB users as live scripts or convert them to HTML
or PDF for publication. You can generate MATLAB functions, Simulink® function blocks, and
Simscape™ equations directly from symbolic expressions.
Key Features
• Symbolic integration, differentiation, transforms, and linear algebra
• Algebraic and ordinary differential equation (ODE) solvers
• Simplification and manipulation of symbolic expressions
• Unit systems for specifying, converting, and computing using SI, US, and custom unit systems
• Plotting of analytical functions in 2D and 3D
• Symbolic expression conversion to MATLAB, Simulink, Simscape, C, Fortran, and LaTeX code
• Variable-precision arithmetic
1-2
Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions

This page shows how to create symbolic numbers, variables, and expressions. To learn how to work
with symbolic math, see “Perform Symbolic Computations” on page 1-11.
Create Symbolic Numbers

You can create symbolic numbers by using sym. Symbolic numbers are exact representations, unlike
floating-point numbers.
Create a symbolic number by using sym and compare it to the same floating-point number.
sym(1/3)
1/3
ans =
1/3
ans =
0.3333
The symbolic number is represented in exact rational form, while the floating-point number is a
decimal approximation. The symbolic result is not indented, while the standard MATLAB result is
indented.
Calculations on symbolic numbers are exact. Demonstrate this exactness by finding sin(pi)
symbolically and numerically. The symbolic result is exact, while the numeric result is an
approximation.
sin(sym(pi))
sin(pi)
ans =
0
ans =
1.2246e-16
To learn more about symbolic representation of numbers, see “Numeric to Symbolic Conversion” on
page 2-136.
Create Symbolic Variables

You can create symbolic variables using either syms or sym. Typical uses of these functions include:
• sym – Create numbered symbolic variables or create symbolic variables in MATLAB functions.
• syms – Create fresh symbolic variables for interactive symbolic workflows, that is, for symbolic
variable creation at the MATLAB command line or in MATLAB live scripts. A fresh symbolic
variable does not have any assumptions.
The syms command is shorthand for the sym syntax, but the two functions handle assumptions
differently. For more details, see “Reuse Names of Symbolic Objects” on page 1-5.
Create the symbolic variables x and y using syms and sym, respectively.
syms x
y = sym('y')
1-3
1 Getting Started
The first command creates a symbolic variable x in the MATLAB workspace with the value x assigned
to the variable x. The second command creates a symbolic variable y with the value y.
With syms, you can create multiple variables in one command. Create the variables a, b, and c.
syms a b c
If you want to create a MATLAB array of numbered symbolic variables, the syms syntax is
inconvenient. Therefore, use sym instead to create an array of many numbered symbolic variables.
Clear the workspace. Create a row vector containing the symbolic variables a1, ..., a20 and
assign it to the MATLAB variable A. Display the variable in the MATLAB workspace.
clear all
A = sym('a', [1 20])
whos
A =
[ a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8, a9, a10,...
a11, a12, a13, a14, a15, a16, a17, a18, a19, a20]
Name Size Bytes Class Attributes
A 1x20 8 sym
A is a 1-by-20 array of 20 symbolic variables.
By combining sym and syms, you can create many fresh symbolic variables with corresponding
variables name in the MATLAB workspace.
Clear the workspace. Create the fresh symbolic variables a1, ..., a10 and assign them the
MATLAB variable names a1, ..., a10, respectively. Display the variables in the MATLAB
workspace.
clear all
syms(sym('a', [1 10]))
whos
Name Size Bytes Class Attributes
a1 1x1 8 sym
a10 1x1 8 sym
a2 1x1 8 sym
a3 1x1 8 sym
a4 1x1 8 sym
a5 1x1 8 sym
a6 1x1 8 sym
a7 1x1 8 sym
a8 1x1 8 sym
a9 1x1 8 sym
The MATLAB workspace contains 10 MATLAB variables that are symbolic variables.
The syms command is a convenient shorthand for the sym syntax, and its typical use is to create fresh
symbolic variables for interactive symbolic workflows. Use the sym syntax to create the following:
• Symbolic variables in MATLAB functions
1-4
• Many numbered symbolic variables

• Symbolic variable whose value differs from its name in the MATLAB workspace
• Symbolic number, such as sym(5)
• Symbolic variable that inherits the assumptions from a previously used symbolic variable having
the same name
Create Symbolic Expressions

Suppose you want to use a symbolic variable to represent the golden ratio
1+ 5
φ=
2
The command
phi = (1 + sqrt(sym(5)))/2;
achieves this goal. Now you can perform various mathematical operations on phi. For example,
f = phi^2 - phi - 1
returns
f =
(5^(1/2)/2 + 1/2)^2 - 5^(1/2)/2 - 3/2
Now suppose you want to study the quadratic function f = ax2 + bx + c. First, create the symbolic
variables a, b, c, and x:
syms a b c x
Then, assign the expression to f:

f = a*x^2 + b*x + c;
Tip To create a symbolic number, use the sym command. Do not use the syms function to create a
symbolic expression that is a constant. For example, to create the expression whose value is 5, enter
f = sym(5). The command f = 5 does not define f as a symbolic expression.
Reuse Names of Symbolic Objects

