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DORLING KINDERSLEY
LONDON NEW YORK STUTTGART
• •
 A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK

Project editor Louise Candlish

Art editor Liz Brown
Assistant editor David T Walton
Assistant designer CarlaDe Abreu
Senior editor Roger Tritton
Senior art editor Tracy Hambleton-Miles
DTP designer Zirrinia Austin
Managing editor Sean Moore
Managing art editor Toni Kay
Production controller Meryl Silbert
Picture research Julia Harris-Voss, Jo Walton
Photography Steve Gorton, Andy Crawford

First published in Great Britain in 1995

by Dorling Kindersley Limited,
9 Henrietta Street, London WC2E 8PS

Copyright C) 1995 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London

Text copyright C) 1995 David Harris

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0 7513 0149 3

Colour reproduction by GRB Editrice s.r.l.

Printed in Singapore by Toppan Printing Co. (S) Pte Ltd
Contents

Introduction 6 Bastard Capitals 78

The Development of Western Script 8 Cadels 80

Script Timeline 12

Getting Started 14
ITALIAN & HUMANIST SCRIPTS
Rotunda 84
ROMAN & LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS Rotunda Capitals 88

Rustic Capitals 16 Humanist Minuscule 90

Square Capitals 20 Italic 94

Uncial & Artifical Uncial 24 Humanist & Italic Capitals 98

Italic Swash Capitals 100

INSULAR & NATIONAL SCRIPTS
Insular Majuscule 28 POST-RENAISSANCE SCRIPTS
Insular Minuscule 34 Copperplate 102

Copperplate Capitals 106

CAROLINE & EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS
Caroline Minuscule 38 ROMAN & LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS
Foundational Hand 42 Imperial Capitals 108
Early Gothic 46
Script Reference Chart 120
GOTHIC SCRIPTS Glossary 122
Textura Quadrata 50 Bibliography 124
Textura Prescisus 54 Index & Acknowledgments 125
Gothic Capitals & Versals 58

Lombardic Capitals 62

Bastard Secretary 66
Båtarde 70

Fraktur & Schwabacher 74

INTRODUCTION

Introduction
BOOK PRODUCTION OR 2,000 YEARS, the western Latin alphabet
The production ofa
manuscript book is has developed and been modified by a vast
a complex business,
requiring the skills of
range of social and technological changes,
numerous craftsmen. providing a rich and varied resource for the
modern calligrapher to quarry. This book
charts that development, presenting scripts
inboth historical and practical contexts.
Calligraphers of all levels will be able to MAGNIFYING GLASS
A magnifying glass or
explore the origins of each script and eyeglass is a valuable aid to

understand anew the construction of examining the letterforms

in historical manuscripts

the 26 letters that we use every day. shown in this book.

Ascender line Wedge serif Bracketed serif Capital line

GENERALLY, LATIN-BASED scripts fall
into two categories: formal — that Minuscule Ascender Majuscule (capital
Counter (lower-case Ear letter, upper-case
Tongue
is used as the instrument of
scripts
letter) Arch letter)

authority; and informal — the cursive

or quickly written scripts used for 1 Turned Bowl (bow,

everyday transactions. History •Pen
width curved stroke)
1
repeatedly shows formal scripts
degenerating into cursive forms, Link Inter- Inner-
Bowl (bow,
Horizontal Stem letter
which are, in turn, upgraded, finally curved stroke) Cross stroke letter

(main stroke) space

achieving formal status as new hands (crossbar) space foot

in their own right. The pages of Lower

Descender
historical analysis in this book chart counter

Flourish (swash) Interlinear space

the rise, fall, and revival of these
hands, and explain the emergence
Ligature Headline
of other significant scripts.
Hackle (waistline,
Practical advice
Hairline x-line)
Following the historical study of
Minim
each script is a practical guide to Diamond
height
the construction of the letters in Pen angle
(x-height,
that hand. A complete alphabet is body height)

included, showing the separate strokes

Hairline Foot Baseline
needed to produce each letter, and tail

indicating the probable sequence

of these strokes. To the left of this
Descender line
alphabet, the chief characteristics
of the script are described and LEITER ANATOMY
In order to identify or construct scripts, it is
headline is known to some calligraphers as

demonstrated in a separate panel. essential to become familiar with the vocabulary the "waistline" and to typographers as the

of calligraphy. Unfortunately, thereis no agreed

The appearance of a
influenced by a range of practical
"x-line". Although these letters represent
script is
only a few characters, the terms used to
standard nomenclature, so terrns used in this
book most commonly favoured by
are those describe their components are applicable

factors, including the cut of the nib calligraphersand palaeographers. Alternative to all the letters in the alphabet. full A
terms, including those used by typographers,
glossary of the calligraphic terms used in
used to write it. Full information are shown here in brackets. For example, the this book is also included (pp. 122—123).

about tools is given for each script.

6
 INTRODUCTION

This angle indicates the degree of

forward lean of the letter; in this Model scripts
case, the angle 100
is close to
The search for a definitive model
The minim height of hand is virtually
for any particular
this f isfour pen widths The height of the impossible. Within each script there
ascender is about
three pen widths
are endless variations, ranging from
LETTER HEIGHT AND PEN ANGLE the excessively formal to the almost
The height ofa letter is calculated 400 The pen is held at
in pen widths, shown in this book
indecipherable. Therefore the scripts
an angle of 400
to the left of the letter in the form to the horizontal included in the practical pages of
Ofa "ladder". Each script is drawn
with the pen held at one particular
this book are actually a synthesis of
This letter is written
angle. The figures used to indicate with a "slanted" pen various different styles, and should
this angle refer to degrees to the
horizontal. Where relevant, the
(square-cut nib) be used to prompt your own
approximate angle of the forward personal redefinition of the hands.
lean ofa letter is also given. This is
Manuscript sources
measured in degrees to the vertical.
By definition, a script is a system
of handwritten characters, and the
STROKE SEQUENCE
majority of the scripts included in this
A recommended sequence of strokes is given
for all 26 letters of each script. The use of book come from manuscript sources.
transparent colours makes it clear where a An arrow-head
stroke crosses or overlaps with another. indicates where the
Where appropriate, an enlargement
strokefinishes and of a section from an important
the pen is lifted manuscript shown, often revealing
is

the basic ductus of the script under

scrutiny and giving invaluable clues
2 to the construction of letterforms.

Imperial Capitals
One significant script included in this
1 3
book must be regarded separately
from the rest — the Roman Imperial
Capital. A product of the brush and
not the pen, it was, until recently,
Thefirst letter in the sequence The second stroke creates
not accepted as a script at all. Due
shows the model that you should The black arrow indicates the ascender of the letter to its complexity and importance to
follow — in this example, a Caroline the progress of thefirst and, finally, the crossbar is

Minuscule f (pp. 40—41) stroke; on reaching the added with a third stroke
modern calligraphy and typography,
baseline, the pen is pushed it is explored in depth in a section
back over thefirst stroke
The sensitivity ofa quill at the end of the book. For the first
pen makes it an ideal tool and upwards
for drawing hairlines time, the origins and structure of
all 26 letters are demonstrated in an
WRITING TOOLS
Some materials and implements are more easily accessible way (pp. 108—119).
suitable foran accurate representation ofa script Left-handed work
than others. For instance, most scribes writing
before 1500 used either parchment or vellum,
The step-by-step letters demonstrated
which remain to this day two of the finest in this book are the work of a right-
writing surfaces. Frequently, the writing
handed calligrapher. Left-handed
implement of equal importance. For a
is

Båtarde letter (left), it would be difficult to calligraphers can follow the same
achieve the very fine lines with any other angles and stroke sequences, but
implement than a sharply cut quill. Advice
on the selection of surfaces and writing tools might find it useful to adjust their
is given in "Getting Started" (pp. 14—15). normal writing position to the
"underarm" position: tuck the arm
The quill has been shorn of
most of its barbs, making it inwards, turn the hand to the left,
easier to handle
and shift the paper down to the right.
Nibs cut obliquely from top right to
bottom left can also be very useful.

7
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN SCRIPT

The Development of Western Script

HE FIRST ALPHABET evolved in Phoenicia in about 1200 B.C..

This was adapted in the eighth century B.C. by the Greeks,

whose letterforms were borrowed by the Etruscans and, in
turn, by the Romans. All subsequent Western scripts have
evolved from Roman originals. The scripts in this book are
grouped in six categories: Roman and Late Roman Scripts
(pp. 16—27, 108—119), Insular and National Scripts (pp. 28—37),
Caroline and Early Gothic Scripts 38—49), Gothic Scripts
(pp.

(pp. 50—83), Italian and Humanist Scripts (pp. 84—101), and

Post-Renaissance Scripts (pp. 102—107). The duration of
each script is shown in a timeline (pp. 12—13).

ETRUSCAN LETTERS
PROBABLY the most important event These letters have been written in Oscan,
in the history of Western script was an ancient Italian language derived from
Etruscan. In addition to the writing system,
the Roman adoption of the Etruscan
almost every aspect of Etruscan culture was
alphabet. By the first century B.C., the adopted by the Romans, including the legal
Romans had developed several scripts. and military systems.

One was a quickly penned, cursive This terracotta tablet, ofa type used to mark property
scriptused for correspondence, and land, shows clearly recognizable letterforms, such
as this character, which resembles an overturned E
scratched onto a wax tablet or written
with a reed pen on papyrus. This hand
THE LATIN ALPHABET
was influential in the development of
This inscription from the base of the Trajan
the minuscule letter, including the Column, Rome, is one of the finest surviving

Half Uncial (pp. 38—39). Another examples of Imperial Capitals (pp. 108—109).
The oldest Latin alphabet contained 21
key script was the Rustic Capital, characters, as opposed to the Etruscan 20. By

used in manuscript, signwritten, late Roman times, the Latin alphabet had 23
characters, the two additional characters — Y and
and inscribed forms (pp. 16—17). Z — having been taken from the Greek Upsilon
and Zeta. All of these characters have survived
Imperial Capitals
for modern use, with the addition in medieval
The third Roman hand produced by times of letters J, U, and W.
the first century B. C. , now known as
the Imperial Capital, was used in both
stone-carved and brush-drawn form
(pp. 108—109). Over 2,000 years
SENA POPVLVSOVER
later, the letters of the script provide
the basis of our modern capitals.

By the fourth century, the Square

Capital, a modified

had also emerged (pp. 20—21).

de luxe bookhand, A I AISI O b RS
Another important script that had
its origins during the Roman period
IM A \ I IVI IATOTX\/I
was the Uncial (pp. 24—25). Similar
in form to the Greek Uncial that

preceded it, this was developed for

use by the early Christian Church.

8
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN SCRIPT

CHARLEMAGNE AND ALCUIN Insular and National scripts

In many ways the eighth-century Emperor Charlemagne After the demise of the western
modelled himself and his court on his Roman forebears.
Roman influence in the Frankish Empire was particularly Roman Empire in the fifth century,
important in the areas of learning and scholarship, in .0
numerous hands developed in the
which the emperor was aided by a prominent monk from
York named Alcuin. Under Alcuin's abbotship from 796- kingdoms carved out of the remains
804, the great scriptorium at Tours, France, was founded. of the Empire. Irish scripts, such as the
Here, the Caroline Minuscule was created (pp. 38—39).
Insular Majuscule (pp. 28—31), derived
from Uncial and Half Uncial forms,
are now known as "insular" scripts.
Elsewhere in Europe, national scripts
included the Visigothic in Spain and
The rounded tip of the
the Merovingian in France.
penknife suggests that it

was also usedfor scoring The most important means of

communication between different
nations was the Christian Church,
which kept the torch of literacy and
learning alive. Irish monks formed
many monastic centres in Scotland and
northern England, as well as in Luxeuil

and Corbie in France, and Bobbio in

Italy. Meanwhile, monks from Rome

The scribe casts a critical eye over the The production of book covers was The parchment is stretched on a wooden
newly sharpened nib of the quill a separate craft requiring the skills frame and scraped with a curved knife entered southern England and were
ofa team of workers responsible for the widespread
conversion to Christianity there.
THE PRODUCTION Caroline and Early Gothic scripts
OF MANUSCRIITS
These 12th-century illustrations
The first empire in the West to
show some of the processes emerge from the remains of the
involved in the production ofa
medieval book. First, the
Roman Empire was that of Charles
parchment maker would soak the the Great (Charlemagne). By the ninth
skin and then stretch and scrape it.
century, his Frankish Empire stretched
Next, the dried parchment would Once dried and cleaned, the
Thefinished manuscript book lends
be trimmed and scored in parchment trimmed to size
from the Pyrenees to the Baltic. A
authority to the monk's preaching is

preparation for the scribe. The reformed hand devised by Alcuin of

textwould be planned in detail,
with spaces left for the work of
York became the established hand of
the illustrator and illuminator. the empire — it is now known as the
After the scribe had completed his
text, the illuminator would apply
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38—39).
the gold which was then
leaf, Outside the Frankish Empire,
overdrawn by the illustrator.
national hands persisted. In Italy,
Finally, separate leaves were
gathered and bound, and the the Beneventan script was one of the
cover fitted.
longest surviving post-Roman scripts,
The book is bound and the scribe prepares to Teachingfrom written manuscripts
used from the mid-eighth century until
make any necessary annotations to the text was a key aspect of monastic life

1 300 (pp. 84—85). In England, the

Insular and Anglo-Saxon Minuscules
sufficed until the tenth century (pp.
34—35), when the Caroline Minuscule
was introduced. Over time, the
Caroline Minuscule became more

compressed, anticipating the angular,

uniform aspect of Gothic letters. This
Once the leaves of the manuscript The punched holes are joined by scored Small holes are punched through the compressed script is known as Late
are placed in order, they are lines, between which the scribe would parchment, probably to provide
stitched together then write the text guidelinesfor spacing
Caroline or Early Gothic (pp. 46—47).

9
TifL OF JI'ESTERV

Fran quam (tgnum qi plan

tfrfcctt$ dnt tts aqttattt.
GOTHIC TEXTURA SCRIPTS
Textura Prescisus characterized
Gothic scripts is This detail fron) the 13th-century Windinill Psalter
by the "cut ed-certain shows Gothic Te.xtura Prescisus script (pp. 54—55).
Bv the end of the 1 2th century, a
letters, such as this r from Both the Prescisus and its twin script the Quadrata
complex svstem of Gothic scripts the Il'indmil/ Psalter were reserved for prestige religious book work.
had evolved throughout Europe. For 0.0 -

simplicitv, these are often divicled

into two groups: the high-quality

(de luxe), formal hands used for
both religious and secular book
text, and the cursive hands used for
documentary work and, from the
NCIPIT PREFATO PLN11VERC)NéNSiBADTIVÅAV
ov.srvm 1>PERATOÄEhl LBROS NAIVML> HISTORIE
late

1 3th centurv, for vernacular book

1','0Rvm
production. The two most important
ttbl
de luxe bookhands were the Textura
Quadrata (pp. 50 51) and its fivin,

the Prescisus (pp. 5#55).

Bastard scripts
Gothic cursive scripts are known as mea

bastard scripts, and they remained

in use until supplanted by the
Copperplate in the 1 8th century
pta
(pp. 102003), some 200 years after
the demise of the formal Gothic utte- mtttatttr

bookhands. Bastard hands are tuclO rufi ut-

difficult to categorize, differing from Qi tRttitt• ttb' tnnOfha

occ ryrofrn ttt.i 10tNttfcr
country to countrv, tmvn to town,
and trade to trade. I-10\vever, general
(liflörences can easily be discerned 't tCtttm

benseen English (pp. 66 67), French ltqd•tmyrtator ttukO fitnt• Of'lftctti

C
(pp. and German (pp. 7-V75) tittle

nonet•aCtnKx rutar•e
models. It 'svas in bastard text script /tltltt y, tnvuttaltå
A•fenAttttr net 6
that minuscules and capitals of the
f't•ttnttCCOnc4tAtr

same hand first appeared together

ttnttifctttttft. CODttnentt•
cutup-tatto
the Gothic Capitals used to ntffiqnunttt
o trr
begin new sentences and denote
proper nouns (pp. 5S 59).

I-IUMANIST MINUSCULE
This nnnuscript page fronl a translation
of Pliny's Natural shows beautitillly
Histor)'
penned I-lunnnist Minuscule letters. The
handwritten Renaissance script was used as a
Inodel for type by 15th-century Venetian
'7 00
printers. It quickly replaced the Gothic tnodels
favoured by Johann Gutenberg, the Gennan
inventor of printing with tnovable type.

10
 THE OF JI'ESTERX' SCRIPT

BASTARI) SC

This page is front a Book of Hours Italian and Humanist scripts

produced in France after the introduction In Italv, the formal Gothic scripts
of printing. Ownership ofa handwritten
ftcC1öt[aattue. .Q book at this tillie was an indication of never really secured a footing. Italian

1 "v. w high social status. The elegant script is letterforms of this period — generallv
tt6t a late Båtarde hand known as Lettrc
bv the name of Rotunda
Bourguignonne (pp. 70—71), which
contains a tni.xture of cursive and (pp. 84—85) were rounder, \Vith a
"0616.
Textura elenu•nts.
much more open aspect than their
n06teÄ3[t16.
Båtarde letter f has Gothic contemporaries.
a distinctivefornurd lean, as By a revised version of the
docs the long /brm us
onnnclßcfu Caroline Minuscule script knmvn as
MODERN CALLIGRAPHY the Humanist Minuscule had become
cutcnnct This three-dilnensional work, which
lilttr the established hand of the
Ineasures 24 by 35 by 5 centintetres (9'/2
by 14 by 2 inches), was created in 1993 Renaissance (pp. 90—91). Eventuallv,
by Denis Brown. Entitled Phoenix, the
page of Insular letters — rerniniscent of the
its adaption for type made it the
great tnanuscnpts of Kells and Lindisfarne pre-eminent letterform in Europe,
(pp. 28—3 1) — has been penetrated by and its use continues to the present
electric wires as a rnetaphor of the
phoenix creating new life fiorn the old.
day. A variant of the Humanist
Minuscule that also remains in use

is the Italic (pp. 94—95). Devised as

a manuscript hand in 1420, it

adapted for type by 1500.

Post-Renaissance scripts
The final script of significance
is the Copperplate (pp. 102—103).
As the name suggests, this was
originally a hand engraved or etched
on sheets of copper. Typified bv
delicately joined loops and exotic
proportions, this cursive letter could
be engraved 'svith far greater ease than
it could be drawn. Hmvever, in its

simpler handwritten form, the

Copperplate did have the advantage
of being very fast to pen and, bv the
1 9th century, it was the standard
script of business and education.
Modern calligraphy
A modern calligraphy revival began
at the beginning of the 20th century
with the pioneering of Echvard
Johnston in England (pp. 42—43) and
Rudolf von Larisch and Rudolf Koch
•oocfl
in Germany (pp. 7*U75). Since the
1950s, interest in calligraphy has
proliferated in many cultures, both
those with and without Latin-based
alphabets. During the last 20 years,
as calligraphers have explored and
redefined letterforms, calligraphy has
become an art form in its own right.

