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PDF Metabolic Syndrome A Comprehensive Textbook 1St Edition Rexford S Ahima Eds Ebook Full Chapter
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Editor
Metabolic
Syndrome
A Comprehensive Textbook
1 3Reference
Metabolic Syndrome
Rexford S. Ahima
Editor
Metabolic Syndrome
A Comprehensive Textbook
ix
Contents
Part I Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
xi
xii Contents
xv
Contributors
xvii
xviii Contributors
Silke Ryan Pulmonary and Sleep Disorders Unit, St. Vincent’s University
Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
School of Medicine and Medical Science, The Conway Institute, University
College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Abstract
The diagnosis of metabolic syndrome is based on the presence of abdom-
inal obesity, increased blood pressure, elevated glucose and triglycerides,
and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels. The preva-
lence of metabolic syndrome has increased globally mainly due to exces-
sive intake of energy-dense foods and reduced physical activity. Metabolic
syndrome increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (T2D), cardio-
vascular diseases, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), cancer, infer-
tility, dementia, and other diseases. The purpose of this book is to highlight
the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, and treatment of
metabolic syndrome. We are hopeful the chapters will provide valuable
current insights as well as critical questions to guide future research.
Keywords
Metabolic syndrome • Obesity • Hypertension • Cholesterol • Glucose •
Diabetes • Cardiovascular
The term “metabolic syndrome” was first used in dyslipidemia, hypertension, and abnormal glu-
the National Cholesterol Education Program cose metabolism (Expert Panel on Detection and
(NCEP) Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in 2001).
to describe the co-occurrence of obesity, However, the association of metabolic disorders
and cardiovascular risk factors had been recog-
nized for many decades (Sarafidis and Nilsson
R.S. Ahima (*) 2006; Albrink et al. 1980). In his American Dia-
Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism,
betes Association Banting lecture in 1988,
Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, PA, USA Reaven (1988) used the term “syndrome X” to
describe the relationship of insulin resistance,
Institute for Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA hypertension, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and cardio-
e-mail: ahima@mail.med.upenn.edu vascular diseases. Other investigators have
# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 3
R.S. Ahima (ed.), Metabolic Syndrome,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-11251-0_1
4 R.S. Ahima
referred to the clustering of metabolic and cardio- insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance
vascular risk factors as the “insulin resistance (IGT), or T2D, as well as two of the following
syndrome” (DeFronzo and Ferrannini 1991; conditions: dyslipidemia (reduced HDL-C and
Haffner et al. 1992). increased triglycerides), hypertension, and
Various organizations have proposed different microalbuminuria (Alberti and Zimmet 1998).
criteria to describe the relationship of cardiovas- The European Group for the Study of Insulin
cular and metabolic diseases (Table 1). The Inter- Resistance (EGIR) criteria for metabolic syn-
national Diabetes Federation (IDF) characterized drome were similar to those of the WHO but did
the metabolic syndrome as symptoms and physical not include microalbuminuria (Balkau and Charles
or biochemical findings coexisting more often than 1999). The NCEP ATP III defined metabolic syn-
could be explained by chance alone (Alberti drome based on increased waist circumference
et al. 2006). The American Diabetes Association (WC), lipids, blood pressure, and fasting glucose
(ADA) acknowledged the clustering of clinical levels (Grundy et al. 2004; Marchesini et al. 2004).
and laboratory features in metabolic syndrome The American Association of Clinical Endocrinol-
but questioned the utility of insulin resistance as ogists’ (AACE) definition of metabolic syndrome
a biomarker for cardiovascular risk (Kahn focuses on the presence of insulin resistance and
et al. 2005). In 1998, the World Health Organiza- not diabetes. In order to account for population
tion (WHO) proposed a working definition for differences, the IDF recently proposed specific
metabolic syndrome focusing on the presence of racial/ethnic cutoffs (Grundy et al. 2005;
1 Overview of Metabolic Syndrome 5
Men
Mean BMI
22.5
22.6–24.9
25–27.4
27.5–29.9
≥30
Data not available
Not applicable
Women
Mean BMI
22.5
22.6–24.9
25–27.4
27.5–29.9
≥30
Data not available
Not applicable
Fig. 1 Mean body mass index (BMI) in adults 20 years or older in 2008 (World Health Organization Global Health
Observatory Map Gallery http://gamapserver.who.int/mapLibrary/app/searchResults.aspx)
Bloomgarden 2003). Moreover, the new IDF met- cholesterol and blood pressure, and mortality
abolic syndrome criteria focused on fasting plasma rates due to diabetes or cardiovascular diseases.
glucose concentration and not insulin resistance Diseases associated with metabolic syndrome
(Alberti et al. 2005, 2009). These differences in have increased worldwide, and these trends are
metabolic syndrome definitions by various orga- influenced by age, sex, race/ethnicity, low physical
nizations are unlikely to be resolved. However, activity, and other lifestyle factors (Mozumdar and
given our current and evolving knowledge of the Liguori 2011; Ford et al. 2002; Nestel et al. 2007;
pathogenesis of obesity, T2D, and related diseases, Lim et al. 2011; Jeppesen et al. 2007; Lorenzo
future criteria for metabolic syndrome may need to et al. 2006; Harzallah et al. 2006; Chien et al.
consider the contributions of adipokines, 2008; Zabetian et al. 2007; Mattsson et al. 2007;
pro-inflammatory cytokines, and other humoral Ilanne-Parikka et al. 2004; Jorgensen et al. 2004).
factors linked to insulin resistance, diabetes, and The prevalence of metabolic syndrome in youth
cardiovascular diseases. also varies according to the definition, age, and
Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 illustrate global patterns population under study (Berenson et al. 1998; Li
of body mass index (BMI), elevated glucose, et al. 2003; Raitakari et al. 2003; Sun et al. 2008;
6 R.S. Ahima
Men
Women
Fig. 2 Prevalence (%) of elevated fasting glucose in adults 25 years or older in 2008 (World Health Organization Global
Health Observatory Map Gallery http://gamapserver.who.int/mapLibrary/app/searchResults.aspx)
Cook et al. 2003, 2008; de Ferranti et al. 2004; In developing countries, the prevalence of meta-
Cruz et al. 2004; Weiss et al. 2004). Studies bolic syndrome is higher in urban compared to
suggest that metabolic syndrome in youth is a rural areas (Jeppesen et al. 2007; Lorenzo
strong predictor of future risk for diabetes and et al. 2006; Harzallah et al. 2006; Chien
cardiovascular disease (Berenson et al. 1998; Li et al. 2008; Zabetian et al. 2007; Weng et al. 2007).
et al. 2003; Raitakari et al. 2003). The high global A hallmark of metabolic syndrome is insulin
prevalence of metabolic syndrome has been attrib- resistance, a pathological condition in which high
uted to overconsumption of energy-dense foods, insulin concentrations fail to produce a normal
sedentary lifestyle, low socioeconomic status, and response in peripheral target tissues. Insulin resis-
rapid urbanization (Alberti and Zimmet 1998; tance is commonly associated with abdominal
Grundy et al. 2004). An inverse association obesity (Petersen and Shulman 2006; Gill
between the level of education and the risk of et al. 2005), though some insulin-resistant indi-
metabolic syndrome has been described (Lucove viduals who are not obese may have ectopic fat
et al. 2007; Wamala et al. 1999; Silventoinen accumulation in the liver and muscle (Jensen
et al. 2005; Brunner et al. 1997; Park et al. 2007). et al. 1989; Lim and Meigs 2014). In adipose
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