If you set a variable equal to a symbolic expression, and then apply the syms command to the
variable, MATLAB software removes the previously defined expression from the variable. For
example,
syms a b
f = a + b
returns
f =
a + b
If later you enter
1-5
1 Getting Started
syms f
f
then MATLAB removes the value a + b from the expression f:
f =
f
You can use the syms command to clear variables of definitions that you previously assigned to them
in your MATLAB session. syms clears the assumptions of the variables: complex, real, integer, and
positive. These assumptions are stored separately from the symbolic object. However, recreating a
variable using sym does not clear its assumptions. For more information, see “Delete Symbolic
Objects and Their Assumptions” on page 1-25.
See Also
More About
• “Choose syms or sym Function” on page 2-5
1-6
Create Symbolic Functions
Create Symbolic Functions

Symbolic functions represent math functions. Use symbolic functions for differentiation, integration,
solving ODEs, and other math operations. Create symbolic functions by using syms.
Create a symbolic function f with variables x and y by using syms. Creating f automatically creates
x and y.
syms f(x,y)
Assign a mathematical expression to f.
f(x,y) = x^2*y
f(x, y) =
x^2*y
Find the value of f at (3,2).
f(3,2)
ans =
18
Symbolic functions accept array inputs. Calculate f for multiple values of x and y.
xVal = 1:5;
yVal = 3:7;
f(xVal,yVal)
ans =
[ 3, 16, 45, 96, 175]
You can differentiate symbolic functions, integrate or simplify them, substitute their arguments with
values, and perform other mathematical operations. For example, find the derivative of f(x,y) with
respect to x. The result dfx is also a symbolic function.
dfx = diff(f,x)
dfx(x,y) =
2*x*y
Calculate df(x,y) at x = y + 1.
dfx(y+1,y)
ans =
2*y*(y + 1)
If you are creating a constant function, such as f(x,y) = 1, you must first create f(x,y). If you do
not create f(x,y), then the assignment f(x,y) = 1 throws an error.
1-7
1 Getting Started
See Also
More About
1-8
Create Symbolic Matrices
Create Symbolic Matrices

In this section...
“Use Existing Symbolic Variables” on page 1-9
“Generate Elements While Creating a Matrix” on page 1-9
“Create Matrix of Symbolic Numbers” on page 1-10
Use Existing Symbolic Variables

A circulant matrix has the property that each row is obtained from the previous one by cyclically
permuting the entries one step forward. For example, create the symbolic circulant matrix whose
elements are a, b, and c, using the commands:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; c a b; b c a]
A =
[ a, b, c]
[ c, a, b]
[ b, c, a]
Since matrix A is circulant, the sum of elements over each row and each column is the same. Find the
sum of all the elements of the first row:
sum(A(1,:))
ans =
a + b + c
To check if the sum of the elements of the first row equals the sum of the elements of the second
column, use the isAlways function:
isAlways(sum(A(1,:)) == sum(A(:,2)))
The sums are equal:
ans =
logical
1
From this example, you can see that using symbolic objects is very similar to using regular MATLAB
numeric objects.
Generate Elements While Creating a Matrix

The sym function also lets you define a symbolic matrix or vector without having to define its
elements in advance. In this case, the sym function generates the elements of a symbolic matrix at
the same time that it creates a matrix. The function presents all generated elements using the same
form: the base (which must be a valid variable name), a row index, and a column index. Use the first
argument of sym to specify the base for the names of generated elements. You can use any valid
variable name as a base. To check whether the name is a valid variable name, use the isvarname
function. By default, sym separates a row index and a column index by underscore. For example,
create the 2-by-4 matrix A with the elements A1_1, ..., A2_4:
1-9
1 Getting Started
A = sym('A', [2 4])
A =
[ A1_1, A1_2, A1_3, A1_4]
[ A2_1, A2_2, A2_3, A2_4]
To control the format of the generated names of matrix elements, use %d in the first argument:
A = sym('A%d%d', [2 4])
A =
[ A11, A12, A13, A14]
[ A21, A22, A23, A24]
Create Matrix of Symbolic Numbers

A particularly effective use of sym is to convert a matrix from numeric to symbolic form. The
command
A = hilb(3)
generates the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix:
A =
1.0000 0.5000 0.3333
0.5000 0.3333 0.2500
0.3333 0.2500 0.2000
By applying sym to A
A = sym(A)
you can obtain the precise symbolic form of the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix:
A =
[ 1, 1/2, 1/3]
[ 1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
[ 1/3, 1/4, 1/5]
For more information on numeric to symbolic conversions, see “Numeric to Symbolic Conversion” on
page 2-136.
See Also
More About
1-10
Perform Symbolic Computations
In this section...
“Differentiate Symbolic Expressions” on page 1-11
“Integrate Symbolic Expressions” on page 1-12
“Solve Equations” on page 1-13
“Simplify Symbolic Expressions” on page 1-15
“Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions” on page 1-16
“Plot Symbolic Functions” on page 1-18
Differentiate Symbolic Expressions