11
SCRIPT TIMELINE

Date (A.D.)

Script 100 ZHrmreN-,

Timeline OLD ROMAN
CURSIVE
GREEK UNCIAL
200
Key
Grey
Dotted
line:

line:
Chief line of influence
Duration of script for text
EILIUS
IV71ite line: Duration of script for use 300
UNCIAL
other than for text

400
NEW ROMAN
CISNi1iccnCU Formordl
CURSIVE HALF UNCIAL CURSIVE HALF UNCIAL

500
INSULAR MINUSCULE

tgtcc tBddcnpccct cteötmtlf.tpft myltquathe

1 BENEVENTAN MINUSCULE LUXEUIL
VISIGOTHIC
1
700 MINUSCULE 1
1
1
1
MINUSCULE
1 pscZudi
INSULAR
1
MAJUSCULE
800 1 1

900
1
1
1
1 CAROLINE bApctfmo tohxn 1

1 1 MINUSCULE

1 1
1 ooo 1 1

1100 1 1
1

EARLY
1200
t•omtnt 1
GOTHIC

ROTUNDA 1
1300 1
pontificmmumn Ctrtnu
1 TEXTURA TEXTURA
1 1
1 1 PRESCISUS QUADRATA
1400 1
1
1

1
1
1500 1
1

1600

1700

1800

1900

FOUNDATIONAL HANI)
2000 (BRITISH CALLIGRAPHIC
REVIVAL)
ith the ho

12
 SCRIPT TIMELINE

SENATVSPOP
IMPERIAL RUSTIC CAPITALS 1
1
CAPITALS 1
1
1

1
1 1
1

cliG
1
1
IMPROB•LTDVR 1

SQUARE CAPITALS
1
1

1
1
hetqtu 1 1
RUNIC CAPITALS

1 1
1 1
1

1 INSULAR I)ISPLAY I
1 CAPITALS 1
1 1
1
1
1

LOMBARDIC CAPITALS
1
1

1 HUMANIST MINUSCULE
1
1
BASTARD 1 gulas nodes lea
SECRETARY 1
1 ITALIC

1
fl(olto gnorm
8e90ntutc 1

BATARI)E FRAKTUR

COPPERPLATE

1 1

1 1
1
1

(;ERMAN
CALLIGRAPHIC
I 1
REVIVAL

1
1

13
GETTING STARTED

Getting Started
HE ART OF CALLIGRAPHY begins with the tools
and materials, and these should be selected
with great care. Often, a struggle to achieve
a good result is an indication that the chosen
surface or writing tool is unsuitable. Owing to
a widespread revival of interest in calligraphy,

there is now an enormous range of pens, paper,

and other equipment available. Here, basic
information is given on the types of surfaces
and writing implements you can use, and also
on how to make the two traditional types of SURFACES
For practice
pen the reed pen and the quill. and trying out
initial ideas, a

The reed pen lightweight designer's

The reed pen and the quill (opposite) have been used since antiquity. Although layout paper is ideal. For
both have now been superseded by other writing implements, the reed pen more formal work, good-quality s.

remains an ideal tool for expressive calligraphy. It is usually made from a paper is important — preferably a

hollow-stenmmed garden cane (Phragntitis conununis), but some calligraphers stnooth, close-grained and acid-
use a synthetic material, such as plastic tubing, instead. A sharp craft knife free type. Vellurn, made from
is required to make a reed pen — always take the greatest care when using it.
calfskin or goatskin, is the finest material A selection of handmade
for writing, with parchment a close second, and machine-made papers

WRITING IMPLEMENTS
In addition to the reed pen and quill, there is a huge range of Use a small

writing impletnents from which the calligrapher can choose. pointed

Fibre-tipped pens are ideal for trying out ideas, while, for sable brush

flexibilityand economy, detachable nibs are an excellent for drawing

option. The
use ofa fountain pen guarantees a constant supply built-up
letters
of ink, although a spring-loaded dip pen is more
convenient for changing ink Spring-loaded
colours easily. A broad-edged dip pens are

brush is essential for constructing The calligraphic idealfor large-

fountain pen is
scale work
Irnperial
A standard one of the most
Capitals (pp.
1. Cut a length of cane about 18 2. On the reverse side of the cane, 110-119). pen holder can convenient tools

directly underneath the first cut, it a variety

centi:netres (7 inches) long. Use a
make a shorter cut to create the of detachable
strong craft knife to make a cut about flat
nibs (opposite)
4 centimetres (1 1/2 inches) long to top of the pen nib. Next, remove A fibre-tipped
reveal the hollow centre of the cane. any pith from the core of the cane. pen is idealfor

preliminary vvork

4 c
CUC' o

z
3.Return to the underside of the pen 4. Finally, make a longitudinal cut
and carve shoulders between the two about centimetres (1/2 inch) long
cuts. Make a square or oblique cut through the centre of the nib — this
across the top of the nib as desired (see will make the flow of ink easy. The
"Straight" and "slanted" pens, opposite). reed pen is now ready to use.

14
 GETTING STARTED

The quill
Although the quill is probably the finest of all writing tools, it is not as
convenient as other implements and requires more practice in handling.
Being ofa softer material than a steel nib or a reed pen, it requires gentler
pressure than you would expect, but the subtlety of line that it produces
is far superior to that of other pens. Turkey, goose, or swan feathers are

the rnost useful, and duck or crow may also be used for formal work.

USING A WHETSTONE
To sharpen a steel nib, hold the pen
at 450 to the whetstone and stroke
the top side along the stone.

DETACHABLE NIBS

Pointed Copperplate
steel nib
1. Cut the shaft of the feather to a 2. Holding the shaft finnly,make a
length of about centitnetres long, sweeping cut on the underside
Speedball
(7 Y, inches) and carefully strip the of the quill. Carefully tnake a second
oblique-cut nib
barbs froin it using a scalpel or cut to shape the shoulders and pare
sharp craft knife. the edges to fortn the tip.
Mitchell

square-cut nib

Detachable reservoir
for 'Ifitchell nib

Parchment is madefrom
sheepskin. and is tougher
and morefibrous than vellum
A long, broad-
Use a reed
A broad-edged edged sable or
penfor
synthetic or synthetic brush
expressive
sable brush is is usedfor
calligraphy
essentialfor large-scale
Imperial Imperial is the most

Capitals Capitals traditional 3. Make a short longitudinal cut 4. Place the tip of the quill on a
of tools through the centre of the nib to ease cutting surface and carefully cut across
the flow of ink. Rernove the pith the shaft to create the nib edge. Make
from the centre of the pen and any a square cut for a "slanted" pen and an
rennining material on the outside, oblique cut for a "straight" pen (1'€'1011').

"STRAIGHT" AND "SLANTED" PENS

Throughout this book, there are references to "straight" and "slanted"
pens. This can cause confusion, as the Ineaning of these tertns appears to
be contradictory. The "straight" pen is held horizontally, producing thick
steins and thin horizontal strokes. The "slanted" pen is held at an angle of
about 300, creating horizontal and vertical strokes of sirnilar weight.

A "straight "pen has an oblique-cut nib. "slanted" pen has a square nib, cut
cut at an angle of about 700 to the at right angles to the shag it is ideal

shaft it is ideal for scripts such as for scripts such as the Caroline

the Ilalf Uncial (pp. 40—41 ) .lfjnusculc (pp.

15
 ROMAN LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Rustic Capitals
F THE CALLIGRAPHER of today is sometimes
confused by the rich variety of scripts available,
both modern and historical, then the opposite
must have been true for the scribe of the early
Roman period, who had only three basic hands.
The was the magnificent Imperial Capital
first

the most complex of all scripts, used in stone-

cut form on the great monuments of state (pp.

108—109). Secondly, for everyday needs, there

was the cursive script — the quickly executed
hand used by everyone writing in the Latin
language. Thirdly, there was the Rustic Capital,
an elegant alternative to the Imperial Capital
and popular with both signwriter and scribe.
FROM THE FIRST TO the fifth century,
the Rustic Capital was used for de luxe
manuscripts, particularly works by The nib would have been
held at a near verticalfor
Virgil. After the fifth century, it lost
the upright strokes
favour as a manuscript hand, although
its use for titles continued for centuries
afterwards. As far as is known, the VERGILIUS
script was not used for Christian ROMANUS,
ECLOGA II
literature, and the conversion of
This magnificent and
Rome to Christianity in A.D. 31 3, rare example ofa
with its attendant use of the Uncial Virgil manuscript in
Rustic Capitals dates
(pp. 24—25), may be one reason for the from the second half
demise of the Rustic as a bookhand. of the fifth century.
The words are
Rustic Capitals also served as stone- separated by a punctus
cut letters, often used in conjunction (mid-point), instead
of the scriptura continua
with Imperial Capitals on the less
(continuous script)
prestigious monuments. typical of this period,

THE HIERARCHY OF
Rustic Capitals were used for
until the late 12th century
SCRIPTS
titles

as part of
I N c L r 1 r TfRTlVS•
a so-called "hierarchy of scripts".
Rustics were used for chapter
openings, Uncials for the
followed in example by a fine
this
first lines,
no+-t tnt.ucsrn • ecfobLaboretn LB-enaum m tnuenAum
Caroline Minuscule text (pp. 38—39).
Xnouotncboxcur;xordto rerum-nm en fecundi • rerptcrr
emet-fönx ettan

16
 RUSTIC CAPITALS

Writing materials
The fact that we have evidence of the
The pen or brush is

held at an angle of Rustic Capital in both manuscript and

400for the broad
signwritten form shows that two
diagonal stroke
different writing implements were
used. The script would have been
written with equal fluency with either
Rusnc CAPITAL R a reed pen — or after the fourth
The execution of
the letter R begins
century, a quill — or a brush. The
with a twist of the brush used would have been a broad-
pen at the head
edged, flexible sable, held at a near-
of the stem.
upright angle to create the thin stems
and broad horizontal strokes.
A simple ductus
The basic difference between the
Imperial and the Rustic lies in the
complexity of the stroke weight.
The strokes of the Imperial are even,
with no sharp contrasts in weight.
Thefeet of the letter turn slightly downwards
This effect requires numerous changes
beforefinishing with an upwardflick
in tool angle (pp. 110—119). The
The portrait illustration shows Virgil
ductus of the Rustic is simpler to
sitting beside a lectern, with a capsa pen, with a pronounced difference
for storing scrolls to his left
in stroke weight between the
thick and thin strokes.
Calligraphicgourishes
occur on the F, X, and L

VS 2VlCfffRlxlit1MTS

INN$tISmrlvs1N

NII vSi1tle€StNvs PAPYRUS LEAF

Papyrus was the principal
writing surface for over 3,000
years until the late Rornan
period. It was made by
The interlinear gloss has been OSfREVßfKfi1NVS pounding together
written in a modern Italic two strips of
hand (pp. 9'V95) INS11VSctD.UT1å1 papyrus leaf laid
at right angles
PETER HALLIDAY to each other.
This modern version of Virgil's Eclogue VII,
wHtten in black ink on cream paper, was penned
by Peter Halliday in 1983. Note the contrast he
achieves between the broad horizontal and
diagonal strokes and the thin verticals. DETAIL FROM VERGILIUS
ROMANUS, ECLOGA 11

17
ROMAN 80 LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Rustic Capitals
HE DUCTUS OF the Rustic Capital is different from the other
3
hands shown in this book in that the pen angle can be as steep

as 850 to the horizontal for the thin vertical strokes. This angle
1 2 TieBisa
is relaxed to nearer 450 for the foot serifs and diagonal strokes.
tall letter and
Therefore, from the top of the stem to the beginning of the foot, rises above

the pen must twist as much as 400, and this transition is the key to the headline

well executed Rustic Capitals. With its serif, thin stem, and broad
foot, the L (below) typifies many Rustic letters. The letter height is 3

generally between four and six pen widths, but can reach seven.
2

1 2
I. Using a square-cut pen nib, 2. Pull the pen downwards to the
begin the serif of the letter L by right, while twisting the nib from 650
pushing downwards with the broad to almost vertical at the line of the

edge of the nib. The pen angle stem. Without lifting the pen, begin
3
should be about 650 for this stroke. drawing the fine stroke of the stem.

The second
stroke of the
500 1 3
tall F rises

above the
headline
3. At about halfway to the baseline, 4. Lift the pen, turn it to 450, and add
anticipate the foot serif by gradually the foot serif in one firm, downward
4
turning the pen to about 500. This diagonal sweep. The is a major
foot
will create the distinctive Rustic element in the script for it leads the
thickening of the stem base. eye forward to the next letter.

This broad sweeping

curve is drawn in one
smooth stroke with a
pen angle of 45-500
Tltis altemative 2
form of G is

Diagonal sweep used on the

It is the repetition of the bottom line Of I

downward sweeping a page of text 3

strokes, combined
with the near-diagonal
Alternative G
strokes of the feet,
that gives the Rustic .5
Capital its characteristic
rhythm. These strong 1
3
strokes provide a 4
counterpoint to the
fine vertical stems.

18
 RUSTIC CAPITALS

2
The stem
This is the 1 2 of the J is

modem identical to

form ofJ that of the I

3
2 3

The serif of
the tall L
rises above
the headline

3
5

2 2
This form of Y is

1 used for all text 1

except the bottom

line Of a page

3
3

4
2 Use this form

Of Y only on 1 2
the bottom line
1
Alternative Y ofa page of text

3 3

3 Z could
1
altematively be

1 completed in a
2
Single stroke
4

19
ROMAN LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Square Capitals
S A LATE FOURTH-CENTURY Roman hand without
precedent or descendents, the stately Square Capital
awkwardly into the evolutionary
(Capitalis Quadrata) falls
pattern of Roman scripts. Because very few examples survive
from this period, the duration of its use and the development
of its style are subject to conjecture. The script remains, Small serifs are
SQUARE CAPITAL M
drawn with the The broad downward
however, one of great dignity, its grace owing largely to the corner efthe pen nib
strokes of the M typify
the Square Capital letter.

openness of the letterforms and the clear letter separation.

Parchment was stretched across a wooden frame and
the residualflesh removed with a circular knife

IT IS OFTEN BELIEVED that the Square PARCHMENT MAKER

Capital originated as an attempt to In Rome, parchment was an established rival

to papyrus by A.D. 300 and was the principal

interpret the brush-drawn Roman surface for writing late Roman manuscripts,

Imperial Capital (pp. 108—109) in such as the Codex Vaticanus 3256 (opposite).

It was invented in Pergarnon, Asia Minor,

pen-drawn form. However, the thick in response to an Egyptian trade embargo in
downstrokes and hairline horizontal 197-158 B.C. that cut off the supply of papyrus.

strokes of the Square Capital point to

the use of a horizontally held pen, in SAN SEBASTIANO PLAQUE
The inscription on this plaque in the Church
contrast to the angle of 300 required 42 of San Sebastiano, Rome, dates from between
to produce the visually balanced the years 366 and 384. Notice the imaginative
vertical and horizontal strokes of the ligatures of certain letters, such as N-T, H-R,
V-A, and T-E, and the way some letters
Imperial Capital. This suggests that have been inserted inside others.
the Square Capitalmay have been
derived from another source.
EVTSi'
Contemporary influences FICVMQYIAS•PARITRTVNCMILLENOCNDI
It is perhaps more likely that scribes ik2VO»POTVITMONSTR4VITGtonracrniS11
sw•iting in Square Capitals looked for ISINLVVIÉMSEQVJTVRNO'BPOÉNAPEBARWS
inspiration to contemporary carved TESTA \VMFRÄCMNTAPAIXASNESOMNVSADIRET
lettering, rather than to the brush-
R.INBARATERVMSANGVSLAWTOMNIASANGIS
created capitals of their predecessors.
VViNERAQAHNTVLEnATMORTISNÆTVEN)APOTSVAS
One such example is the fourth-
century plaque in the Church of San
NO CTESOPORIVERATVRBANTINSOM
pSTENDITLXÉBRA•1NSONTISQ'AEVVMBIÄATENRET
Sebastiano, Rome (right), in which
stroke angle and letter proportion EXPRE
coincide with the manuscript hand.

20
 SQUARE CAPITALS

CODEX VATICANUS 3256

This manuscript of Virgil's Georgics was
written in Square Capitals in the late fourth
century. Perhaps one reason why it has
survived is that it was written on parchment
instead of the more fragile papyrus. Because
of the scarcityof examples of Square Capitals,
it is difficult to assess the duration of the
hand, and there is no evidence to suggest that
it survived beyond the early fifth century.

v .Ni [ IN.XiA11 RRAf

Surviving examples
Only two known surviving examples
PROB DVAISSV of Square Capitals exist, compared
[RRO.XIOR'AI lsv to some 400 of the other late Roman

bookhand, the Uncial (pp. 24—25).

Both manuscripts are de luxe texts
of Virgil dating from the fourth
century. One is the Codex Vaticanus
3256 (left), housed in the Vatican
Library, the other a text from the
monastery of St. Gall, Switzerland.
From this scant evidence, it is clear

that the Square Capital was the

Avr most shortlived of Roman scripts,
1 .XCVX vst and palaeographers are forced
[V S>OtAVERfQS'YXs
J
to conclude that in terms of
the evolution of calligraphy the
hand represents a blind alley.

Time-consuming work
One reason for the short life of the
Square Capital is the time it would
have taken scribes to write each
letter. The multiple angle changes and
difficult serif constructions require

considerable patience (pp. 22—23).

DETAIL FROM CODEX VATICANUS 3256 While such time-consuming labour
Instead of the more common In this detail, it is clear that the script is written may have been acceptable for titles, it
thickfirst stroke of the letter R, without word division and punctuation. On the fine
a hairline stroke has been used upright strokes of A, N, M, R, and V, the pen is
would have been highly uneconomical
turned from horizontal to vertical, which produces a for text, particularly in comparison
strong contrast in stroke proportions. The triangular
with the more practical Uncial
The tall L is oftenfound in serifs that terminate the hairline strokes have been
inscriptions and manuscripts added with the corner of the pen nib. or the Rustic Capital (pp. 16—17).
from the latefourth century

fNSIN u r, NLGLSJAs
21
ROMAN 8eLATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

1 2

Square Capitals
HE SQUARE CAPITAL is characterized by a combination of Use the comer of the nib

add the serifs of the A

broad strokes — both straight and curved — delicate hairlines, to

and neat serifs. Of the dominant broad strokes, the diagonal is

themost difficult to draw, involving a pen twist as great as 450 1

2
The simpler vertical strokes are made with a single movement
3
of the pen, held almost horizontally. upright hairline strokes
occur on the letters A, M, N, R, W, and X and can be made Use the comer of the nib
by skating the wet ink from the main stem stroke. to add the serif Of the C
2

Begin the 1

curve of the C
with the edge
Of the nib

Drag the tail of the C

with the comer of the nib

1 2

Most Square The corner Basic elements

Capitals are of the nib the Square Capital letter is about four
about four pen is used for pen widths high, with the letters F and
L drawn slightly higher than the rest. 2
widths high adding the
serifs
The script is best drawn with a reed
pen or a square-cut steel nib. 1

Complex letters
The perfectly balanced 2
letter N one of the
is

most complex letters in

the hand. It consists of F is a tall
1 3
one broad diagonal, two letter, rising

hairline verticals and slightly above

three serifs. A series of the headline

angle changes is required

for its construction.
4
2
1. Begin the N with a 2. Make a small

pen angle of about 450, horizontal stroke on the

progressively turning headline, then pull the 1
3
the pen to the vertical wet ink downwards
as it reaches the baseline. with the edge of the nib.

1 2

3. Return to the 4. Now draw the 5. Still using the corner 'I]tis letter J 1 1 Drag the tail of the

headline and build leading vertical stroke of the nib,add the serif is a modem J with the corner of

up the serif under with the corner of the at the head of the construction the nib

the horizontal stroke. nib and add the serif. diagonal stroke.
2

22
 SQUARE CAPITALS

3 2

2
1 1
4

Use the comer of the nib Twist the pen from 450 to
tc draw the serif of the K almost horizontal for the Wiis letter U is a
diagonal stroke of the K modem construction

1
The L is a tall letter,
1 2
rising slightly above
the headline

2
Twist the pen slightly for Use the comer of the nib Twist the pen from 900 to 450
the diagonal stroke of the M 5 to add the serifs of the M 4 3

Use the corner

3 of the nib to

1 4 2 draw the serifs

Of the Y

Twist the pen from 900 to 450

7 3 for the diagonal stroke of the W 5 6 7
Use the

Twist the pen from comer of

450 to the vertical the nib for
6 2 the serifs
for the diagonal 1
1
stroke of the N 2 oftheW
3 4
Use the comer of the nib to The two diagonal hairlines of the
draw the serifs of the N W can extend below the baseline
3

Use the comer

1 2 1 2 of the nib to

draw the serifs

of the X

Use the comer

2 2
1 of the nib to

add the serif

of the Y

The Q is made from the O, with

an additional stroke for the tail
2
2 Slightly
twist the Use the corner
1 3
pen for of the nib to

the tail add the serifs

of the Q 5 ofthez

3 The elegance of Square

71te third and Capitals is assisted by

Use the comer of generous inter-letter
1 fourth strokes of
the nib for the
4 the R can be spacing and by interlinear
serif of the R combined spacing that equals the
letter height
2
Use the comer of the nib to

add the top serif of the S 2

4
3
For the final
stroke Of the
twist the
anti-clockwise
towards the
main stroke
S
pen
GEORGICS
Two lines of Square Capitals

23
ROMAN SC LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Uncial & ARTIFICIAL UNCIAL A

Broad diagonal and
strokes, contrasted
vertical
with
delicate hairlines, typify

Artificial Uncial Artificial Uncial letters.

The Artificial Uncialform ofa

HE ROMAN UNCIAL script (Littera Uncialis) is dragn with the pen held

originated in the second or third century near to the horizontal

A.D., possibly in North Africa. Although its

beginnings are subject to conjecture, there Hairline strokes should bc

10
are noticeable similarities with the Greek drann asfinely as possible,

using the left corner of the nib

scecrpmes
Uncial — a-curved, functional script that had oytcmpbllappuscvxscll.osscev
coli-ccvxsssoöos

been used since the third century B.C. and

Paragraph openings arc preceded
sti.cgutql•
was the official hand of the Christian Church. by a larger letter in the margin
Flöet VR01.•es-
t•txscbxncNt•
By the second century, Christianity was uxsuperuusl.ccjuo»e-st
quosiNORötNCRCCLXUJV
increasing in influence throughout the unel.yuseélscs baccu.x,xpuv
UNCIAL SCRIPT
Roman Empire, and it is likely that the early This econotnical Uncial script
was written in about 450. The
Christians consciously adapted the Greek pen is held at 300, giving a cost
well-mannered, flowing quality
Uncial to the Latin language as a script to the text. The text is written

appropriate for their new religion. (without

as scriptura continua
spaces between words), which
was conunon for this period.

THE UNCIAL SCRIPT was brought to

southern England from Rome by the The revisions in the first line

seem to have been made by

missionary St. Augustine in the year a later, untutored hand
597. Its name, meaning "inch" or
"inch-high letter", is attributed to
St. Jerome, a translator and compiler + CC NOBI
of the Vulgate (common) Bible. He
possibly used it as a term of derision, CICNCR.XP,ILCSXIUXTORIS
c.xpcrr c:e.cl.csl.x versefrom the Codex
in objection to the common practice The dedicatory
Amiatinus shous typicallyfine serifed

of wasting parchment by using large öcötc.xr xl--r.x r.löcs Artificial Uncial letters

letters for de luxe books.

] PCTRCIS
Origins of minuscules CODEX AMIA TI.VUS
The beginnings of our modern lower- .xr,nxs The Codex Anliatinus Bible
was written in Weannouth
case letters can be discerned in the Öc-(JOT1
and Jarrow before 716.
Uncial script. The letters d, h, and I Initiated by Abbot Coefrid,
(DITTO this itnposing book is the
rise above capital height while i, f, n, earliest known Bible in
p, q, and r drop below the baseline. A Latin and was produced
further departure from the capital for presentation to Pope
p.vrms: Gregory Although
II.
form is the absence of any elaborate mistakes occur in the first,

serif constructions. This simplicity

INC.xcl.ls cocmoneo» second, and fifth lines, the
remaining script is a tour
makes the uncial, together with the SCQ)PCR bx IBCR(.• Locum deforce of the Artificial

Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38—39) and Uncial. The finely drawn

hairlines and delicate serif;
the Foundational Hand (pp. 42=13),
are ofa superior quality to
ideal for learning the basics of pen those in the Vespasian
Psalter (opposite).
handling and calligraphy.
 NS OCItCNSOR
O ANT
.c,XRN'CS
IPSI INFIR(DXCISUNT e•rc ec, IOCRCJNT•

S ICON'SISI%XN'T c,xsTRx
.00
IN boc eco speexB0•
XONOI)NN'C Req(11R.xo»
IN'Oomo ONI OICI%US • Tetus.

I •r ONI
UOYXBHCON'OIT(DC ISTNISCRNXCUI.OSUO

fN%PCTRN
u,scxcrreo» supeR1
cope
cosoyeos CIRCUII',O D
i : el(ls'bos-ri

THE VESPASIAN PSALTER The interlinear gloss n•as

The Vespasian Psalter was written at St. Augustine's added jn the ninth century Artificial Uncial
Abbey, Canterbury, in the early eighth century. The The Uncial hand well established
interlinear gloss contains the earliest known copy of
the Psahns in English. The opening D
frotn Psahn
in Britain by the time the twin abbeys
26, showing the figuresof David and Jonathan, is DETAIL FROM THE VESPASIAN PSALTER of Wearmouth and Jarrow were
the earliest exarnple ofa historiated initial in The serifs in this detail are slightly bolder
than those in the Codex Amiatinus
founded in 674 and 682 respectively.
Western manuscripts. The illtuninated title is

written in built-up Rornan capitals. (opposite), which indicates the use Soon, the monks of Wearmouth,
ofa less sharply cut quill.
Jarrow, and Southumbria (England
south of the River Humber) were
producing manuscripts of a quality
Cl NONOPb,vNC equal to that anywhere else in Europe.
Their work included the landmark
INOO(DO ONI 01Gbus Bible the Codex Amiatinus (opposite).
However, the hand they were using
T eel was not the Uncial of St. Jerome, but
a highly intricate and serifed version,
with thin horizontal and thick vertical
XBSCON'O rrcoc strokes, and serifs reminiscent of those

on Square Capitals 20—21). This

(pp.
INNIbSCON01V1 extremely beautiful calligraphic hand
.1%Oß. is known variously as Artificial Uncial,
Late Uncial, or Romanising Uncial
of the Canterbury Stvle.

25
ROMAN 8. LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Uncial & Artificial Uncial

Draw the hairline loop
HE UNCIAL IS A practical writing hand and as such presents
with the corner of the nib
no difficulties to pen. The Artificial uncial, however, is

2
subject to considerable elaboration involving many pen twists The second and
and changes of angle. Both forms of the script are regarded as third strokes of

bilinear — written between two horizontal lines — but they the B can be
combined
show the beginnings of a tendency that ultimately leads to the

development of our lower-case letters: F, I, N, P, Q, and R drop Uncial B Artificial Uncial B

below the baseline, and D, H, and L rise above the headline. For the second
stroke of the C,
twist the nib anti-

clockwise and drag

2 the ink downwards

Uncial C Artificial Uncial C Pull out the tail of the C

30 with the corner of the nib

Uncial Artificial Uncial

2
Basic differences easily penned with a
The Uncial letter is steel nib. The more
written with a pen angle complex Artificial Uncial D Artificial Uncial D
of 300. Simpler in Uncial letter is written
construction than the with a pen angle of 100. The Artificial Uncial
2 For the serifs
Artificial variety, it It can be penned with E could be enclosed
of the E,
can be quickly and a steel nib or a quill.
twist the nib
3
anti-clockwise
Pen twists and drag the
In the Artificial Uncial, the ink downwards
characteristic pen twist that Uncial E Artificial Uncial E
occurs on the serifs of letters

G E, F, G, K, L, N, and T can 2
be executed simply and quickly. To draw the serifs
of the F, twist the
nib anti-clockteise

1. Begin by drawing a and drag the ink

horizontal hairline stroke, downwards
using the full length of the nib.

2. On reaching the end of the Uncial F Artificial Uncial F

2
stroke, gradually twist the pen anti-
clockwise from the horizontal to
near vertical and lift. The resultant
1
serif is indented, with a small blob
visible at the top right-hand corner.

Complete the
curve and tail
Uncial G Artificial Uncial G of the G in a
single stroke
Blob

Indentation
1 2

Uncial H Artificial Uncial H

The serif can be left teith the
blob and indentation still visible Modern Modern Artificial

Uncial J Uncial J
The I and J are draten

3. The serif can be neatened in a single stroke

1
by using the corner of the pen
Drag out the tail of
nib to draw a hairline stroke
the I and J teith the
back up to the headline. This
comer the nib
extension is then filled in with ink. Uncial I Artificial
Uncial I

26
 UNCIAL & ARTIFICIAL UNCIAL
2
On the third
stroke, twist
To draw the serifs
1
1 of the S, twist the
the nib to the
nib anti-clockwise
horizontal
and drag the

Uncial K Artificial Uncial K 3 Drag out the tail Uncial S Artificial Uncial S ink downtvards

of the K with the

3

comer of the nib

Uncial L The Artificial 3
2
resembles a version retains For the serif of
1 T,
minuscule letter the appearance At the end of the the tteist the

ofa capital second stroke of nib anti-clockwise

the L, tteist the and drag the

Uncial L Artificial nib anti-clocktvise Uncial T Artificial Uncial T ink downwards

2
Uncial L and drag the ink
downwards
Both forms of M have a

u
minuscule appearance

Uncial M Artificial Uncial M Uncial U Artificial Uncial U

Cll
These forms of V are
On the Jirst
modern constructions

N
stroke Of the

Uncial N Artificial Uncial N Uncial V Artificial Uncial V

Begin the first stroke of the
N at 450 and twist to a

00
These forms of NV are
near vertical angle
modern constructions

O
Uncial O Artificial Uncial O Uncial W Artificial Uncial W
3

Tie bowl Of the Uncial P is more

2
open than that of the Artificialfonn For the serif of

p
the X, twist

the nib anti-

clockwise and
drag the ink
doti'ntvards
Drag the tail of the P to the
Uncial X Artificial
Uncial P Artificial left with the corner of the nib Uncial X 3 They is
Uncial P 2 dotted
*Ile second

Uncial Y
Uncial Q Artificial Uncial Q 2
2 T7tis altemative

Alternative

Uncial Q
3
Uncial Z Artificial
Uncial Z
Fonn both serifs of the Z by
"Ile simpler twisting the nib anti-clockteise and
Uncial Z can dragging the ink downteards

Drag the tail be penned in

3 to the right
a single stroke

with the comer

of the nib
Uncial R
27
 punpeuessv»u quo:nurn
Ipsonum
(Scra

Ipsi consutllbulxcmnv—
Cisrauuc,
quoi Ticun

Oca Inuuao
ITOsg

g' uocut»uucurx—.: :.o:

 INSULIR MAJUSCULE

Insular Majuscule
HE INSULAR MAJUSCULE (Insular Half uncial) derives its
name from its origins in the islands of Britain and Ireland.
INSULAR MAJUSCULE F
"Insular" is from the Latin for "island", and "Majuscule" refers The principal characteristic
of the
to the height of the letters, much larger and bolder than those is
Insular Majuscule letter
the wedge-shaped serif on

of the complementary Insular Minuscule (pp. 34 35). the headline (pp. 32—33).

As a prestige hand, the Insular Majuscule is characterized

by letters drawn slowly and carefully, with many lifts of
the pen (pp. 32—33). In early medieval Britain and Ireland,
it was the favoured hand for sacred manuscripts written
Thc thickened base is created by

in Latin, including two of the most beautiful books ever moving the pen slightly to the

right gfthc stem and then pushing

produced, the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells. it up to the midtvay• point

BEATITUDES PAGE FROM THE BOOK OF KELLS IF EVER THERE WAS a golden
The border of this page from the Book of Kells combines
the eight initial bs and incorporates both zoomorphic and
age of calligraphy, it was the
anthropomorphic decoration. The horizontal stroke over "spu" beginning of the eighth century,
in the first line denotes an abbreviation of "spiritu" ("breath of
when Northumbria was one
God"). The horizontal stroke is a device used by scribes for oft-
repeated words. Also typical is the letter n in the 13th line, which Careful study of the thinner of the most flourishing centres
has been extravagantly extended in order to fill space. The use Of ink on the f gives clues to
of art and scholarship in western
red dots to outline initials and ornament text is more sensitive and the construction of Insular
restrained here than in the Lindisfarne Gospels (pp. 3(E31). Majuscule letters
Europe. Interaction between
scriptoriums of the twin Augustinian
monasteries Jarrow and Wearmouth
(see the Codex Amiatinus, p. 24)
and that at Celtic Lindisfarne (see

s huf
the Lindisfarne Gospels, pp. 30—31)
led to the production of some of the
greatest achievements of medieval art.

The Book of Kells

The Book of Kells was written at
some time in the second half of the
eighth century and the early years of
the ninth century, probably by Irish-
Northumbrian monks. Its place of
origin is shrouded in uncertainty and
the first record we have of its existence
is an account of its theft in 1006 from
the monastery of Kells in Ireland.
The four illuminated Gospel texts
in the Book of Kells were written
by at least three scribes in insular

versions of Uncial (pp. 24—25) and

THE GOSPEL OF ST. MARK Half Uncial 38—39) letters. These
(pp.
The Insular Majuscule is without capitals as they are used in The ascender of the letter

the modern sense. Chapter openings, such as this detail from b slants to the right, with
would have derived from characters
the Gospel of St. Mark in the Book of Kells, commenced the wedge serif balancing originally introduced into Ireland
with a line of display capitals, a Versal (pp. 58—59), or a over the bowl of the letter
combination of both. Verses would open with a larger from the ancient region of Gaul by
character, which was often decorated or filled with colour. St. Patrick and his missionaries.
ISSULAR & NATIONAL SCRIPTS
TARA BROOCH
This intricately decorated brooch
was found in Ireland in 1850 not
farfrom ancient Tara. The date
of its construction is unknown,
although striking design
similarities with sonle decorated

initials in the Lindisfarne Gospels

suggest an early medieval date.

These curvilinear patterns are

very similar to those in the

Lindisfarne Gospels (right)

DETAIL FROM THE CHI-RHO PAGE

The interlaced birds and curvilinear
patterns in this detail are almost
identical to decoration on the Tara
brooch. This styleof zoornorphic
interlacing is of Germanic origin.

CHI-RHO PAGE
These ornate display capitals on the Chi-Rho
page of the Lindisfarne Gospels make this one
of the most impressive leaves in the book. A
variety of influences are evident, including um secutrounynu«heii•
Greek, Roman, Half Uncial, and runic.
Eadfrith's use of the capitals is highly creative.
There are three different fonns of the letter A on
this page: two on the second line, and a third,

OC form on the bottom line (pp. 32—33).

The Lindisfarne Gospels

The richly illuminated Lindisfarne
Gospels date from the end of the
seventh century, when the scribes
of the Northumbrian monasteries
were entering their most productive
phase. The Gospels were written P.*3f'ö,

in Latin by a single scribe, Eadfrith,

who became Bishop of Lindisfarne in
698. An interlinear gloss, providing
a translation of the text into English,
was added in the tenth century.

The Durham Gospels

In addition to the Gospels from
Lindisfarne and Kells, there are a
number of other books and fragments
from this period that reveal well-
executed Insular Majuscules. Among
the most outstanding are the Durham
Gospels, which are contemporaneous
with those of Lindisfarne and
may even have been written
in the Lindisfarne scriptorium.
The elegant, well-balanced hand is
markedly similar to Eadfrith's. Other
examples include the Echternach
Gospels and the Book of Durrow.