With the Symbolic Math Toolbox software, you can find
• Derivatives of single-variable expressions

• Partial derivatives
• Second and higher order derivatives
• Mixed derivatives
For in-depth information on taking symbolic derivatives see “Differentiation” on page 2-46.
Expressions with One Variable
To differentiate a symbolic expression, use the diff command. The following example illustrates how
to take a first derivative of a symbolic expression:
syms x
f = sin(x)^2;
diff(f)
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)
Partial Derivatives
For multivariable expressions, you can specify the differentiation variable. If you do not specify any
variable, MATLAB chooses a default variable by its proximity to the letter x:
syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f)
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)
For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for choosing a default variable, see “Find a Default
Symbolic Variable” on page 2-3.
To differentiate the symbolic expression f with respect to a variable y, enter:
1-11
1 Getting Started
syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f, y)
ans =
-2*cos(y)*sin(y)
Second Partial and Mixed Derivatives
To take a second derivative of the symbolic expression f with respect to a variable y, enter:
syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f, y, 2)
ans =
2*sin(y)^2 - 2*cos(y)^2
You get the same result by taking derivative twice: diff(diff(f, y)). To take mixed derivatives,
use two differentiation commands. For example:
syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(diff(f, y), x)
ans =
0
Integrate Symbolic Expressions

You can perform symbolic integration including:
• Indefinite and definite integration

• Integration of multivariable expressions
For in-depth information on the int command including integration with real and complex
parameters, see “Integration” on page 2-59.
Indefinite Integrals of One-Variable Expressions
Suppose you want to integrate a symbolic expression. The first step is to create the symbolic
expression:
syms x
f = sin(x)^2;
To find the indefinite integral, enter
int(f)
ans =
x/2 - sin(2*x)/4
Indefinite Integrals of Multivariable Expressions
If the expression depends on multiple symbolic variables, you can designate a variable of integration.
If you do not specify any variable, MATLAB chooses a default variable by the proximity to the letter x:
1-12
syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f)
ans =
x*y^n + (x*x^n)/(n + 1)
For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for choosing a default variable, see “Find a Default
Symbolic Variable” on page 2-3.
You also can integrate the expression f = x^n + y^n with respect to y
syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, y)
ans =
x^n*y + (y*y^n)/(n + 1)
If the integration variable is n, enter
syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, n)
ans =
x^n/log(x) + y^n/log(y)
Definite Integrals
To find a definite integral, pass the limits of integration as the final two arguments of the int
function:
syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, 1, 10)
ans =
piecewise(n == -1, log(10) + 9/y, n ~= -1,...
(10*10^n - 1)/(n + 1) + 9*y^n)
If MATLAB Cannot Find a Closed Form of an Integral
If the int function cannot compute an integral, it returns an unresolved integral:
syms x
int(sin(sinh(x)))
ans =
int(sin(sinh(x)), x)
Solve Equations
You can solve different types of symbolic equations including:
• Algebraic equations with one symbolic variable

• Algebraic equations with several symbolic variables
1-13
1 Getting Started
• Systems of algebraic equations
For in-depth information on solving symbolic equations including differential equations, see “Equation
Solving”.
Solve Algebraic Equations with One Symbolic Variable
Use the double equal sign (==) to define an equation. Then you can solve the equation by calling
the solve function. For example, solve this equation:
syms x
solve(x^3 - 6*x^2 == 6 - 11*x)
ans =
1
2
3
If you do not specify the right side of the equation, solve assumes that it is zero:
syms x
solve(x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6)
ans =
1
2
3
Solve Algebraic Equations with Several Symbolic Variables
If an equation contains several symbolic variables, you can specify a variable for which this equation
should be solved. For example, solve this multivariable equation with respect to y:
syms x y
solve(6*x^2 - 6*x^2*y + x*y^2 - x*y + y^3 - y^2 == 0, y)
ans =
1
2*x
-3*x
If you do not specify any variable, you get the solution of an equation for the alphabetically closest to
x variable. For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for choosing a default variable see “Find a
Default Symbolic Variable” on page 2-3.
Solve Systems of Algebraic Equations
You also can solve systems of equations. For example:
syms x y z
[x, y, z] = solve(z == 4*x, x == y, z == x^2 + y^2)
x =
0
2
y =
0
1-14
z =
0
8
Simplify Symbolic Expressions