30
 IVSULIR

Manuscript decoration
The scholar Giraldus Cambrensis,
in 1185, remarked :
" ...you

Pnuep«aocxus may say this

angel, not of man...the
was the work of an
more I

study, the more I am lost in fresh

amazement." He was describing,

in all probability, the decoration
of the Book of Kells (pp. 28—29).
This, along with the illustrations
in the Lindisfarne Gospels and other
works from the earlv medieval

period, represents the highest

VUIGGC,OUT achievement of Western manuscript
decoration. From the carpet
G cru b pages (pages without text and filled

entirely with intricate designs) to the

decorated initials and display capitals,

and from the shields, trumpets,

spirals, and knots to the labyrinthine
ceftucnn-chccns interlaces that dissolve into fanciful

animal forms, the craftsmanship

quonl(lln quvoern has remained unsurpassed. Today,

we view the work with the same
cee

mu sunw- wonderment as Cambrensis, often

requiring a magnifying glass to study
the fine detail.

out'
Renum In this Insular 'l@uscule text, the distinctive
wedge senfs have been executed
a horizontal flick of the pen

ST. JEROME'S PREFACE

This beautifully decorated page fronl the
Lindisfarne Gospels shows the preface to
the text of St. Jerorne. The abundant use
of red dots around the initial letters is a
comrnon design feature of the book. The interlinear gloss,
As well as outlining the letters, the dots vvrittcn in an Anglo-
provide a background of delicate colour. Saxon minuscule
One folio in the Lindisfarne Gospels is (pp. 34— 35), is the
decorated with over such dots. earliest surviving

The rubricated letters at the top of translation into

the page indicate the end of one Anglo-Saxon of

te.xt and the beginning of another. the Four Gospels

In this work by Denis Brown,

the medieval Insular Majuscule letters
have been recreated in a modern context

DENIS BROWN
This calligraphic piece, entitled Cultural Deconwosition,
was created by the Irish calligrapher Denis Brown in
1993. At 1.2 by 1.6 metres (471/4 by 63 inches), it is a

work of great scale and power. The medieval artistry of 4

the Insular Majuscule letters are seen to be systematically
corroded by the symbols of modernity, the electric cables.

31
I X'SULIR NATIONAL SCRIPTS

Insular Majuscule Push the bowl Of

the a should
first part gf 3
the stroke be spacious
HE INSULAR MAJUSCULE is among the most prestigious of
scripts. Most letters in this hand are built up from a series Oc form of a The oc yonn ofa is often used

of composite strokes and involve multiple pen lifts. Ascenders

and descenders are minimal. The script tends to be bold, with
a letter height of between three and five pen widths. Clear 1
The second stroke of
spaces should be allowed both within and between letters, and the aJinishes teith

a skated hairline
interlinear space is generally equal to about two minim heights.
Uncial form Of a

Wedge serif

The stem of Balance the top of

theb should the stem otter

curve to the left

the boud of the b

150

2
The second

1 stroke of the

c is a separate,

pushed stroke

Pen angle and wedge serifs that on the b, is made by drawing a

Insular Majuscule letters are written short downward stroke at about 450 2 3
Tteist the nib upside
with an oblique-cut nib, with the pen into the main stem. This can be
doten to draw the dart
angle between the horizontal and 150. preceded or followed by a hairline
The distinctive wedge serif, such as stroke along the top of the wedge. Uncial form
of d
3

2
The hairline

of the e can bt

extended to the
3
Horizontal darts downward stroke, then pull the pen right andJinished
To create the darts that appear on to the right to make a long horizontal with a dart

letters d, g, t, and z, use the back of the stroke. Letters g and t have a second
pen nib. Begin by drawing a diagonal dart; create this by twisting the pen
stroke to the right, followed by a short downwards to an angle of about 150

1 Complete the

second stroke of the fin

The corner of the nib can be
used to draw the short dart a single movement

Draw the ann

of the f low
on the stent
1

Alternative dart
Draw the ttcv
An alternative technique to
2 horizontal darts
that described above is to use 3 4
(2/ the g with the
the corner of the pen nib to
back of the nib
define the dart before filling
in the outline with ink. 5

32
 INSULAR MAJUSCULE

1
2
The second and 77te serif at the
third strokes top of the q is

of the h can a variation of

2
be combined 1 the wedge serif

2 3

Skate the tail of the j

arc ofthe
3 k can be made in

two separate strokes

2
3

Stroke
2 4
of the t is pushed

3
5

1 3

v takes

the form ofa

modem u

After drawing the serif, the m can 4

be completed without lifting the pen

1
5

2
3 6

4
Either of these two
forms of n can be used
1 3

2
1

5
3
Alternative n The hairline of the
Tie cross stroke of the n can be
x is skated or drawn
extended to the right to Jill
with the nib corner
space at the end ofa line 3
Tie 0 is

composed of
1
two single
2
opposing strokes

2 Draw the third

After drawing
the the Swivel the nib upside down
3
serif, stroke of the z with
p can be for the long horizontal stroke the edge of the nib
completed in
2 3
a single stroke

33
INS(JIAR SCRIPTS

Insular Minuscule
LONGSII)E EACH OF THE MAJOR prestige formal hands,
POINTED MINUSCULE P
there has usuallv developed a functional complementary The natne derives tiotn
the characteristic long
hand for use in evervday transactions and for writing non- sweep of the descenders.
This is in contrast to the
sacred manuscripts. In the case of the Insular Majuscule, the squarer descenders of

complementary script is the Insular Minuscule, Nvhich dates the set Illinuscule.

from the late fifth or early sixth century. Its use continued The descender
tapers to
in Enoland until after the Norman Conquest of 1066, and in a pomt

Ireland it has survived for Gaelic use into the 20th century,
making it one of the most enduring of all Latin scripts.

THE INSULAR MI,VUSCULE Nvas

LINDISFARNE
brought to the British mainland The Priory of Lindisfarne was founded in 1083,
frotn Ireland bv St. Columba and on the site of the earlier Anglo-Saxon rnonastery.
taught at the monasteries of Iona
and Lindisfarne. As with the Insular .»az.woLxe
Majuscule, the script then
di.s.seminated on the Continent bv
missionary Irish monks. The term
bonefv:i ma10f1ti
"insular" is applied bv palaeographers
I.V PROI SAI-AAIO.VI.S
to indicate a shared culture bet\veen & In Proverbia Sulunonis, a work
Ireland and Britain, free from by the great Anglo-Saxon
historian Bede. vcas written in
Continental influence. an Insular Minuscule script that had been
Anglo-Saxon hand perfQcted in Weartnouth-Jarrow by 750.

After the Council of Whitbv in 664, Incfr-c,tm

MERCHN PRAYER-BOOK
the influence of the Celtic Church This page of set tninuscule fronl a Mercian
c. me, mt$(ixttm
in England, Scotland, and prayer-book was veritten in the early ninth
century, possibly in Worcester, Britain.
Wales and a more distinctive Anglo- C01npare the relatively restrained decoration t.M.em
Saxon hand began to emerge. Its of the initial letter with that of Bede's
I listeria Ecclesiastica (opposite), which
quality is classed in fV)ur grades:
féatures spirals, frets, and knot interlaces. mlht omnl,l,
hvbrid, hich contains half-uncial . mecu cntmtna
elements and the oc form of a; set, In

a carefullv executed, formal hand;

Incutötat et
cursi\V, the basic, functional
hand; ancl currens, the quicklv comml*l•

penned, informal hand. Bv the early

ninth centurv, the mo.st favoured hand
in southern Britain Nvas the pointed
Dot stipple and colour arc
cursive minuscule, and it is this that often used to decorate the

first letter of-a v•ersc

xve use as our model (pp. 3607).

E ROM A The cross stroke oft is frequently The central stroke of the large e forms
IVIER<AN PRAYER-BOOK used to lmk letters the leading stroke g/ theJbllowing p

34
 INS(JIAR MINUSCULE

This whimsical decoration,

'itm) with letters transforming into
The decoration around the
initial b resembles that found animals, is less /brmal than that
. oecyee•
jn metalwork on a hoard in used Ibr capitals in the [indisfarne
Trewhiddlc, Cormval/ Gospels (pp. 30 31)

IIISTORIA ECC.LE.SIA.S'ITC.A
Carolingian influences
tto • In Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica
Gentis Anglorum, written in
By the tenth century, the Insular
southern England in about 820, Minuscule was undergoing changes,
the descenders are made in a
single stroke and terrninated firstbecoming angular and upright
by an upward flick. The pen and then, under the influence of the
is lifted betweén each stroke.
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38—39),
becoming more rounded. By the
pa:onæ
1 lth century, the script had entered
et!tt
its final phase of change, with the
letters gaining a squarer aspect.

beht)rum Changes of pen angle

The boxed capital letters The short s is used both Throughout the development of
demonstrate runic mPucnccs medially and terminally
the early Insular Minuscule, it was the
changes of pen angle that allowed the
ID SID MADOLAIY scribes to express their calligraphic
virtuosity. This element of play seems
progressively to have diminished
hand became squarer.
3 oeq
as the

To the modern eye, the long, spiky

DETAIL FROM THE HISTORIA ECCIXSIASTTCA EXETER BOOK
Note the two different fortns of r that occur at the end Written during the second half of the
of the first and second words of this detail. The use of tenth century in a fine Anglo-Saxon
the upright form of the letter d in the second line is a square minuscule, the Exeter
departure fronl the Uncial fortn (pp. 24—25). is an anthology of vernacular poetry.
descenders of the pointed cursive
minuscule are made all the more
dominant by their appearance on
letters r and s (pp. 36—37). The
other minim characters are rounded
Book and compressed, which gives a more
flowing texture to the page than any
of the later Insular Minuscules.

decorative sweep on the

Compare thisform e/ a Lt•ith the ocform
final leg Cfm may occur at

qttl 35
INSULIR 8eNATIONAL SCRIPTS

The a is pointed
at the top

Insular Minuscule 2
1

ALLIGRAPHERS MAY WELL find the ductus of the Insular

Minuscule one of the most satisfying to accomplish. In the
Anglo-Saxon pointed minuscule shown here, the characteristic
T7te stent of the
pointed aspect — most noticeable on the descenders — is created
1
b could be more
by progressively turning the pen to a steeper angle as the stroke upright than this

is drawn. The pen begins at the headline at an angle of about

400 and on reaching the bottom of the descender has turned 2 3

to a near vertical. The minim height is about five or six nib widths.

f.

I. Using the edge of 2. Return to the 3. Continue to pull

The ascender of the f could
a square-cut nib, begin headline and begin the pen downwards,
rise above the headline
at the headline with the downward stroke gradually turning
a short downward with the pen at an the nib in an anti-
diagonal stroke. angle of about 400. clockwise direction.
3

2 4
The crossbar of the
f should be on the
baseline

1 2

The bowl of the

g could be more
open than this
4 3
1

2 3

4. At the baseline, the 5. Once the descender 6. On reaching the

pen angle should be has tapered to a point, headline, the pen should
The letter j
about 650, reaching begin retracing the be at its original angle.
is a modern
750 at the tip of the stroke before separating Now proceed with the 2
construction
descender. at the baseline. next part of the letter.
2

36
 INSULAR MINUSCULE

The stem of the I can

be completely upright

Create the letter w by

combining the u and v

Tie o can be
drawn with one
stroke or two

(1
Use either one
or two strokes
to draw the z

Tiis modernfonn of
r is more recognizable
than the historically

Traditional correct form

form
Of r

Modern T7te tall e was commonly ligatured with

form of r f, g, i, m, n, p, r, s, t, u, x, y, and z

Long s
The modem
Modern form of s E-t ligature
s is often preferred

37
CAROLINE CEARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Caroline Minuscule The ascender is equal

in height to the minim

t first sight, the differences between the Caroline Minuscule CAROLINE

(Carolingian Minuscule) and the late Half Uncial scripts MINUSCULE H
The Caroline
(see Vatican Basilicanus, below) are not clear. The main distinction Minuscule is
written with a
between the two is in the pen used to write them, the Half square-cut nib,
with the pen
Uncial using a "straight" pen and the Caroline a "slanted" pen held at 300
(pp. 40—41). In fact, the Caroline Minuscule was developed (pp. 40--41).

in the eighth century as a reformed version of the Half Uncial.

The minims adhere strictly
It survived in this form until the 1 lth century, before evolving to the headline and
baseline, creating neat,
into the Early Gothic (pp. 46—47) and Rotunda (pp. 84—85). legible lines of text

BY THE LATE eighth century,

Charlemagne (Charles the Great,
King of the Franks), had created
ec •o
a Frankish Empire that stretched
from the Baltic to northern Italy. fi wer
Inspired by the glories of antiquity, lieNtmcort•ot
Charlemagne instigated a great
cultural revival. The prominent
scholar Alcuin of York was made
di exclö ern tn
Abbot of St. Martins in Tours, France,
etuc•veruoturncct-cern
where he established a scriptorium
and Court School. It was here that the
cecu t? j

existing Half Uncial was reformed tn N u Ce N Ct

to create the Caroline Minuscule.
A dominant script
Characterized by its clarity and
uniformity, the Caroline Minuscule
gradually became the dominant
script in Europe. It arrived late in
England, but was adopted in the
tenth century for Latin texts, such trceorv
as the Ramsey Psalter (pp. 42—43). neu
Over 400 years later, it was ltnptum
rediscovered by Renaissance scribes
and, in turn, adapted by Nicholas ret rn I N t-•e re
Jenson and other type designers
in Venice for their early

printing types (pp. 90—91).

VATICAN BASILICANUS
The Half Uncial is usually defined by its capital
form of N and by the oblique-cut nib used to
write it (p. 40). Although lacking in subtlety, this
early example, probably from the late fifth century,
shows clearand unambiguous letterforms. Note
how vertical the script is compared to the slanted
Caroline of the Grandval Bible (opposite).

38
 CAROLINE MINUSCULE

These modern Caroline letters Cåhital letters, loosely derivedfrom Uncial

have been written in gouache and Roman models, have been created to

ite on a background of watercolour harmonize with the minuscule hand

Ian
SHEILA WATERS
Composed in 1990
'etherland$

aouo coNcorto»•
by the English-born
Germany -chaee WH ITETk€-es calligrapher Sheila
Waters, this work
Austria i ke plu mes
Switzel ispart ofa triptych
t}' eæy-wb ise entitled Cloud
Spain ral Betvveen chains Conceptions from
n mort' i SUD, whicb bu rns Above. The text is

arranged asymmetrically
-tbe
in a stretched, modern
T!' change-to sinister*" version of Caroline

ich sty Awl' i then Jissotvex Minuscule. The even

height and straightness
It' mom i I
of the lines allow
FRANKISH EMPIRE
The extent of Charlemagne's Frankish —M page; subtle colour changes

Retu to to be made to the

Empire in the early ninth century is marked
letters without
in red on this map of modern Europe. As
the overall design
the empire expanded north of the Alps,
Latin and Greek learning was carried with it. becoming too busy.

A square-cut nib
The major difference between

INCIPIT LIBER the Half Uncial and the Caroline

Minuscule
The
is

hand
the cut of the pen nib.
written with an

EXO DVS
earlier is

oblique-cut nib, which produces

an upright letter with contrasting
thick and thin strokes. The Caroline
sec sus T is written with a square-cut nib,
which produces letters with strokes
of even proportions (pp. 40—41).
Textural colour
When viewed as a page of text,
the textural colour of the Caroline
1)
Minuscule is quite distinct from that

Be q yp-rÜ of the Half Uncial. While the Half

Uncial letters have a
CUQOJBCOB static aspect, the
Caroline letters have a slight forward
SJF€OLJ thrust, an element most noticeable on
C ClmOOCÜJ the ascenders and descenders. Minims
s,cns adhere sharply to the headlines and
which emphasizes the
JFTROJ e baselines,
script's ordered and logical aspect.

be-n. te-ttl'. 1 f¯f3vcgxffZsgulon--——-— The square-cut pen nib gives the Caroline
Minuscule letters a slightforward thrust

ecbe•ntxtntn, c{xn e-cnepcbx[tm '3-xc!

THE GRANDVAL BIBLE
There is a subtle forward thrust to these exemplary
Caroline Minuscule letters. They are written
between four imaginary lines: the minims
adhere to the central two lines, the ascenders
Xu-cent tn •
CJttomot-atO e-Ü reach the top line, and the descenders reach
the bottom line. The ascenders and descenders
un ct g: el u Corn t q: Cosnxaon eat x.
are exactly the same height as the minims.

39
CAROLINE & EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Caroline Minuscule
1 2

HE CAROLINE MINUSCULE is one of the easiest hands for a

1 calligrapher to master. As a reformed script, its original

function was to communicate legibly (pp. 38—39). The letters are

without embellishments, the word spaces clear, and the ligatures 1

minimal. Although closely related to the Half uncial, from which it

2
derives (below), the Caroline is always written with a "slanted" pen
whereas the Half Uncial is usually written with a "straight" pen.

A forward slant of about

100 is characteristic of the
Caroline Minuscule letter
1

Tie pen angle for the

hand is about 350 The third

2 stroke of the
Basic elements d could be a
The minim height of 3 continuation
350 1
the Caroline Minuscule Of the second
is between three and
five pen widths, with
a further two or three
for the ascenders and
descenders. The 2
serifs Tie sweep of
on the ascenders of b, the third stroke

d, h, k, and I have a of the e could

1
clubbed appearance. continue upwards
Other letters, such as i, to join the bowl
m, and n, have slightly
wedge-shaped serifs.
2

3 The stem of the f

can also be made
with a single
Caroline Minuscule Half Uncial
downward stroke
The Caroline
Minuscule a is Tlis ocfonn ofa
a two-storey, is characteristic of
open letter the Half Uncial

The Caroline
n takes a The Half Uncial The bowl of
2
recognizably hand retains the the g should
lower-case form Uncial capital n be left open

2
Finish the h with

this inward sweep

Half Uncial or with afoot (see
is written with a altemative n, opposite)

"straight" pen
Oblique-cut nib)
The Caroline
Skate the tail of
Minuscule is wmten
1 the i to form aj
with a "slanted" pen 2

(square-cut nib)

40
 CAROLINE MINUSCULE

1 2
2

Pull the foot of the I 1 2

along the baseline

Use one continuous stroke for the

second and third legs of the m

2 1 2

Finish the
m with an inward sweep
or afoot (see alternative n,
below right)
2

2
1 3
Finish the n
with an inward

sweep or afoot
(see altemative

n, below right)
2

1
1 2

3
2
Altematively,
the p could
be drawn in
2
two strokes,
with the second
3
stroke continuing
to the Stem
2 1

The Stem of
1
the q could be 2
a continuation
of the second
3
stroke

This is the
1
1 2 traditional long

yonn Of s

Long s
2 2 This altemative

1 foot for h, m,
and n can be
1
used instead
of the sweep
3
Alternative n

41
CAROLINE &E Go•rmc SCRIPTS

Foundational Hand
o BOOK ON THE mechanics of calligraphy is complete
without a reference to Edward Johnston's Foundational
Hand and its simplicity and integrity. Historically, it belongs
to the early 20th century. However, the basis for the script is
FOUNDATIONAL P
a manuscript dating from the year 966, the Ramsey Psalter.
With the pen held at
Believed to have been produced by scribes at Winchester, 300, the weight of The strokes are drawn
each Foundational with a broad-edged
the Ramsey Psalter was written in a hand now known as letter appears to be "slanted" pen

evenly distributed
the English Caroline Minuscule, an Anglicized version between horizontal
and vertical strokes.
of Frankish Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38—39).