Symbolic Math Toolbox provides a set of simplification functions allowing you to manipulate the
output of a symbolic expression. For example, the following polynomial of the golden ratio phi
phi = (1 + sqrt(sym(5)))/2;
f = phi^2 - phi - 1
returns
f =
(5^(1/2)/2 + 1/2)^2 - 5^(1/2)/2 - 3/2
You can simplify this answer by entering
simplify(f)
and get a very short answer:
ans =
0
Symbolic simplification is not always so straightforward. There is no universal simplification function,

because the meaning of a simplest representation of a symbolic expression cannot be defined clearly.
Different problems require different forms of the same mathematical expression. Knowing what form
is more effective for solving your particular problem, you can choose the appropriate simplification
function.
For example, to show the order of a polynomial or symbolically differentiate or integrate a

polynomial, use the standard polynomial form with all the parentheses multiplied out and all the
similar terms summed up. To rewrite a polynomial in the standard form, use the expand function:
syms x
f = (x ^2- 1)*(x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1)*(x^4 - x^3 + x^2 - x + 1);
expand(f)
ans =
x^10 - 1
The factor simplification function shows the polynomial roots. If a polynomial cannot be factored
over the rational numbers, the output of the factor function is the standard polynomial form. For
example, to factor the third-order polynomial, enter:
syms x
g = x^3 + 6*x^2 + 11*x + 6;
factor(g)
ans =
[ x + 3, x + 2, x + 1]
The nested (Horner) representation of a polynomial is the most efficient for numerical evaluations:
1-15
1 Getting Started
syms x
h = x^5 + x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x;
horner(h)
ans =
x*(x*(x*(x*(x + 1) + 1) + 1) + 1)
For a list of Symbolic Math Toolbox simplification functions, see “Choose Function to Rearrange
Expression” on page 2-104.
Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions

Substitute Symbolic Variables with Numbers
You can substitute a symbolic variable with a numeric value by using the subs function. For example,
evaluate the symbolic expression f at the point x = 1/3:
syms x
f = 2*x^2 - 3*x + 1;
subs(f, 1/3)
ans =
2/9
The subs function does not change the original expression f:
f =
2*x^2 - 3*x + 1
Substitute in Multivariate Expressions
When your expression contains more than one variable, you can specify the variable for which you
want to make the substitution. For example, to substitute the value x = 3 in the symbolic expression
syms x y
f = x^2*y + 5*x*sqrt(y);
enter the command
subs(f, x, 3)
ans =
9*y + 15*y^(1/2)
Substitute One Symbolic Variable for Another
You also can substitute one symbolic variable for another symbolic variable. For example to replace
the variable y with the variable x, enter
subs(f, y, x)
ans =
x^3 + 5*x^(3/2)
1-16
Substitute a Matrix into a Polynomial
You can also substitute a matrix into a symbolic polynomial with numeric coefficients. There are two
ways to substitute a matrix into a polynomial: element by element and according to matrix
multiplication rules.
Element-by-Element Substitution
To substitute a matrix at each element, use the subs command:
syms x
f = x^3 - 15*x^2 - 24*x + 350;
A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6];
subs(f,A)
ans =
[ 312, 250, 170]
[ 78, -20, -118]
You can do element-by-element substitution for rectangular or square matrices.

Substitution in a Matrix Sense
If you want to substitute a matrix into a polynomial using standard matrix multiplication rules, a
matrix must be square. For example, you can substitute the magic square A into a polynomial f:
1 Create the polynomial:
syms x
f = x^3 - 15*x^2 - 24*x + 350;
2 Create the magic square matrix:
A = magic(3)
A =
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2
3 Get a row vector containing the numeric coefficients of the polynomial f:
b = sym2poly(f)
b =
1 -15 -24 350
4 Substitute the magic square matrix A into the polynomial f. Matrix A replaces all occurrences of
x in the polynomial. The constant times the identity matrix eye(3) replaces the constant term of
f:
A^3 - 15*A^2 - 24*A + 350*eye(3)
ans =
-10 0 0
0 -10 0
0 0 -10
The polyvalm command provides an easy way to obtain the same result:
polyvalm(b,A)
1-17
1 Getting Started
ans =
-10 0 0
0 -10 0
0 0 -10
Substitute the Elements of a Symbolic Matrix
To substitute a set of elements in a symbolic matrix, also use the subs command. Suppose you want
to replace some of the elements of a symbolic circulant matrix A
syms a b c
A = [a b c; c a b; b c a]
A =
[ a, b, c]
[ c, a, b]
[ b, c, a]
To replace the (2, 1) element of A with beta and the variable b throughout the matrix with variable
alpha, enter
alpha = sym('alpha');
beta = sym('beta');
A(2,1) = beta;
A = subs(A,b,alpha)
The result is the matrix:
A =
[ a, alpha, c]
[ beta, a, alpha]
[ alpha, c, a]
For more information, see “Substitute Elements in Symbolic Matrices” on page 2-119.
Plot Symbolic Functions

Symbolic Math Toolbox provides the plotting functions:
• fplot to create 2-D plots of symbolic expressions, equations, or functions in Cartesian

coordinates.
• fplot3 to create 3-D parametric plots.
• ezpolar to create plots in polar coordinates.
• fsurf to create surface plots.
• fcontour to create contour plots.
• fmesh to create mesh plots.
Explicit Function Plot
Create a 2-D line plot by using fplot. Plot the expression x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6.
syms x
f = x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6;
fplot(f)
1-18
Add labels for the x- and y-axes. Generate the title by using texlabel(f). Show the grid by using
grid on. For details, see “Add Title and Axis Labels to Chart” (MATLAB).
xlabel('x')
ylabel('y')
title(texlabel(f))
grid on
1-19
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
sang. Pour quelles raisons accepterait-on plusieurs maîtres ? Caillou
se refuse à ce servage. Voilà pourquoi, cédant aussi à ses instincts
de gourmandise et de rapine, il dévore chaque jour, dans leur plus
verte jeunesse, les pommes et les poires de l’oncle, espoir d’une
récolte future. Comme il en jette dédaigneusement les débris à
travers les allées, il n’est pas difficile de constater le crime :
— Ne mens pas, Caillou ! Tu montes sur les arbres et tu cueilles
les fruits ?
— Oui, dit Caillou. Tout en haut des arbres, je monte !
Il avoue fièrement, considérant que c’est là un exploit digne de sa
propre estime et d’une inscription dans les ouvrages dont il se repaît.
On le gronde, on le punit, on lui fait jurer :
— Tu ne cueilleras plus de pommes, Caillou ? Promets !
— Je n’en cueillerai plus, dit Caillou, maussade.
— Ni de poires, ni de pêches ?
Caillou promet encore, et il a gardé ça de son ancienne
honnêteté : il sait tenir parole. Seulement, le lendemain, pêchers,
poiriers, pommiers présentent un spectacle hideux et sans
précédent dans l’histoire des désastres de l’arboriculture. Caillou n’a
plus « cueilli », cela ne fait aucun doute. Mais on ne lui avait pas
défendu de grimper aux arbres. Il a donc grimpé, comme d’habitude,
et mangé le plus de fruits qu’il a pu, en laissant les trognons
attachés à leur tige. Les arbres sont déshonorés, et Caillou
s’applaudit d’avoir à la fois respecté sa parole et acquis la certitude
qu’on parlera de lui à travers les siècles : car il est maintenant avide
de gloire, même de la plus détestable.
A l’aube suivante, l’oncle part pour la chasse. Il aime cette
distraction, il éprouve aussi le besoin de s’éloigner le plus souvent
possible de cette maison qui est sienne, devenue pleine d’une
agitation choquante et de drames intimes. Il siffle son chien, et
Caillou demande d’un air innocent :
— Tu t’en vas, mon oncle ?
Mais le chien, dès qu’il a vu Caillou, fait un bond d’épouvante, et
s’enfuit, s’enfuit à l’autre bout du pays, pour échapper à son
persécuteur. Car Caillou est son bourreau ; Caillou, pour satisfaire
ses instincts de primitif, développés par ses lectures, en a fait parfois
un lion, parfois un ours, parfois un loup. Il l’a pris au piège, il l’a tué
dans des combats tumultueux, il l’a ramené dans son antre de
Robinson victorieux, lié aux quatre pattes, il l’a traîné sur le gravier
rude comme un cadavre pantelant ; et le bon chien s’est changé en
une pauvre bête apeurée qui n’a plus confiance dans la bonté des
hommes, qui sait qu’ils peuvent faire du mal quand on ne leur fait
rien. Caillou ne traiterait pas de la même façon Jupiter, le chat, parce
que Jupiter a des griffes. Mais il l’utilise cependant à sa manière, il le
transforme en un tigre redoutable en l’élevant trente fois par jour à la
hauteur de la cage du serin. Et le serin, le cœur battant, les plumes
ébouriffées à la vue de l’ennemi héréditaire, se jette contre les
barreaux de la cage, s’y brise le bec, s’y écorche les pattes, en perd
le boire et le manger.
C’est ainsi que Caillou fait « des expériences » et désorganise
l’intérieur pacifique, ordonné, solennel, de l’oncle Jules. Et plus il est
admonesté, morigéné, châtié, plus il se considère comme une
victime des puissances, plus il se pénètre de l’idée, puisée dans une
littérature qui l’abuse, qu’il n’est pas comme les autres, qu’il a le droit
de se venger, qu’il ne se venge pas assez, et que ses malheurs sont
dignes d’une éternelle mémoire. Il est devenu un romantique, et
comme tous les romantiques, on ne peut même plus le prendre par
les sentiments : les duretés qu’il subit légitiment à ses yeux tous les
actes de révolte.
— Songe à la passion de Jésus-Christ ! lui dit un jour
imprudemment sa mère.
— Ça n’a duré que trois jours, répond Caillou. Et moi, voilà trois
ans qu’on m’embête !
Voilà trois ans qu’il est le plus heureux petit garçon du monde,
mais il se croirait déshonoré de l’admettre. Il n’y a plus qu’à
l’emmener, le maître de la maison n’en peut plus. Enfin voilà ses
hôtes partis, l’oncle respire. Mais la précieuse cuisinière vient lui
rendre son tablier.
— Je ne veux plus rester dans cette maison, dit-elle, on n’y a pas
d’égards pour moi : monsieur Caillou, avant de partir, a fourré des
colimaçons plein mon lit !
Et elle ajoute :
— Je dois dire aussi à monsieur que son serin est mort.
— Mort ! fait l’oncle. Et de quoi ?
— Je n’en sais rien. De peur peut-être !
C’est ainsi que le pauvre oncle reste seul dans sa maison
dévastée, sans cuisinière, sans chien, sans canari. La jeunesse a
passé là comme une passion ; elle n’a rien laissé derrière elle que
des ruines. Et l’oncle se sent décidément très vieux, très fini, tout à
fait incapable de s’accoutumer à ceux qui n’ont pas son âge ; il
songe amèrement qu’il ne pardonnera jamais à Caillou. Il est bien
vieux en effet, puisqu’il a oublié ce que c’est que l’âge ingrat des
petits garçons : celui auquel ils commencent à s’opposer, par la
révolte, et pour prendre conscience de leur personnalité, à un
monde dont ils se font une idée aussi intolérable qu’elle est fausse.
La mère de Caillou est désespérée. Malgré toute la sagesse et