BY THE END OF the 19th century,

under the influence of the Arts and
Crafts movement in England, a whole
-O isnarc diiedlelfto
new philosophy was emerging among fine pcccaco nofcuæodlre •

artists and craftsmen. The basis of

this philosophy was that the honest

construction of an artefact was
m lfcrcrenn dne.-mlfcrcrenn
achieved only by the correct dTöe
interaction of tool and material.
Medical student Edward Johnston
Cup nof.quem aamodum
readily endorsed this idea and began, fpcrautmuf ince •

1897, to experiment in writing

in

letters with a broad-edged pen. In

I ncc dne fper,un.nonconfun
1 899, his work came to the attention
dar tnAöCct-num
of W.R. Lethaby, Principal of the
Central School of Arts and Crafts in
London, who invited him to teach
puERo
classes in Calligraphy and Illumination. cncdtctce omxopcr,r dn 1 dno.
In 1901 , Johnston also began lecturing
at the Royal College of Art, London.

cum tnfecuLx
B cn ansdi difl diio:6cdt dn-o •

en aqcneonhfqune cdof
In this detail, the "lumped" serif on the I has
Cinc dno:6 onifutrcuc$dmdno •

been completed after the stem has been drawn

cil fot«tunx dno

THE RAMSEY PSALTER
The Caroline Minuscule of the Rainsey Psalter bcncdlcüce frdlaccdt dno
was one of the hands on which Johnston's
calligraphic work was based. In IVriting and
Illuyninating and Lettering, he stated, "it has all the
B cnomlfimbcr&rofdno
qualities of good writing in a marked degree, and
I consider it, taken all round, the most perfect

and satisfactory pentnanship which I have seen"

42
 FOUNDATIONAL HAND

bcdf81\iliinLfiöpc1E1elN
aest
D Tiu• tht iJ thas¯ Oaf';
It may" any bt .

a and "roman"small Letters

N ITALIC HAND

EDWARD JOHNSTON
Through his calligraphy, design, writing, and
teaching, Edward Johnston became one of the
the tnost influential penstnen of the early 20th
century. He is pictured here using his tilvourite
writing instrurnent, the quill.

"Slanted" pen letters

ROMAN
rstuuvwxyz€li3456iS9 tkt Italian 15 —
Johnston was encouraged in his work
e.s. tig
by Sidney Cockerell, the former
- tht ah
secretary to William Morris, who

PLATE a to,
introduced him to the Ramsey Psalter.
l. llamf.• an excellent formal hand for MS. work and to develop into later forms (Ref. W. & L. collo. V Ill.
& pp. 305—3 to).
It was then that he swote to a friend:
II. Italic lid"d: a rapid and practical hand for modern MSS. (Ref. W. & L. collo- XXI. & pp. 3t 1—315).
Ill. : suitable for the most formal modern MSS. (Ref. W. & [„collo. X X. & pp. j to, 481 "And so the idea came — to make
II. ang Ill. may be taken as MS. models for practical adaptation to priating, carving, &c.: cf. Pls. 10, t t, t .

living letters with a formal pen". In his

2, S" & W.C.Z
great instructional work JVriting and
Illuminating and Lettering, published
in 1906, he explained his preference
WORKSHEET
In 1909, in collaboration with the artist Eric Gill,
for "slanted" pen letters, such as
Johnston produced a series of student worksheets those in the Ramsey Psalter, over
on which he described the Foundational Hand as
the Half Uncial letters with
"excellent for formal MS work and to develop into
et hace sclibimus later forrns". On the sheets, he modified the Rarnsey a "straight" pen (pp. 38—39). Drawn
Psalter script by tnaking it lighter and more upright,
vobis utqaudcatis. and he included his characteristic "sharp-headed" serifs.
with a broad-edged pen held at 300,

the "slanted" letters had the greater

strength and legibility, and the text
sit plcntun. they produced was of an even weight.
et careful consideration size, letter
"Sharp-headed" serifs
weight, and spacing is demonstrated in
audivimusdluv.(tannuucianuts The most marked difference between
this mature vvork by Johnston
yobis: Quotiicun llLvcsr.
Johnston 's letters and those of the
& tmcbltl(' in CO SillitUlldC.
Caroline Minuscule is the serif on

ascenders. Regarding the "pushed"

STUDY SHEET
The main text of this study sheet fiorn 1919 is written pen strokes used for "lumped" serifs
in Johnston's own fully developed Foundational Hand. as forced, Johnston advocated the
The ascenders are more ordered and shorter than
those detnonstrated on the earlier worksheet (above).
use of "sharp-headed" serifs made
Johnston's mastery of Italics (pp. 94—95) is also clear. from "pulled" pen strokes.

43
CAROLINE 8. EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Foundational Hand 2

LMOST AS IMPORTANT in calligraphy as the letterforms is the

3
manner in which the words are laid out on the page and
1

the textural effect that they achieve. With its regularity of ductus,
in which arches, curves, widths of letters, and internal spaces all 2
relate, the Foundational Hand demonstrates a perfect evenness of To draw the serif 3 4
and stem of the b,
texture (see Inter-letter spacing, below). The pen angle is about 300,
see letter I

increasing to about 450 for diagonal strokes. Minim height is four or

five nib widths, with a further three for ascenders and descenders.

Pull the first

1
stroke of the c

along the baseline

4
To draw the
5
serif and stent
1
300 of the d, see

letter I

2
2

The key letter useful to explore the construction

3
As composite character of a, d, e,
this of Foundational letters by drawing
n, and q shows, the o is the key letter them with two pencils taped
of the hand. Take time and care to together, The pencil points relate
compose its two curved strokes. It is to the corners ofa pen nib.

Internal spaces 2
The elegant oval
of space within the 3
letter o provides the
model to which all

other spaces in the

4
hand should ideally
conform. 1

2
To draw the serif 3 4
and stem of the
Inter-letter spacing
The spaces between letters should be as
h, see letter I
1
consistent as possible. Many scribes train
their eyes to study inter-letter spacing as 4
keenly as the letterforms themselves. 1

To draw the senfs

2 2
3
3 of the i and j, see
letter I

44
 FOUNDATIONAL HAND

To draw the serif

and stem of the
k, see letter I

Pull the second stroke of

1 the t along the baseline
Push the edge of
the nib downwards Retunt to the top
1
to the left (1) 2 3 and pull the pen
downwards to draw
TO draw the
Make an inward curve to the stem (3) 3 4
serif of the
join the main stem (2) u, see letter I

To complete the letter, pull the

stroke along the baseline (3)

2 2

To draw the serif of the

m, see letter I
1 3

To draw the 4
serif of the n,
see letter I

1 2

02 4
3

To draw the 2
2 3 4
serif of the p,
see letter I

The fifth stroke of

5
thep can begin to
the left of the Stem 1 3
2
Tum the pen
nearer to the
horizontal to
1 3 2
broaden the
second stroke

3 of the z
2

4
5

To draw the
3
serif of the r,

see letter I

This altemative g may prove

2 easierfor beginners to pen
2
than the traditional form

To avoid the s tilting,

1 3
stretch the first stroke

horizontally

3
Alternative g

45
CAROLINE 8. EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Early Gothic TheJlick at the head of the stem

can either be drawn as an initial

stroke or added on completion

HE EARLY GOTHIC script (Proto-Gothic, Late Caroline)
was used widely in most of western Europe from the
late 1 lth century to the mid- 1 3th century, a period that fell

between the end of the Caroline era and the beginning of the The bow is quite

Gothic. In retrospect, the script can be seen as transitional compressed, giving

it an oval aspect

between the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38—39) and the Gothic

Textura hands (pp. 50—57), for it contains characteristics of
EARLY GOTHIC B
each, including the rounded bows of the Caroline and the This Early Gothic
letter is written with
split ascenders of the Quadrata.
the pen at an angle
of about 400.

THE EARLY GOTHIC script THE WINCHESTER BIBLE

evolved directly from the Caroline The illurninated initials in the Winchester
Minuscule. It was more compressed Bible represent a high point in medieval
artistry and are the work of six different These rubricated capitals
and oval than its predecessor and illuminators. This initial letter P from reflect the use of Rustic

greater attention was paid to such the Book of Kings shows Elijah being Capitalsfor titles, (see The
consulted by the messengers of Ahaziah. hierarchy of scripts, p. 16)
details as serifs and the feet of minims.

Its development was possibly the

simple result of scribes altering their 93. w. p./co„
pen nibs from square-cut to oblique-
cut. This produces more angular
letters and gives an upright aspect
e tnct•altbttf «ctdtattttttt fet•monem
to a page of text. The difference atm ttd
between letters written with a lcstrttatt•
'3 ltættt
square-cut nib and those written 98.
matct•um

with an oblique-cut nib can be seen eat•pece.

pet' Gapctfmttm• s•totttce ttfitm
when comparing the Winchester ttet<C• Hune' såemf•Re

Bible with the Grandval Bible (p. 39).

nem foetamettwt•tttn ftFfTetnuCtttfi
The Winchester Bible ptvchåtffe gtt,tm ektna

The Winchester Bible is one of l•etnut•.

The initial illuminated P fieam fet•mo tFt•

the most outstanding books of the Ft•ttf mttnet•e
is extended tofill the
ft$tt$tcattttttttc s•ttm
Early Gothic period. Commissioned length of the column of text

by Henry of Blois, the Bishop of tttat•t0Ftttt• qtttå tttemt1tt1Te

tttettan#io
Winchester, Britain, it dates from ST. AMBROSE, etttat•ec ttttmtm Ctttab,tt K'frt•då•

about 1 150. Written with a "straight" DE MISTERIIS I n aketv

This page is from a Ittt•ttm

pen held at an angle close to the theological tract

• ttttet•tVEft$ •

qtttå Kenttnaagt étaboto Copet•tbttceta$•

horizontal, the script features short, probably penned at
(ttvttt•te e? non
Rochester Priory,
neat ascenders and descenders. These Britain, in 1130. The
; feå tttuettatttn•S'tÆt cute
ftttttmü' • Ottfdgt•atV
create more interlinear space than Early Gothic hand
used is in complete
longer ascenders and descenders ft•tFtm G•ten
contrast to that of the
would, and so aid the reading of Winchester Bible
BRITAN
the line. Many of the Lombardic (above). Although the
nib is square, the pen
Capitals in the Winchester Bible, is held at an angle

close to 400, which

used both as display capitals and as
results in a strong
capitals within the text, are among headline, reinforced
the finest of their kind (pp. 62—63). by a sturdy baseline.

46
 EARLY GOTHIC

PAPER MAKER
The earliest European
This rersal letter I departurom paper was made from
Gothic conventions in the extreme ragsof cotton or linen,
mformality of its decoration The pen is held at a shallower angle which were chopped,
than in the St. Ambrose, De soaked, and laid on a
Misteriis I manuscript (opposite), sieve before being
resulting in less legible lines of text pressed and dried. In
Britain, relatively fine
paper was available by
the 12th century.

MORALIA IN' JOB

The Moralia in Job volunrs were
INCIPIT•ME in 1 by scribes and illurninators at Citeaux,
11 1

France, one year before St. Bernard arrived

cornpleted

and imposed the hard discipline for which the

Cistercian order becalne known. The hurnour

VTGIJ„EGÜS
factot eloqtttt
and vibrant colour in the illustration of this page
frorn the manuscript are in sharp contrast to the
work produced in the austere tillies that followed.
1

cattÄ Ltbtatlorwpetlfan$• These letters arc less compressed than

is tvpicalfor Early Gothic script

trr tttrttlfq•, paraf Lance

bunc neq•, 111tntgdtfcttfftoni Pfldtt5
f•ttrfttS tuporrncu Development of Early Gothic
The Early Gothic script originated
ftg uacuti
in the areas that were subject to
pc e:ttf fetttcrttzg tarrta Norman and Angevin influence
mainlv England and France — before
concepaonc
spreading to northern Germany,
eas ad foram ccncrc ntÜéF Scandinavia, Spain, Sicily, and part of

As of English influence,
carti p Illcurtatn ptteé;
Italy.

more
a result
attention was paid to the feet
nonnuitguero ttaextcrrorrb; Écep of the minims, which were formally
tif ttlfertilttftc• fi gutfeas ftibtL applied, as opposed to the upward
flick favourecl on the Continent.
As the script cleveloped, minims
11tL Ifittcnræ•fedboc fibr eaX•qttod generallybecame more compressed.
The demise of the hand
furf tocrtrtcur abfcondac; undebe
The hand is perhaps best regarded
ne qtlOc1: narnt10T1& brfbzrca per mid-point of the pendulum
as the

figTITficaaonÖ draarr.mottetlflacob swing between the Caroline

Minuscule, with its clearly defined
letterforms, and the Gothic Textura
hands, in which the overall textural
tmaf• «gyptatanrf gxparcr d«ox—
effect is of the greatest importance.
acaurc eaf deaacafq: conc.lbttf.m
Although influenced by the Caroline,
bifqtßß expottaza fiteranc, cand0L scribes quickly realized that if thev

appartrrc• å qgerncega increased the compression of letters,

they could alter the textural colour
tnrldmprnapfefunc• atq: rnbtmc of the page. This reached its extreme
modt7- cotox effedhlf•ö• uarruf•Vb1 form in the Gothic Textura hands,

fubdratr; Pofurvq: aflncanaltb•, which quickly grew in popularity

and displaced the Early Gothic.
CAROLINE 8. EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Early Gothic Tie bowl on the

a should be large

ARLY GOTHIC SCRIPT is written with a "straight" pen and

2
has an upright, compressed aspect. The wedge serifs on
the headline of the minim characters help create a strong
2
horizontal stress to the text. The minim height varies between
approximately four and six pen widths, and ascenders and The ascender height
3
of the b can equal
descenders frequently equal the minim height. Because of the
that of the minim
great variation in pen angle — between 100 and 400 — various
types of serifs are included in the hand. The most distinctive of

all is the split serif on the ascenders of letters b, d, h, k, and l.

2

3
4
2

400
300

Split serifs "Filled" serifs

Create the split ascender with a pen angle of 400, A third method involves
drawing the left serif and main stem first, then "filling" the split serif
Omit the crossbar
1
adding the thinner right serif (A). Alternatively, The pen is held at a constant
2 Of the f to create a
extend the thin serif into the stem (B). 300 for the whole letter.
long form Ofs

1
3

400
5
Altematively,
the g could bé

4 completed
The feet on the in

three strokes
straight strokes of
the minims terminate
with an upward 2 9
tum of the pen 3 could

altematively have
a serifedfoot

Early Gothic Flat-headed and wedge serifs

letters should be A fourth serif variation is the flat-headed type (D),
written with an created by overlapping two strokes, with a pen angle The j is a
Oblique-cut nib of about 100. A fifth serif type is the wedge serif (E), modem 2
which appears on the letters i, m, n, p, r, and u, as well construction
as the modern letters j, v, and w. This can be drawn
2
in one or two strokes, with a pen angle of about 400.

48
 EARLY GOTHIC

Thefirst stroke of the

t could extend above
the headline

*lie v is a modem
construction

The w is a modern
construction

The second and

third strokes of the
x can be combined

Tie x has a
distinctive tail

This ligature between

the long s and the
This half r can be used Tie half r is constructed
t is a distinctive
after letters b, 0, and p with a single stroke
feature of the hand

Full r Half r S-t ligature

C-t ligature

49
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Textura Quadrata
Y THE BEGINNING of the 1 3th century, the Early Gothic
script had evolved into a non-cursive, angular hand knoYNn as
the Textura Quadrata (Black Letter, Old English). The name
indicates the woven appearance of the lines of text, "Textura"
meaning "an even effect in weaving". The script represented
a revolutionary change in calligraphy — after centuries of
emphasis on clear letter recognition, individual letters were TEXTURA QUADRATA N
The script's most distinctive feature is the
suddenly subservient to overall textural effect. diamond-shaped terminals of the minim strokes.

WITH ITS DENSE, angular strokes and

diamond-shaped heads and feet, the

Quadrata letter is to many people a

graphic embodiment of the Middle
Ages. In northern Europe, it was used
into the 1 6th century for high-grade
liturgical manuscripts, second only in (annftntt011Cfit11tCtttt.D.S
prestige to its twin script the Prescisus
bgtogtant Diicnttnomuus
(pp. 54—55). The Quadrata's decline
as a de luxe bookhand may have
been partly due to its large size; the
demand for smaller, hand-held books totalt$
meant that more modestly sized
scripts such as the Schwabacher filltttS.CttPltatTß02d11tts:
(pp. 74—75) and Humanist Minuscule ut cuttts tttCttbt
(pp. 90—91) were more suitable.
However, the Quadrata did survive
into the 20th century in the form of
cut letters, stained glass letters, and
titles on deeds, as well as being
much favoured in Europe by anctgtntcoblatt011f(aut
signwriters, shop owners, and
designers of newspaper mastheads.
ntnSIRCtqttantttbtoft
The outlines of Versals and illustrations were
drawn in the spaces provided by the scribe: here,

they have been outlined in metalpoint, veith the qtto csut

gold and colour still to be applied

THE METZ PONTIFICAL no Cacto

This beautifully crafted page from an early
14th-century French manuscript shows Textura
Quadrata at its finest. The even, te.xtured effect of
obCm bJidplacatuS acaptaS.cq
the page is created by the scribe's meticulous
regulation of spacing and minim height. The
scribe may have used an oblique-cut nib, which
would have made the production of fine hairlines
particularly easy Wp. 14—15). Note the rubricated
capitals S and I, preceded by the capital P. The
stroke through the stem of the P denotes the
contraction of "par", "per", or "por"

50
 TEXTURA

PAINTING IN CHICHESTER CATHEDRAL

This painting shows Bishop Sherbourne
asking King Henry VIII to confirm the
charter for Chichester Cathedral. By the
time the work was painted in 1519, the
Quadrata would have been obsolete as a text
hand, appearing only occasionally in brush-
dravvn form. The artist has padded out the text
on the top line with awkward word breaks.
The inelegance of these breaks is possibly
f.
exacerbated by the requirement to place
the word "Rex" above the King's head.

The text on the book

The split ascenders includes the alternative
and descenders have Gothic a, whichfeatures
been exaggerated, a double crossbar
particuarly on the through the counter
descender of the p ,9+nææ'

OPERlBVfiCREDJTE

DETAIL FROM PAINTING IN Dotting the i and j

CHICHESTER CATHEDRAL
The characteristic uniformitv of the
The split ascenders and descenders are
particularly developed in this brush-drawn Textura Quadrata letter produced
version of Quadrata, but they have caused an interesting innovation that remains
the artist difficulties — the ascenders of letters
d and t clash with the descenders of the ps. in use todav. Having been easily
mistaken for other letters, the i was
.lfany strokes, such as those
distinguished from other letters by a
on the s, terminate vvith flick (by the late 14th century, this had
hairlinePourishes — t

evidence of the scribe's

developed into a dot). The letter i also

virtuosity
.a.R.tj.C.n. doubled up as a j, acquiring a tail

when so used. This change, along with

the late meclieval inclusion of the
The counter of this large
rersal P is used to display
c.f.g.l)fl.k. 11'

and the differentiation of v and u, gave

the coat of arms OJ-the
us our 26-letter modern alphabet.
Script status

GOTHIC ALPHABET The status of a script is generally

This page from a determined by the number of
calendar-, hvmn-, and
separate strokes and pen lifts used in
prayer-book belonging
to Guillaurne its creation, a distinction particularly
d'Orgemont dates
discernible in the Quadrata.
from about 1386. It
gives us an almost no(tn• more angular and
Generallv, the
complete alphabet of compressed the letters, the more
Textura Quadrata
letters, including two qutcs strokes will have been used in their
versions of a, r, and s. construction. A useful indicator of
Close examination of
the status ofa script is the bowl of
the letters suggests
that the pen may have the letter a, which can range from
been cut obliquely. Its junctiåccturno a low-status, almost cursive form
This would explain
the relative thickness (see the Painting in Chichester
of the stem strokes,
Cathedral, above) to a high-status,
compared to the
diagonal and rigidly geometric form (see the
diamond strokes.
Gothic alphabet, left).
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

1 6

The bowl
Textura Quadrata a can be more
of the

rounded

HE ESSENCE OF THE Quadrata is the formal, upright letter

3 5
with strokes differing as little as possible from one another.
Curves are practically eliminated and the formality is only 4
1

broken by the use of hairlines. These include the skating strokes

that occur on letters a, e, and r, created by dragging the wet 5

ink with the corner of the nib. The Quadrata's other distinctive
features are the split ascenders and the diamond feet on the
2
minims, applied with only a small space between each one.
Basic elements 3
A "slanted" pen stroke
(square-cut nib) is
of the c can be
used for the Quadrata.
finished with
The pen is held at a hairline
an angle of between
350 and 450 for stem 2
350 strokes, adjusted to
a shallower angle for 3
connecting strokes.
Minim height is
1 4
generally about five
pen widths. The
relatively large size
of the letters makes 2
the use ofa reed
pen ideal.
3

Join the third stroke

of the e to the stem

of the minim

2
3

1
.4

Drawing a right serif Adding a left serif The ear of

The split ascender is drawn in two The pointed left serif should be a theg could
4
strokes. Begin the right serif above the little shorter than the right one. Turn be drawn as a
headline, pulling the pen down to the the nib onto its left corner and use 5
separate stroke
left to complete the stem in one stroke. the wet ink from the previous stroke.
2
7

Textural effect
To
no 1
achieve the ideal textural effect of Quadrata,
inner-letter spaces and inter-letter spaces
each equal the width of one stroke.
should
Inter-word space should
be equal to about two
nib widths
2

2
The upward stroke
above the

full
i

be substituted for a
and j

diamond stroke
can

52
 TEXTURA QUADRATA

The cross stroke

2 of the t can be
4
5 jinished with
a hairline

2
3

1 1
4

2 5

Make sure that

2 6
3 a small space is

left between the

1 4
two diamond
Make sure heads of letters
2 2 u and v
8 that a small 5
space is left

between

3 each foot
3
of the m
Make sure
4 1 4
7 that small

spaces are
2 5 2 8 left between
the three

diamond
heads of
6
3 the w
3 5

Drag the tail of the

4 2
x with the wet ink
of the second stroke
6
4
2 3

Drag the ink

3 With the comer

of the nib to 7
1
3
complete the
split serifs at
1 The hairline diagonal
the feet of
ofthe z can be drawn
letters p and q as a separate stroke
2

2 4
3

1
4 3 5
Skate the hairline
of the r with the can be used
2
corner oft/te nib 6 to follow a

right-hand
bow
3
2 7
ligature
3 3
Tlre right-hand 1

5 Skate the
¯ bow of the p can
be joined with 7
hairline of the s
the left-hand
2
4 with the comer
2 6
bow of the e 5
of the nib

7 Conjoined p and e

53
tnconftlt mpt n.etntttQPCC

lltlcncttnonfcdtc

tdtntkgtdotntntttotttnrafttttst
••tnlgcttuftntdtcabttdtcacnodt.
cttccanqttamltgnttmqiplan
racttm tfrfrctt$ aqttatf.
 TEXTURA PRESCISUS

Textura Prescisus
SE OF THE TEXTURA PRESCISUS (Textualis Prescissa, Black
Letter) paralleled that of the Quadrata (pp. 50—51), both
in its duration as a bookhand and in the development of its
textural style. The two scripts even used the same Capitals
and Versals (pp. 58—59). The chief difference between them is

indicated by the adjunct to the Prescisus's name, vel sine pedibus,

TEXTURA PRESCISUS M
which translates as "with its feet cut off". This refers to the •Ille square-ended
The flat feet of the
Prescisusfeet contrast
Prescisus are the script's
square-ended bases of the minims and descenders in the hand. with the diamond feet
most characteristic feature.
the (Quadrata

THE WINDMILL PSALTER

The Windrnill Psalter was written in England in about BOTH THE QUADRATA and the
1290. In this folio from The Judgement of Solomon, the Prescisus evolved from the Early
fine filigree work is done vvith a sharply pointed quill. The
steep pen angle used produces typically angular
for the text
Gothic script (pp. 46=17) and date
letters with strong diamond heads and narrow minim mtmDmtnrmtl from the end of the 1 2th century.
strokes. Stroke width and inner-letter spacing are equal. Palaeographers are uncertain which of
tatrtgntstnfptntt
the two came first. It is possible that
tttattlnt6fttmtnt
the Prescisus originated in southern
tnpttlftt$ ntttfU6ft England and spread to France, where
ocoptiß COititti qtil OctrdlJtttitt
tnttffttfmprrtnt.E scribes were inspired to develop the
iiiidJi apu0 :tqlil 10 Quadrata. The arrival of the Prescisus
dÖUcrfU6 was most likely the result of a creative
t$imttbttnfalttü
burst from a calligraphic virtuoso.
gttlrnaont$ crfa But, whatever its origins, the script
e(ttli fatmccti
atltstttfr2tttn.— rapidly became a more prestigious
ptopn•rnomcti :qutd fu,1ti16 bookhand than the Early Gothic.
A precise hand
As a script, the Prescisus was a
mcqtiid T pau
tour deforce. It was as precise as its

THE ORMESBY PSALTER name suggests and scribes needed a

The Ormesby Psalter, written in particular dexterity to use a "slanted"
East Anglia in about 13()0, reveals a
Pitttttitnbfd Occlitldtdbld more relaxed form of Prescisus than
pen to produce the artificially

that used in the Luttrell Psalter. constructed feet that imitated the
tii6 fictitlo

THE LUTTRELL PSALTER

work of a "straight" pen (pp. 56—57).
The Luttrell Psalter, written for a The length of time it took to write
itifirtildtd ftrtltd wealthy Lincolnshire landowner in the script meant that it could be used
about 1325-35, is Prescisus writing at
its finest. The lines of text are uniform only for large, prestigious books.
and condensed, each stroke neat and use started to decline during the late
precise. The thickening of minims
towards their base may indicate a
Gothic period, and the introduction
twisting of the pen (pp. 56—57). of printing saw its final demise.

The half r is used when The diamond heads of minims are DETAIL FROM THE

pioptcrnotncn fud
55
 GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Textura Prescisus Drag the ink with the

comer of the nib to

5

2 3
complete the foot of the a
HE PRINCIPAL DIFFERENCE between the Quadrata and Prescisus
4
is the latter's absence of diamond feet on letters a, f, h, i, k, l,

m, n, r, t, and u. The split ascenders on b, h, k, and I are reduced 1

4
or flat-headed (square-ended) and, in the extreme form of the
The split serif of the b
script, letters a, c, d, and e are even deprived of a baseline stroke. 5
can be replaced with
Prescisus has a more clearly delineated base than the Quadrata and the flat-headed type

interlinear spacing is approximately equal to the minim height.

2

A hairline can be

included on the c

2
450 450

1 4
Tie Quadratafoot The Prescisusfoot
is diamond-shaped is square-ended

Common elements approximately five pen widths and 2

The Quadrata and Prescisus have a both are written with a "slanted"
number of elements in common. pen (square-cut nib). A pen angle of
3
Both have a minim height of 450 is usual for both Textura scripts.
The hairline of
Outline Twist the pen Twist front the e should touch

the foot by 450 at the bottom the top of the main stroke

drawing along of the stem the stent

the baseline 2
and up to join
2
the stem

Filled feet Pen twist 1 Omit the cross

Drag the ink with the
To make the square A second method 3 stroke to use
comer of the nib to
foot, draw the stem at this letter as
involves twisting the complete the foot of the f
an angle of 450, then pen from 450 to the a Ion! s

add the outline of the horizontal in a short,

foot by dragging the swift movement (above).
ink with the corner Alternatively, begin Numerous tools are suitable 3
of the nib. This is twisting at the top of for tenting Prescisus letters,
then filled in with ink. The sixth and
the stem (above right). including the reed pen
seventh strokes
of the g can be

combind

1 3

Use the comer

Drag the ink with
of the nib to
the comer of the
complete the split
nib to complete the
ascender of the h
square feet of the h
4
3
1

Flat-headed Altematively, a full

serifs nib before with ink (above
filling it in
2 2 diamond can be used
Like the square feet, the flat-headed left). add the serif by
Alternatively,
to dot the i andj
serifs are created artificially with a nvisting the pen downwards from the
"slanted" pen. One method is to horizontal of the ascender line to the
outline the serif with the corner of the 450 angle of the stem stroke (above).

56
 TEXTUR4 PRESCISUS

1
1 3

Complete the
split serif of
the k with the
comer of the nib

1 2

The I could altematively Leave spaces

between the
feature an elongated
2
diamond foot heads of u, v,
w, and y
3
5

1 3 5

2 5
2

4 6

4 7

4 3 6

2 Pull out the tail

1 4
of the x with the

comer of the nib

5

2 3

1 3 1

The foot of the p Tie y should be

2 4 dotted with a full
couldfinish square-
ended diamond stroke
2 5

1 The hairline
stroke of the z can

2 be thickened by

tuisting

2 4 3

1 3

fitefinal hairline
stroke of the r

is a useful space filler

2

ahrhr„
Extreme form
of Prescisus
In this extreme form of
Prescisus, letters lose

their baseline strokes

5
Letters d and o are among the
bowed Prescisus letters that
4 6
can be easily conjoined

7 Two forms of half r Conjoined d and o

57
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Gothic Capitals & Versals

HE PRINCIPAL DIFFERENCE between Gothic Capitals and ExuberantNourishes of this
kind are limited to opening
Versals lies in their construction: Gothic Capitals are written letters or letters on the top

line ofa page of text

with single strokes, whereas Versals are composed of several
built-up strokes. A Versal is a single initial letter, drawn larger GOTHIC CAPITAL P
Decorative diagonal
than the text script and used to indicate a title, chapter, or strokes and hairlines

paragraph opening. The size of the Versal and the amount of gold reduce the amount
of white space in the
and colour used to decorate it is directly proportional to the letter's counter and
enhance its status in
perceived status of the initial within the text. Although less a page of text. In this
P, the thick diagonal
impressive than Versals, the Gothic Capital is far from plain,
iscomplemented
with elaboration in the form of hairline verticals and diagonals. by hairlines above
and below it.

IT WAS IN GOTHIC text that capital

and minuscule letters of the same
hand first appeared together. Gothic
Capitals, which used the same ductus
as the minuscules (pp. 50—57), were
used within text script to begin a
sentence or denote a proper noun.
In important sentences or verses,

Gothic Capitals were frequently

usurped by Versals. In its simplest
form, a Versal can be an outline
letter filled with a splash of colour.
In more sophisticated forms, it can
be historiated (see the Winchester
Bible, p. 46), zoomorphic (see the
Book of Kells, pp. 28—29), or
floriated (see the Book of Hours,

p. 84). Alternatively, the decoration

can be abstract, with spirals, frets,

and interlaced knots (see the

Lindisfarne Gospels, pp. 30—31).

Rounded bulges have been added to the

stems to give extra emphasis to the letter

The counter Ofeach letter has been decorated

with vertical and diagonal hairlines

SAMPLE ALPHABET
Two sets of Gothic Capitals have been drawn
on incomplete sample alphabet, which
this
dates from about 1400. Although the letters are
not the finest examples of Gothic Capitals, each
stroke is clearly shown, making them useful
models for the modern calligrapher to follow.
Note how the scribe has created extra weight on
some bowed letters by adding an extra stroke.

58
 GOTHIC CAPITALS VERSALS

THE ST. VAAST BIBLE

Written in northern France
in the early 1 lth century,

the St. Vaast Bible is a

product of the Franco-

PRI Saxon school, which had

been producing books
of the highest order since
the mid-ninth century. At
first glance, the manuscript

looks ahead of its time,

so sophisticated is the
page design. However, the
plait and knot decoration

around the Versal betrays

POS the manuscript's Saxon
pedigree (pp. 28—31).

The suggestion ofa bracketed

serif shows that these capitals

nere modelled on Imperial

letters (pp. 108—109)
CVSSIT
Ll ,MNCE In this Versal, the initial letters

E and T have been combined

INGRECIR• (this combination is the origin

of our modern ampersand)

DE TERM CETH
ltWDÄRIVMRC GEM
v v IVPRonr.
SIMPLE VERSALS
These Versals may be
by the scribe responsible
for the sample alphabet
cepvr spot JÄ (opposite). They have been

freely penned, with

the letters drawn first
and the decoration
added afterwards.
Modelsfor Versals
Over the centuries, Versals have been
modelled on a variety of letterforms.
During the Gothic period, they
were generally based on Lombardic
Capitals (pp. 62—63). In both the
Caroline and the Renaissance eras,
Imperial Capitals were often used as

models (pp. 108—109). Possibly the

most ornate Versals ever drawn were
those in the de luxe Northumbrian
manuscripts of the early medieval
These were
period (pp. 28—31).
derived from Roman, Greek,
and runic models.
Cadels
The other significant model for
Versals was the Bastard Capital
(pp. 78—79). Enlarged and embellished
by a series of interlacing strokes, this PATTERN BOOK
Designs for Versals were chosen by
type of Versal is known as a Cadel
the patron from pattern books such as
(pp. 80—81). Cadels were later revived this one from the 12th century. This
page shows afinal working pattern, in
for use with Italic (pp. 94—95) and
which the intertwining stems have
Copperplate (pp. 102—103) scripts. been accurately worked out.

59
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

2 3

Gothic Capitals
OTHIC CAPITALS USE the same ductus as the minuscules
21 4
(pp. 52— 53, 56—57) and are written with the same "slanted"
pen. However, the capitals have a wider, rounder aspect than the
rigidly formal minuscules, and the two forms contrast strikingly
when used together. The number of calligraphic flourishes in 1 3

2
each Gothic Capital make it an unsuitable script for writing a
whole word or a full page of text. For this, Lombardic Capitals of the B can

be strengthened with
provide a less flamboyant alternative (pp. 64—65). an additional stroke

c For the
the C,

e«lockwise and
serif of

drag the ink

downwards
twist

the nib anti-

4
2
350
1 3
The bowl of
the D can be
strengthened with an
additional stroke

Letter height
The letter height of the Gothic Capital
is approximately seven pen widths, two 1
higher than the minuscule height.

Hairlines
The inner-letter spaceis reduced by Alternative D
the use of hairlines,drawn with the 3
corner of the nib. There are usually
one or two vertical hairlines, and a The curve of
single diagonal hairline on either side the E can be 2
ofa thicker diagonal stroke. strengthened
1
with an
additional
stroke

Create Tie pointed

the bulges by beaks of the
1
weaving the hackles are drawn
pen in a single with a jagged
downward downward stroke
stroke
Alternative E
5

3
The first 1 6
stroke of the F
Bulges and hackles extends below
Use a pen angle of 2
The vertical strokes of the baseline
about 350 to draw
Gothic Capitals can be
the spiky hackles
given additional weight 4
and interest in the form
3
of bulges or hackles, which

6
protrude to the left of the To draw the
stem. Use only one or the serif of the G,
other and always make
them consistent. Generally,
calligraphers add three
bulges or hackles. cc3 4
twist the nib

anti-clockwise

and drag
the ink

downwards

60
 GOTHIC CAPITALS

additional
H with a
stroke stroke
hairline curl 3

f I The sixth
1 2
2 1
stroke of the
5
On both the I J could be
and the J, the drawn from
bulges are right to left,

drawn 4
last 3 finishing
4 with the

2
3
1 1 3

2 Tie foot of the L 2

tan be adapted to 4
4 join on to the
following letter

3
3 6
The curve of
the V can be
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke

1 4
6 The curve of
the N can be
2
5 strengthened
with an
4
additional
Tlte curve of

Finish the
stroke the W can be
3 6 strengthened with
N with a 3
an additional stroke
hairline curl 4 The bowl of the
O or Q can be
To draw the
strengthened
Q, add a tail with an
to the O 1 3
additional
2 5 stroke

1 3

4 Pull the tail

of the Y
below the
baseline

p 110
4

61
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Lombardic Capitals
LOMBARDIC CAPITAL is a built-up letter characterized
by curved stems and distinctive monoline serifs.

Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 58—59), Lombardic letters

worked well in sequence and so were used for whole
words and phrases. They were successful both in penned
form as display capitals and carved form for monumental
work. The script was increasingly prevalent by the mid-
The letter M can
1 1 th century, and finally ousted by the Humanist Capital alternatively adhere to

in the 16th century (pp. 98—99). However, it enjoyed a LOMBARDIC CAPITAL M a baseline cross stroke,

A square-cut nib is used to making the right-hand

resurgence, particularly as a monumental letter, during draw Lombardic Capitals, stroke a mirror image

with the pen held close to of the left-hand one

the 19th-century Gothic revival in England, under the the horizontal (pp. 64—65). (pp. 64 65)
_

influence of the architect and designer A.W.N. Pugin.

THERE IS A RELUCTANCE among Dots are used on

the letter N to
some authorities to use the adjective

—IN C I P IT:EE
give the strokes
"Lombardic" in relation to this extra weight

script, because the letters have little

specifically to do with the northern

Italianregion of Lombardy. However,
over the centuries, the term has
been widely used and accepted by
calligraphers, typographers, and
letterers, and has come to represent
the particular combination of Imperial
and Uncial elements that make up this

distinctive hand of capital letters.