toute l’expérience qu’elles ont pu acquérir, toutes les mères
nourrissent la même illusion : elles se figurent que leurs petits
resteront toujours petits. Et Caillou maintenant lui apparaît comme
une espèce de monstre ! Elle envisage toutes sortes de projets,
même celui de le mettre au collège, pour qu’il y apprenne la
discipline, le respect, et qu’il parvienne à se persuader qu’il faut
« faire comme tout le monde ». Car enfin, il faut que Caillou
commence « son éducation ». J’assiste à ses angoisses, mais je ne
puis les partager. Caillou traverse une crise, mais je sais bien qu’au
fond il est toujours le même Caillou. Et je ne voudrais point qu’on me
le changeât, sous prétexte de le corriger.
— Croyez bien, lui dis-je, que je ne nourris nulle haine contre les
maîtres de mon enfance. Je sais toutefois que je suis sorti de leurs
mains façonné de si étrange manière que j’ai mis des années avant
de me retrouver moi-même : et ce furent des années perdues. Il y
avait un jeune canard, une fois…
— C’est un apologue.
— Peut-être. Mais je vous assure qu’il s’agit d’un canard
véritable, auquel il arriva malheur pendant la grande inondation.
» D’abord ce canard ne fut qu’un œuf, ce qui n’a rien que de très
naturel. Monsieur Giscard, tonnelier rue des Ursins, derrière Notre-
Dame, l’avait choisi un jour dans une terrine, à la campagne, chez
un de ses amis, nourrisseur.
» — Qu’est-ce que c’est donc que celui-là ? avait-il demandé.
» Et en effet, il était plus gros que les autres, un peu plus long, et
quand on le mettait entre son œil et la lumière, il prenait une teinte
vert pâle, tandis que les autres paraissaient roses.
» — Celui-là ? répondit le nourrisseur : c’est un œuf de cane.
» Alors monsieur Giscard avait demandé la permission de
l’emporter, disant que puisqu’il avait des poules, il pourrait le faire
couver.
» Voilà par quelles suites de circonstances ce canard naquit rue
des Ursins. Sa coquille crevée, il fut d’abord une masse oblongue,
qui sous les ailes d’une vieille poule se dorlotait dans du poil jaune,
précurseur des plumes. Il était en somme assez semblable aux
petits poulets, ses frères de hasard, sauf pour les pattes et le bec,
qu’il avait plus larges ; et son corps avait encore la forme de l’œuf
dont il était sorti. Puis son pennage poussa, il grandit et devint un
canard véritable, fort heureux de sa condition et de ses entours.
» Car la nourriture s’offrait devant lui, savoureuse, abondante et
variée. C’était du pain en miettes, des écuellées de rogatons gras,
aussi les entrailles d’autres oiseaux, telles que madame Giscard les
jetait sur le sol ; et le canard, dans son ignorance ingénue, les
dévorait. Au delà de la cour qui servait d’atelier, une fois passée la
vieille porte cochère garnie d’énormes clous à têtes de diamant,
s’étendait une région très vaste, qui fournissait encore des choses
bonnes à manger. C’était la vue des Ursins même, irrégulière,
tortueuse, resserrée à l’un des bouts, semblable en vérité à un
boyau, avec une vieille chapelle toute ruineuse dont les pierres
disjointes offraient en été aux appétits des vers, des mouches, des
insectes vivants. A l’une de ses extrémités s’ouvrait la rue de la
Colombe, qui mène à un édifice énorme, très haut sur le ciel, avec
deux tours et un clocher riche en corneilles ; à l’autre, c’était un
espace plat et large, bordé par un mur de pierre. Les hommes
appellent l’édifice « Notre-Dame », et l’espace plat, fermé d’une
muraille, ils le nomment « le quai ». A certaines heures, ces rues
sont presque vides ; on peut s’y aventurer, on y trouve des oranges
mâchées, des rognures de viande, mille débris d’un goût délicieux.
Mais la petite troupe des poulets et du canard n’allait jamais vers le
quai.
» — Qu’est-ce qu’il y a, de ce côté ? demanda un jour le canard,
pour s’instruire.
» — L’eau ! répondit la vieille poule,
» Sa voix était si pénétrée d’horreur que le canard n’insista pas. Il
connut donc que l’eau, c’était le mal. Cependant il eut la curiosité de
savoir ce que faisaient les ouvriers de monsieur Giscard. Tout le jour
leurs marteaux de bois dur et leurs doloires luisantes retentissaient
et grinçaient sur les muids, les bordelaises, les feuillettes. Le canard
apprit que ces vaisseaux ronds et creux devaient plus tard recevoir
des liquides ; il les considéra donc comme des remparts destinés à
contenir une matière analogue à l’eau, perfide et dangereuse. Il
buvait pourtant au ruisseau de la rue. Mais, imitant ses compagnons,
il évitait de se mouiller les pattes.
» Un jour, les hommes dirent entre eux : « Elle monte ! » Le
canard n’entendit pas leurs paroles, mais il remarqua leur agitation.
Ils aveuglèrent les soupiraux avec du ciment et construisirent un mur
devant la porte. Le canard crut d’abord que c’était pour l’empêcher
de sortir, car les animaux, comme les humains, penchent
communément à croire que les choses qu’on fait, on les fait pour
eux, ou contre eux. Et le canard s’égaya de cette sottise. Il n’avait
jamais volé. Il ne savait même pas que ses ailes, perpétuellement
rognées, pouvaient servir à voler, mais il se sentait sûr de franchir,
quand il le voudrait, cette ridicule barrière.
» Il y avait dans la cour une vieille mangeoire destinée à des
chevaux depuis longtemps disparus. C’était là que perchaient les
jeunes poules, tandis que celles qui couvaient demeuraient
d’habitude, la nuit comme le jour, dans une cuve pleine de paille ; et
c’est à celles-là que se joignait le canard, qui n’aimait pas à grimper.
Vers le milieu de la nuit, il entendit des bruits singuliers. On criait,
plus loin que la maison, dans la rue :
» — L’eau monte, elle monte toujours ! Déménagez, vous ne
pouvez rester ici !
» Le canard ne savait pas que ces cris venaient de barques
montées par des soldats. Ce qui le surprit davantage, c’est que la
cuve dans laquelle il sommeillait semblait se mouvoir assez
doucement, au lieu de demeurer à sa place ordinaire ; et à la lueur
du croissant de la lune, il s’aperçut que la mangeoire, sur laquelle
étaient perchées les jeunes poules, paraissait maintenant moins
élevée au-dessus de sa tête. Les animaux ont des rêves aussi bien
que les hommes : cela sans doute était un rêve ! Cependant la vieille
Houdan qui l’avait couvé, au moment où la cuve se rapprocha de la
mangeoire, battit désespérément de ses pauvres ailes, et sauta. Le
canard fit comme elle, par esprit d’imitation. Puis il se rendormit
tranquillement, car les oiseaux, dès que le soleil est couché, ne
peuvent tenir leurs yeux ouverts.
» Mais ils s’éveillèrent dès l’aube, et le jour naissant lui montra un
spectacle étrange. A la place du sol qu’il avait piétiné la veille, plat et
très dur, d’une belle couleur grise, et fertile en nourriture, il n’y avait
plus sous ses pieds qu’une étendue jaunâtre d’un élément inconnu.
Au premier abord on eût pensé que c’était solide, mais vers les coins
et les parois de la cour, ça se gonflait, ça clapotait ; c’était sournois,
inquiétant, insidieux. La vieille poule dit, avec un frisson d’effroi :
» — C’est l’eau !
» Et le canard éprouva un sentiment d’angoisse bien plus
déchirant que celui qui pénétrait ses voisins parce que c’était une loi
inculquée dès son enfance, et non pas son instinct, qui le retenait à
sa place. L’eau lui faisait envie, il la désirait d’une manière à la fois
vague et puissante ; pourtant elle lui faisait peur par principe. Il
demanda timidement :
» — Est-ce que c’est vrai, absolument vrai, qu’on ne peut pas
descendre là-dessus et se tenir debout, tout en vie ?
» Il était naturel qu’il posât la question sous cette forme puisqu’il
ne savait pas qu’il y a un acte qui s’appelle nager. Mais on ne lui
répondit que par un regard atroce. Non, ça ne se pouvait pas !
Quelques poules essayèrent, prenant leur élan, de sauter par-
dessus la clôture de la cour. L’une d’elles y réussit, mais on l’entendit
retomber, de l’autre côté, dans l’élément mortel qui remplissait la
rue. Les autres se noyèrent dans la cour même, après s’être brisé le
bec contre les pierres qu’elles avaient tenté de franchir.
» — Qu’est-ce qu’il faut faire ? interrogea le canard.
» — Attendre, répondit la vieille poule.
» Ayant toujours vécu parmi les hommes, elle ne connaissait rien
que ce qui venait d’eux ; le salut ou la mort : ils dispensaient tout.
Mais les hommes ne vinrent pas. Les oiseaux, qui digèrent très vite,
souffrent et meurent très rapidement de la faim. Le canard et la
poule, trop faibles pour rester perchés, se blottirent au fond de la
mangeoire.
…» Après l’inondation, monsieur Giscard revint.
» — Les poules ont dû mourir, dit-il, mais c’est le canard qui doit
s’en donner !
» Mais le canard avait subi le sort des camarades. Couché près
de la poule, sur le dos, avec cette taie sur les yeux ouverts qu’ont les
oiseaux morts, il dressait vers le ciel ses pattes palmées faites pour
ramer l’eau.
» Monsieur Giscard fut si émerveillé par ce spectacle qu’il oublia
de regretter la perte.
» — Tout de même, dit-il, tout de même… celui-là, il avait de
l’éducation ! »
La maman de Caillou se mit à rire.

— Vous croyez que je plaisante, lui dis-je, mais c’est une histoire
qui est arrivée, et je plains beaucoup ce canard : si vous voulez bien
y réfléchir une petite minute, il fut assassiné par persuasion.
Toutefois vous pouvez aussi accepter ce récit comme une fable, et
supposer que ce canard, c’est vous, moi, ou notre voisin et Caillou
lui-même, si on lui donne trop tôt, et comme on la donne, hélas, ce
qu’on est convenu d’appeler « de l’éducation ». Car ça consiste
généralement, chez nous, à faire perdre aux petits Français leur
personnalité et leurs instincts. Je vous engage à vous méfier :
Caillou n’y gagnerait absolument rien.
Juillet 1909 — Février 1911.
FIN
TABLE
PREMIÈRE RENCONTRE 1
CAILLOU ET LES FEMMES 19
LES CHIENS ET LA GLOIRE 51
A LA CAMPAGNE 63
SA PUDEUR 81
LES AMIS DE CAILLOU 95
LE CIRQUE 133
LA GOURMANDISE 143
L’ŒUF DE CHEVAL 153
CAILLOU ET SON PÈRE 165
DU SENTIMENT DE LA PROPRIÉTÉ 175
LE MYSTÈRE 187
L’OPÉRATION 217
L’AUBE DE L’AGE INGRAT 229
E. GREVIN — IMPRIMERIE DE LAGNY — 4830-7-14.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAILLOU ET
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PDF Matlab R2020A Symbolic Math Toolbox User S Guide Mathworks Ebook Full Chapter