A simplified Imperial
Lombardic Capitals can be seen as
simplified, pen-drawn versions of the
o o
Roman Imperial Capital.
strokes of the Imperial (pp.
The multiple
110—119)
EST:
are reduced to a minimum, producing
a letter that is relatively easy to execute
(pp. 64—65). The Lombardic script The text is

written in a
usually includes Uncial forms of
veryfine Early
A, D, E, M, and T (pp. W25). Gothic script

4647) —anno.mqtldtm.mqumca mcnftf.cltm cun mmcd10

THE WINCHESTER
BIBLE
The Vision of Ezekiel, from the Winchester
capuuoxum tyrraflltutum chot)årfapcmfunv
Bible (pp. 46—47), includes a series of meticulously crafted
Lombardic Capitals. In common with other works from the
qumca mcnff.1pTc,ct
mid- 12th century, the scribe has shown little concern about annurqumturq-anfmtgvauomfngfroachtm.
breaking words at the end ofa line: for instance, "INCIPIT
EZECHIEL" reads "INCIPIT:EZE/CHIEL". In the illuminated ucrbum dril adczubtcl, fltltfi buzf
initial, Ezekiel is depicted drearning by the River Chobar. The
four interlocking wheels are symbolic of the four Evangelists.
Taccxdoccm-mccrrachaldcmum ftumcn

62
 LOMBARDIC CAPITALS

In this early example These display letters read: "IN NM DNI THE GELLONE SACRAMENTARY
ofa historiated Versal NRI IHU PS INCPT LIB SACR4MTR". In the title letters of this eighth-century text
(pp. 58—59), the Virgin This is an abbreviation of: "IN NOMINE for Christmas Eve Mass, produced
in northern
is shown in theform DOMINI NOSTRI JESU CHRISTI. France, we can discern the crude beginnings
ofa capital letter I INCIPIT LIBER SACR4 MA TRIS" of Lombardic Capitals. The scribe has used
Imperial Capitals as his models, drawing the
outline of each letter in a single stroke with a
narrow pen nib. In the first three lines, letters
feature internal decoration. The words of the
title have been considerably abbreviated. On

the second line the abbreviation of "DOMINI"

as "DNI" has been indicated with a mermaid
instead of with the traditional horizontal stroke.

Built-up letters
Unlike most other capital scripts
included in this book, the Lombardic
letter is not the product of a natural
movement of the hand. While each
basic component of the Gothic
Capital, for instance, is made

from a single stroke (pp. 60—61),

a Lombardic component is built
up from several composite strokes.
The sides of the stems curve inwards,
usually drawn with the pen held
horizontally. The monoline serifs
are also the product of the horizontal

pen; they are generally slightly

concave and are not bracketed
to the main stem as they are in

the Roman Imperial Capital.

Embellishments
The Lombardic Capital forms the
basis for many Versals (pp. 58—59),
and the amount of embellishment
and decoration is limited only by
the scribe's imagination (p. 64).
However, the stone-cut Lombardic
letterform is often modified as a
result of the nature of the surface
for instance, the fine serifs are either
thickened or omitted altogether.
The Lombardic has been used
extensively on other surfaces:

textiles, metals, glass, and ceramics.

Below the title capitals, the chapter

opening has been written in rubricated

Uncial letters (pp. 24—25)

Below the chapter opening, the text

script has been penned in a Half

Uncial hand (pp. 38—39),
recognizable by its upright aspect

63
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Lombardic Capitals 3

HERE IS NO HISTORICAL precedent for a full set of Lombardic

Capitals and those shown here have been compiled from a Either of these 2

variety of sources. Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 60—61), they are

twofonns of A 1
can be used
used for writing complete words and phrases and so consistency
3
is of great importance. Concentrate on making the weight of
stroke, the level of compression or expansion, and the serif

construction exactly the same in each letter you draw.

Uncial
The concave line of the
form of A 1

serifs can terminate at

each end with a
decorative blob 3

14

Waisted stems Use a narrow

Waisted stems can be created by overlapping two broad, 17
pen nib to add
curved vertical strokes and then adding the hairline the decorative 8
horizontals at the top and bottom (above left). A more blobs at the end
6
precise method is to draw the whole outline with a
of the serifs
narrow nib and then fill it in with ink (above centre).

4
Rounded letters
Define the form of Inner circle

rounded letters by
drawing either the Uncial Either of these two
outer or inner circle form of D
first. The latter often
proves more practical
(see letter O, opposite).
3

Expanded and
compressed letters
2
To regulate the chosen
3
level of expansion or Rounded Pointed
compression, use the bow bow
spaces enclosed within
characters as guides,
Compressed letters
have shorter serifs than
expanded letters. Bows
can be fully rounded
Expanded letter Compressed letter
or pointed. 1

Basic form 3
15
7
of letter
Display capitals
Since the 12th century,
Caseline
the Lombardic Capital 2
and
has often been heavily 3
shadow
elaborated when used
as a display capital.
Decoration can range
14
Floral from simple additional
decoration caselines to complex 6
illustrations that are

gilded and in colour.

64
 LOMBARDIC CAPITALS

12
S S

m v-Sv
Lombardic W is a
modem construction

o LIO

o z 65
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

The top loop of the w

should not exceed

Bastard Secretary minim height

TISTORICALLY, THE MORE FORMAL a manuscript hand has become,

the greater has been the need for a functional cursive script to
complement it. Just as the Insular Majuscule spawned the Insular

Minuscule in the eighth century 28—37), so the prestige (pp.

Texturas of the 13th century (pp. 50—57) gave rise to parallel hands
for the less prestigious work of the day. A series of complementary

cursive scripts evolved both regionally and nationally, quickly

developing into fully fledged hands in their own right. They are
classified under the generic title of "bastard" (bastarda) scripts, BASTARD SECRETARY
The w reaches ascender height
the term denoting a mixed cursive and Textura parentage. and is identical in both
minuscule and capital form.

THE CURSIVE SCRIPT (pp. 34—35) The illuminated border and

e FO$cuuunt
rersal are characteristic o
had probably been rediscovered for
15th-century English
documentary use in England towards manuscript work

the end of the 12th century. Although t rtntt

speed was the most important tp patiiltn Ct

genre
consideration, the script was also The downwardNickfrom ttc *rtVttrRtt8130
Cf ttt$c
cvttfi€erßc

the ascenders is known as

designed to impress, as the loops and m mt;tt ut ccpcof toe
an "elephant's trunk"
Prf rat tv tn an
linking letters testify. The French nt ncnßOat frt•cnsven •ntr.n:vat tøpgn

Thefeet of the frogmatg?'l

form of cursive, called Secretary minims turn upwards
tn rcnctvin& tge GorSe• OFottN
frr g•
or Chancery, was introduced into m cttGe•fFre
England and Germany at the end
yat
of the 14th century. When Textura ten fFtTtrtt to onrc
yattg to
yet
tom
features were incorporated, it became tn i$'ttt ttt:frvne
At'S fit tic

known as Bastard Secretary in English, The horizontal stroke over

Of matt tnc9fi-i'ttc ro Gtt tngi'

trot æY0$Gtffor fc tg novt-rSc

Båtarde in French (pp. 70—71). the ampersand denotes the of (one no NI tctvß Cotc ittar

abbreviation Of a word anatcc maficc

ntOte Otter ttC frttttc

tt tt fro VC rotter
MEDITATIONS OX
THE LIFE OF CHRIST
This manuscript page
Rope of ettttttte
shows the translation Get' €fn•tcn 9vtffe tilt tittu' Setterttctnen nov

into Middle English tc m Gote tn ettgfi(Pft'tv

by Nicholas Lowe of t"? Gcttt

IffiycGcGeetGtftttt
a popular 13th-century
cyÉiTcS of toe
AtS¯
Latin work attributed to

to St. Bonaventura. to
cvtuutse•
One of 49 versions
of the text known to
tset•ti
exist, it dates from
about 1450. The
script includes the
Anglo-Saxon thorn
sign, a character that
resembles a y and
represents a "th" sound
(pp. 68—69). This sign KANE MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPT
rennined in use until Dating from about 1430, this earlier translation of St. Bonaventura's
the 16th century. Meditations on the Life of Christ is also the work of Nicholas Lowe. In this
version, the scribe has made use of both the Anglo-Saxon thorn sign and
The Anglo-Saxon thorn the modern th for writing the word "the". Notice also the serifs at the feet
sign has been used of the minims, which are turned upwards and not broken as they are in
throughout the text the Bastard Secretary of the Adam and Eve text (opposite).

66
 BASTARD SECRETARY

French and Germanfeatures

There are certain features that
help identify a bastard script by
its The French form,
nationality.
for instance, is most distinctive
for the calligraphic feast made of

thefand long form Ofs (pp. 7&71).

St•ct0ÄBeÉtt Early German cursive scripts were

etic to Q*attt ,lttp characterized by bold, expanded

minims and tall ascenders and
descenders. When they were
contaminated with Textura features
at the end of the 15th century, the
Fraktur and Schwabacher hands
emerged, featuring "broken"
letterforms (pp. 74—75).
English characteristics
tt V. Sttt In English models, it is the letter w
ego that attracts the most attention — the
to fÖ$Gt.G'tttjEt same impressive, looped form is

used for both minuscules and capitals

ton fottu@ctt st$ mgrt stn@GeF (opposite). Another English feature
make Gefotofe ofotye is the long, downward terminating
flick from ascenders, sometimes
called an "elephant's trunk".
Generally, the English Bastard
Guc to Secretary tends to be staid and
prosaic, lacking the subtle shifts
of pen angle that characterize its

Gentutp tict OttCCN2 French counterpart. As a result, it

töø fro Ss.3tf fc was highly practical, and so had a

Ottt €t mtuc G?frttt long life as a document hand: it was

used well into the 1 8th century.

110
ADAM AND EVE
This text of the story of Adam and Eve was
written in English in about 1415. A fine upright
aspect to the letters suggests that they were written
with an oblique-cut nib. In the best English
w is well pronounced
Bastard script traditions, the
and the "elephant's trunks" are boldly drawn.
The text includes a set ofcapital letters
written IVith the same ductus as the lower-
case text (pp. 78—79)

The impressive hewht and loopingform ofthe Bastard

S«retary w make it the most striking letter in this page of text

DETAIL FROM ADAM AND EVE

In this valuable detail, a split in the quill
allows us to see very clearly both sides of
each stroke. Notice particularly the letter f:
this is constructed with a single stroke, the
pen beginning at the vertical, then turning to
about 300 at mid stem before returning to
the vertical for the descender (pp. 68—69).
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Bastard Secretary 1

S A FUNCTIONAL, CURSIVE script, the Bastard Secretary is

2
written with as few pen lifts as possible, with letters linked
wherever practical. Consequently, the hand can be penned far
1
more quickly than the formal Gothic scripts, such as the Textura
2
Quadrata (pp. 52—53). Ascenders are complemented by strong,
downward diagonal strokes known as "elephant's trunks", drawn
to the right of the stem at an angle of about 450. These echo
the downward diagonal strokes of the minim feet.

The angle of the

1
"elephant's trunks"
should be consistent
throughout the text

Tie tail of the h is usually

dragged to the left of the
letter, almost at a parallel
to the baseline

Key letter
The h is a useful
letter with which to
start practising the
ne e is almost
2 The tail of the e
Bastard Secretary. circular and can
It includes both the 1
could join the
have the appearance
second stroke
"elephant's trunk" that
ofa letter o
sweeps from the head
of the ascender almost 3
to the headline, and
The second
the characteristic
1 4 stroke of the f
downward pull of retraces the first
For the first stroke
the pen at the foot to the headline
of the f, gradually
of the stem. 2 and curves slightly
twist the pen
to the vertical to the right

Drawing an upward loop Adding a downward diagonal

3
With its sweeping hairline loop, the Without lifting the pen, make a
d is one of the most distinctive letters strong downward diagonal stroke, Make a hairline

in the hand. After drawing the bowl, curving it to the left to join the bowl 1 stroke from the

create a large arc by pushing the pen at its midway point. This stroke will foot of the stem to

upwards in one sweeping movement. echo the shape of the loop. the headline, before

starting the final

2
downward stroke
and tail
Basic elements
The pen angle for the
hand is about 40-450
and a square-cut nib is 400
The letters i and j
generally used. Minim
1 2 can be dotted
height is four pen
widths, with the
ascender equal to a
further four widths.

68
 BASTARD SECRETARY

1
Tie bowl and
right foot Of the 2 1 2
k are drawn in
a single stroke

1 2

2 The top
stroke of

Ill lilt
the
be omitted
v can

1 2 3

A separatefifth stroke is not

requiredfor the w if the second
orfourth stroke is extended

2
1
1 (4 2

2
Twist the pen Drag the hairline
1 1
to the vertical
tail of the y with
to produce the comer of the
the tapered pen nib
descender
3 2
of the p

Twist the pen

to the vertical
2 tojinish the
descender of the 2
q with a hairline

Conjoined letters

2 Conjoined letters are less a

feature of the Bastard as the

"17te half r is used to
Quadrata, but this form of
1 1 follow letters with a
p-p ligature is quite common
right-hand bow
Abbreviation Abbreviation
Full r Half r of "that" of ' 'what"

2 Y-t and w-t (featuring the

Anglo-Saxon thom sign, p. 66)

1
were common abbreviations of
the words "that" and "what"
respectively

69
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Båtarde
HE BATARDE (Lettre Bourguignonne) is the French equivalent
of the English Bastard Secretary 66—67). It was developed
(pp.
at the end of the 1 3th century and used until the mid-16th
This baseline cross
century, evolving from a lowly cursive bastard hand into a stroke can be extended

formal, prestige script in its own right. Båtarde achieved its most The tail u the p vvhen the letter begins
is pointed and a word

sophisticated appearance in the mid- 15th century, an era when can be drawn
either upright or
BATARDE P
the popularity of the printed book was increasing among a whole slightly slanted
In constructing the

new section of society. In this de luxe form, it was the hand Båtarde p, a
lifts
series of pen
and angle changes is
favoured by Burgundian court circles, hence its alternative name. required (pp. 72—73).

BY THE MID-15TH century, book

illustration in France was moving
away from medieval stylization
(pp. 54—55), becoming less intricate
and more naturalistic. The Båtarde
hand used for manuscript books was o tap,tta.
shedding its own Gothic ancestry
Guatu md$
letterswere lighter, seeming to
dance on the page. This effect was
nont$ltnmuautt
achieved partly by making several
changes of pen angle during the —trduun ntcüd DID
construction of each letter. In
mat—fratctlrun it
returning to the major key after each
change, the scribe could create a
rhythmic harmony across a page of
irmn ttUUtt mnnttrt
text. This is particularly noticeable
in the Froissart Chronicle (opposite). —titÖmtnttttbtt11
However, in other Båtarde scripts,
such as that in the Book of Hours
(right), the harmony of the text is

achieved instead by the maintenance

tua (up
of one constant overall angle.
man (01 unttt

The split ascenders are one of several

Gothic Textura characteristics that

have survived in this bastard script

BOOK OF HOURS
This page is frotn a small prayer-book
written for the wealthy Poligny family in
about 1470. The script's Gothic origins
are clear: ascenders are split, descenders
modest, and minim strokes terminated with
feet reminiscent of the Quadrata (pp. 50—51).
The overall textural effect is closer to the dense

authority of the Gothic Textura scripts than to

the light harmony ofa true Båtarde, such as that
achieved in the Froissart Chronicle (opposite).

70
 BATARDE

•.xt•qte-et

't•uce et

Ice
cft twp ii
-tie

if

—fr:ce ct
ice cr

cat

Orr

tcC

THE FROISSART CHRONICLE

This is a copy of the 14th-century chronicle Vita Christi
ofJean A delightful book, it has
Froissart.
The scribe of the Vita Christi page
a modern appearance, owing partly to the
relationship of text to margins and partly to the from La Vengeance de la Mort Ihesa
restraint shown The feet of
in the decoration. (left) had arguably lesser skills than
the minims end without elaboration and the
script is generally rnore cursive than that his two contemporaries featured
used to write the Book of Hours (opposite). here. He does not achieve the
harmony of the Froissart Chronicle

or Book of Hours, his pen angles

are inconsistent, and he is unable
to return to any constant pen angle.
Common features
In some examples of Båtarde, thef
DETAIL FROM THE FROISSART CHRONICLE and long form of s lean forward at
The initial C is decorated with a Cadel
(pp. 80—81). The horns on the letterg are an angle. By keeping the angles of
similar to those on the g of another Gothic these two letters absolutely constant,
script, the Fraktur (pp. 76—77). Both the
half r and full r fortns are used in the text.
the scribe can create a counterpoint
cKu• to the main harmony. This textual
Theforward lean of the letter f
effect — known as "hot spots" — is
is one of the most distinctive a common feature of Båtarde.
characteristics d the Båtarde Other frequent characteristics
nonĕ-

VITA CHRISTI PAGE of Lettre Bourguignonne are the

This page from La Vengeance de la Mort Ihesa
overlapping strokes reminiscent
includes the rubricated prologue to the main
text, which opens with a Versal. The book dates of Fraktur (pp. 74—75), and the
from 1479 and was written by David Aubert
delicate hairlines used to join strokes;
of Ghent, scribe to Philip the Good, Duke
of Burgundy. In the illustration, we see the these seem to add a further sense
scribe presenting the book to his patron. of movement to a page of text.

71
GOTHIC SCRIPTS
2

1 3 Finish the
Båtarde first and
third strokes

of the a with
O ACHIEVE THE most successful Båtarde letters, the use of a
a hairline
4
quill is recommended. A sharply cut oblique nib is required flick

to produce the exquisitely fine hairline strokes. The clubbedfand 1

3
long s are frequently written more boldly than other letters and
have a forward slant (the two letters have the same basic form, 2
with a crossbar added for thef). This produces spots" within
the written text and makes for a distinctive textural pattern.