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Create Symbolic Numbers, Variables, and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Create Symbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

Create Symbolic Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

Perform Symbolic Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

Use Assumptions on Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24

Using Symbolic Math Toolbox Software

Choose syms or sym Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

Add Subscripts, Superscripts, and Accents to Symbolic Variables . . . . . . 2-8

Change Output Display Format of Symbolic Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12

Units of Measurement Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19

Units and Unit Systems List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25

Unit Conversions and Unit Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39

Functional Derivatives Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51

Symbolic Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65

Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67

Padé Approximant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69

Find Asymptotes, Critical, and Inflection Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-76

Simplify Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-81

Solve Algebraic Equation Using Live Editor Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-86

Abbreviate Common Terms in Long Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-101

Choose Function to Rearrange Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-104

Clear Assumptions and Reset the Symbolic Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-112

Extract Numerators and Denominators of Rational Expressions . . . . . 2-115

Substitute Variables in Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-117

Substitute Elements in Symbolic Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-119

Substitute Scalars with Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-121

Evaluate Symbolic Expressions Using subs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-123

Choose Numeric or Symbolic Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-124

Increase Precision of Numeric Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-128

Recognize and Avoid Round-Off Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-130

Increase Speed by Reducing Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-134

Numeric to Symbolic Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-136

Basic Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-139

Linear Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-141

Jordan Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-149

Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-151

Solve Algebraic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-153

Solve a Second-Order Differential Equation Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . 2-157

Select Numeric or Symbolic Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-159

Solve System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-160

Troubleshoot Equation Solutions from solve Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-169

Solve System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-173

Solve Equations Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-176

Solve Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-185

Solve a System of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-189

Solve Semilinear DAE System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-203

Solve DAEs Using Mass Matrix Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-209

Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-214