2
Prepare to add the crossbar

to the f by tuming the 1 The curve of the c

terminates with a

hairline flick

2 3

Tlte key letters f and long s

should lean slightly to the right 2 T7te hairline

turn the pen from 300 to the vertical stroke of the e is

Drawing the fand long s 3
drawn at an angle
The many changes of pen angle as you pull the pen downwards,
finishing with a hairline. Retrace the of about 450
required to draw the Båtardefand
long s are typical of this sophisticated first stroke, looping outwards to the

hand. Begin about halfa minim right to create a thickened stroke, and
4
above the headline and gradually return to the original angle of 300. Omit the crossbar of
the f to create the long 3
fonn Ofs (left)
Draw the hairline
1 2 crossbar of the fat
The curved hairline stroke at
the top of the letter q can be an angle of 100
continuous with the descender
The letter f can lean 'lie clubbed shape
forward at a more of the f can be

pronounced angle than exaggerated

3
this (pp. 70—71)
Descenders
The descenders of letters p and
q are made by turning the nib 1 2
anti-clockwise from the horizontal
to the vertical, finishing with a
hairline. The descenders may
alternatively slant to the left,
4
echoing the forward lean of
4
the f (above) and long s.
1
7/35
Tie height of the
Båtarde minim is 3
Tie leading stroke
about four pen widths of the hjinishes
A • hairline at the
with a Jlatfoot
Flat feet top and tail of

2 the letter h is
Flat feet occur on all leading
characteristic
straight minims in the script,
1 1
such as the stem of the t and
the first leg of the n. In a Tie i and
more cursive version of 2 2
j can be
Båtarde, the minims may dotted
terminate with a flick at the
end of the downward stroke,
as on the second leg of the n.

72
 BATARDE

3
1
Tie stem and
leading foot of
24 The stem andfoot
of the t can be drawn 3
the k can be
in a single stroke
drawn in a
single stroke 5
2 2
3

2 4

Thejirst and second

strokes of the I can Tie foot of the I can be

be combined extended slightly

3
2
3

single movement
2 5 6

1 5

3 w
2 '171" is constructed

front tteo conjoined vs

3

2 2

Drag out the hairline

tail g/ the x tvith the

comer of the nib 2

2

3
3
Twist the pen
to a near vertical

angle to form the

hairline descender

of the p
2

3 2 The letter z can

altematively be
drawn in a single
stroke
2 Il'here practical, Båtarde

letters can be connected

and the left bow Of the

3
Tie p and h are the o can be conjoined

only letters not joined

4
here by a hairline stroke

73
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Fraktur & Schwabacher

RAKTUR (GERMAN LETTER) is a marriage between
German cursive scripts and Textura Quadrata (pp. 51>51 ). FRAKTUR A
Manuscript examples of the hand date from about 1400 and it The distinctive

spikes of tnany
first appeared as a typeface about a century later. Early type Fraktur letters

are the product

versions of Fraktur, and its more cursive, vernacular cousin
of overlapping
Schwabacher, remained close to their pen-written origins. strokes (pp. 76-77).

They were designed by the leading German calligraphers

of the day, including Johann Neudörffer the Elder. The two
scripts continued to influence calligraphy and type design
until the mid-20th century, and had a formative influence on
the work of eminent practitioner Rudolf Koch (opposite).
The Fraktur a is always a single-storey
letter with an enclosed bowl

tttttnt•uttt

tt-qt
II.Ä• $0teitttcmcr«tevtrgint$Nq
WORKSHEET
THE DIFFERENCES between Fraktur
This portion ofa
nefcatnötnnvtitntæontflne
and Schwabacher are difficult to worksheet (above) is curie.
define precisely. Both feature the possibly the oldest
surviving e.xatnple
swollen body and pointed tail of the of Fraktur-related
Båtardefand long s (pp. 70—71), as lettering. It was et0$ ntcuntfltv
written in about 1400
well as curved strokes on the bows
by Johannes vorn ttttncttflbtt
of letters and
a, b, c, d, e, g, h, o, p, Hagen, who refers to
the hand as "Nottula
q. Diamond strokes reminiscent of
Fracturaruyn" ("broken
Textura letters are a distinctive feature notes"). It is from this
döit1ttäÖttnt
terni that the narne
of the hand, but there is a tendency
"Fraktur" is believed
for terminal strokes to be curved. All Atrtctfv
to have been derived.

letters have a rigidly upright aspect. ictttcnt

Generally, the Schwabacher has a
The tail of this p, and
broader, more cursive form than the that dother letters on the
bottom line oftext, may
Fraktur, and does not have the forked
have been added by hand
ascenders and excessive elaboration of gfier the book was printed

that hand. Some of the most striking

versions of Schwabacher were
penned, centuries after the script first The illustrations and
rersals were added (dier the
appeared, by the calligrapher and the text had been completed
designer Rudolf Koch (opposite).

74
 FIVIKTUR &SCHJVABACHER

MATTHAUS EVANGELIUM
In this Gerrnan text of the Gospel
utöag of St. Matthew from 1921, Rudolf
Koch cornbines the features of Fraktur
von
and Textura Quadrata to the ultilnate
degree — the lines of text appear to
have been knitted. Koch classified this
style as a version of Schwabacher, and
explained: "The page should seem to
be stacked with finished rows of
lines...especially the space between
words must not be broader than that
between lines." The Versals have been
treated in an equally robust Inanner,
resulting in two beautifully designed
pages of text.

dui In Koch's text, the interlineär space

nan has virtually disappeared, allogång

lust sufficient vvhitc for the eye to

scan along the lines horizontally

JC

tguå

inp:incipiotnttnct ctttpw:

DETAIL FROM German Letter

MATTHAUS
EVANGELIUM By the early 16th century, a further
(cptu«gcftntflnt: The controlled form of Fraktur and Schwabacher
freedom of Koch's
had developed that has since come to
letterfortns is shown
in this detail froni typify German scripts. It featured
öicitttr.e«tt$tt t Matthäus Evangeliu:n "broken" letters created bv the
(above). Radical in its

tinie, such work gave overlapping of strokes (pp. 76—77).

new meaning to the
used only in German-speaking
term "Black Letter"
areas, this broken letter is frequently
(pp. 5(E51).
referred to as a "German Letter".

The straight, compressed

The rejection of Italian scripts
aspect d the hand betrays Fraktur and Schwabacher enjoyed
its Textura origins: even the
Cnitccndtcnut$öonti longer lives than any other bastard
letter f has an uprightform
script in Europe — in the earlv 20th
ttö*+ltlbticnut$öco
.4.1 _
PRAYER-BOOK century, half the books printed in
These pages frorn
the prayer-book of
Germany still featured Fraktur-based
Emperor Maxirnilian hpefaces. This longevity was a direct
were published by
result of the German rejection of Italic
Schönsperger of
Niiremberg in 1514. and Humanist scripts (pp. 90—101).
The Fraktur type was
There were two important factors in
designed by Johann
Neudörffer the Elder, this rejection: firstly, the Reformation
father of three caused Protestants in northern
generations of
calligraphers. The Germany to reject Italian hands as
border decoration is
a political gesture; secondly, was it
equally outstanding,
being the work of
widely believed that a Humanist
Albrecht Diirer. script did not suit German text.

75
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Fraktur 1 3 Either of these tuo

forms ofa can be used

HE UPRIGHT, COMPRESSED letters of Fraktur are closer in

Alternative a
appearance to the Gothic Textura scripts (pp. 50—57)
3
than either the Bastard Secretary (pp. 68—69) or the Båtarde
(pp. 72—73). The hairline spikes, such as those on letters b, g,

h, and q, are a distinctive feature of Fraktur and do not tend to 1 4

occur on the rounder Schwabacher letters. The pen angle of

about 400 is altered only for drawing the pointed descenders. 2

The ascender can be drawn

with a single rounded

stroke or with a split serif 1

minim height is about

Jive pen widths, with a
Curl the ascender of the
further two for ascenders
d back to the right to
and descenders 2
avoid the letter tilting

to the left

400 pen nib should be

1
square-cut for drawing
Fraktur letters

Rounded strokes
Despite the Fraktur
letter's upright aspect,
many strokes are
actually rounded. Here, 1 2
the ascender of the letter
b hasbeen drawn with
a curve toecho the
3
rounded stroke of the
bowl. Whether you 1 The first and second
choose straight or
strokes of the f can
rounded letters or split
4 be drawn without
or pointed ascenders,
lifting the pen
it is important to be as

consistent as possible
Twist the pen front 400 2
throughout the text.
to near vertical for the
descender of the f
The crossbar is a common feature
of the letter g in both Fraktur
4 Tlte second and third
and Schwabacher scripts 1
strokes Of the g can
Altematively, the hairline 2 be drawn in one
Spike strokes
can be drawn as a 3 continuous
The distinctive
continuation of the first
movement
Fraktur spikes are
made by extending stroke (see g, opposite)
3
one stroke over the
previous one. The 1 4
more pen lifts there The spike stroke overlaps

are in a letter, the the bottom of the rounded

more spikes stroke of the bowl

are created. 2

The tail of the g can

Jinish with a short
Fraktur descenders are
hairline, a blob, or
restrained, except on the
a backward sweep; 2
bottom line ofa page of 2
alternatively, it can be
text, where additional
looped (see g, right) flourishes can occur

76
 FRAKTUR

3
1

Begin the t
3
with an
upward stroke

2 2

2
3

TieJina1f00t
of them can
4

17te w is constructed from

a conjoined u and v
4
Tie jinal foot 1 4
of the n can terminate
2 with a diamond stroke 7
2

Either of these two

forms of o can be used 5

00 Alternative o
2
2

4
Use
the nib to
the

hairline tail
comer of
draw the
of the x

3 3

Twist the 1
Use the corner of
pen from 4
400 to near 2 the nib to draw the

vertical for
hairline tail of the y
the descender

of the p
2

Gradually twist the

1 3
The third stroke
pen from 400 to
2 of the z can
near vertical for the
altematively be
descender of the q
penned in two
3 separate strokes

4 1

This "elephant's
2
trunk" can be used on
3
letters b, h, k, and I

Full r Half r 3
2

On the s, the sequence

Alternative h
T7iis curling hairline
4
can be altered, tail can be used on
with the top stroke letters h, m, and n
1
drawn second
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

4
3 5
Bastard Capitals
ASTARD CAPITALS HAVE the same ductus as the minuscules
D that they accompany (pp. 68—77), and are penned with the 2

same nib. In most instances, they tend to be wide, expanded

4
letters. The thick stem strokes are often supported by a thin
vertical slash to the right, and the addition of a diamond stroke '3

in the centre of the counter is also common. Like the bastard

minuscule hands, the capitals were subject to a range of
individual and regional variation. Because of this diversity, the 2
3
alphabet shown here should be regarded only as a general guide.
C could
alternatively take

thefcfrm Q/ the
1 2 E
Basic elements (below), but

The pen angle of without the cross

the Bastard Capital is stroke

about 400 or the same

as the rninuscule that

it accompanies. The
letter height is about
six pen widths. The
characteristically wide 1 3
letters, such as the B,

are a direct product

400
of downward and
horizontal arced
2 3 4
sweeping strokes.

5 Tie hairline
1
vertical on
the E can
Draw the hairlines teith 2
the corner of the nib

Connecting hairlines 3

On letters H, M, and
N, hairline strokes are
4 This double stem
1
often used to connect
F is reminiscent of
two main downstrokes. the Gothic Capital
This hairline should 2
(pp. 60—61)
spring from the right
edge of the baseline serif.
3

Spurs 2 Alternatively,

Weight can be added the G can be

to vertical stems in the constructed

form of diamond- om a series

shaped spurs. Each spur of composite

can be sharpened with strokes

a short hairline flick.

4

Linlit the number

1 Tlte upward linking
of diantond-shaped
hairline stroke Of the
spurs to two or three
-3
H is made with the

comer of the nib

' 'Elephant's trunks"
The "elephant's trunk"
2
so characteristic of the
Bastard Secretary (pp.
68—69) also occurs on
capital lettersH, K, 2 2
L, and X. Draw the 3
diagonal trunk with 1

the full width of the

nib, finishing with
a short hairline.

78
 BASTARD CAPITALS

Draw the hairline strokes of the

M with the comer of the nib

Draw the

hairline stroke

21 of the
the
N with
comer
of the nib

Taper the tail of

the X with the
edge of the nib

Twist the pen almost

to the vertical to taper

the descender

of the P

Draw the hairline

linking stroke
of the R with
the comer
This altemativefonn of h
of the nib
features a long hairline tail

In this ampersand
the T is stressed

Ampersand Alternative ampersand

79
 CADELS

Cadels
HE INVENTION OF the Cadel (Cadeaux) in the early 15th
century is attributed to Jean Flamel, librarian to the
prominent patron of the arts, the Duc de Berry. Flamel used
these large, patterned capitals to inscribe the duke's name
in the front of each manuscript. By the mid- 15th century,
hit':

Cadels were widely used in northern Europe as single Versals

(pp. 58—59), mainly in vernacular text written in the various CADEL H
Despite the apparent complexity ofthis 16th-
bastard scripts (pp. 66—79). During the 16th century, they century Cadel, the main structure of the letter is
appeared in Italic text in increasingly elaborate forms. easily pennable (pp. 82—83). The fine internal
decoration can be drawn with a flexible steel nib.

BY THE END OF the 16th century,

This Bastard Capital

the Cadel was frequently appearing
letter D, with its looped as a Versal in printed form, and the
ascender, is a useful model
advent of copperplate engraving led
for drawing a Cadel
(pp. 78-79)
tomore fanciful elaboration than was
achievable with a broad-edged pen.
CADELS, CAPITALS,
AND MINUSCULES This paralleled the development of the
These letters were various Italic and Copperplate hands
penned in the second
half of the 15th
(pp. 94—107), with which the Cadel
century, possibly by was often incorporated.
the English scribe
Interlace patterning
I. Ricardus Franciscus.
One basic element of The Cadel differs from other capitals
the Cadel contained
used as Versals in that it is composed of
in the letter A is the
which has
left foot, interlacing strokes rather than built-up
been constructed from strokes (pp. 58—59). It is drawn with
three strokes linked
by a series of shorter a constant pen angle — this produces
f € Cfftr thick and thin strokes that create a
strokes.This linking
system is the key to
pattern with a continuously changing
more complex letters,
such as the H (above). direction of line. In this way, substance
is added to an otherwise skeletal letter.

Interlaced strokes can also be

Cadels were generally used
used to embellish the ascenders on
with Bastard scripts: here,
the minuscules resemble a the top line of a page of text or the
German cursive hand
descenders on the bottom line.
(pp. 7#75)

FLAMEL'S CADELS ENGRAVED ALPHABET

This page from a manuscript
belonging to the Duc de Berry
was written by Jean Flatnel in
about 1409. Although the basic
structure of the Cadels is relatively
simple, the fact that so many have
been used on the same page creates
an impressive overall effect.
This alphabet of capitals was
engraved by Thomas Weston
in 1682. Although the main
structure of the letters follows
that of Bastard Capitals
(pp. 78—79), the basic forms
have been embellished with
typicalCadel scrolls and interlaces.

81
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Cataneo's Cadels
These letters B and C are based on the initials
of Bernardino Cataneo, writing master at the
Cadels University of Siena, Italy, between 1544 and 1560.
In their original form, they were used with text
in Rotunda (pp. 86—87) and Italic (pp. 96—97).
HE GREAT VARIETY of existing Cadel models makes it very difficult to
assemble a complete alphabet. These examples have been selected
The skeleton B consists
to represent a few general principles. Although Cadels can look very
ofa spine and two bowls
daunting to accomplish, in practice they are often a great deal easier than
you may think and, when used as Versals, they can look very impressive.
I. Begin the
The golden rule is to begin at the core of the letter and work outwards.
stem of the B with
a double stroke,
Letter spine with the inner
Always begin with the spine
stroke leading
of the letter. Here, the spine into the stroke
is composed of downward
top bowl.
diamond strokes and straight
Next add the single
vertical strokes. The pen angle
stroke of the lower bowl,
for both types of strokes is
leading into a tail.
between 350 and 450.

1. Establish the
basic structure The decorative

of the Cadel in -flOUrishes are

added last
pencil before
retracing the
strokes in pen.
2. Build up the
skeletal form
with loops at

Use a pencil for the the top of the

initial planning of the bowl and spurs
letter's structure to the left of the
stem. Scrolls can be
added as a final flourish.

The top
Of the bowl
has been
extended

The Cadel is decorated

1. To begin the C,
Diamond strokes with delicate flower
draw the spine and
A series of diamond and leaffonns
the top curve in a
strokes is a common
single stroke.
feature of the Cadel
The bottom
spine. Move the pen
curve can be
downwards in a
drawn in the
controlled, zigzagging form of a foot.
movement, without
altering the pen angle.
A pen angle of 450 "lie inner hairline strokes and
2. Once the scallops are similar to those
will give symmetrical
main strokes used in Gothic Capitals
diamonds.
of the letter (pp. 60—61)
are penned,
flourishes and 1
decoration
can be added.

Maintain a
2. Build up the
pen angle of
Cadel with a
450for a
system of
series of short,
linked
neat diamonds
diminishing
strokes to create

"boxes" (opposite).

82
 CADELS

Drawing a Cadel A Cadel ornamentation

This apparently complex A can be built up In order to build up the weight ofa main stroke or to create a change
quite quickly in four stages. Diamonds have in line direction, various types of ornamentation can be used. The
been drawn into the legs of the A, so keep patterns shown below have all been created with the pen at a constant This pattern

a constant pen angle to ensure an even angle. Each involves a series of short strokes that move at 900 to each involves a series of

distribution of thick and thin strokes. other in a series of thin and thick "boxes". This simple device can be four small "boxes",
followed by a line of
adapted to form increasingly complex patterns.
three "boxes"
A constant pen angle is

essential in the creation

of "box" pattems
1. Begin by penning the
five basic components of
the letter: the two legs,

two feet and top stroke.

Allow yourself ample

space between strokes.

Terminal "boxes" Basic "boxed" strokes ' 'Box" steps

Straight horizontal strokes are
In this pattern, the The basic principleof the "boxed" stroke In a principle similar to the
best avoided, so use curved
use of "boxes" allows is that when the pen moves sideways, a thin basic "boxed" stroke (above
diagonals for the feet Of the A be terminated
strokes to line is produced, and when it moves upwards left), this pattern involves the
2. Build up the legs in different directions. or downwards, a thick line is produced. "boxes" moving sideways
Of the letter With two works best on
in steps. This
complementary upright curved strokes and requires
strokes on either side
careful planning.
of the core diamond Interlocking loops
strokes. As a general A seriesof interlocking
rule, the legs should but unjoined loops can
have more weight be adapted at a
than the feet. terminal stroke or
provide an infill. The semi-circular loops interlock

without actually touching

The lines of the serif Mirror images

echo those of the feet This patterning is loosely based
on a decorated descender from the
16th-century "Alphabet" of Mary
of Burgundy. The two halves of
3. Keeping a the ornamentation suggest a
constant pen angle, mirror image. This decoration
build up the feet. would work equally well from a
Changes of line top line of an ascender. 1. Begin by folding a sheet of
direction can now lightweight layout paper in half— the
be introduced. fold will represent the centre line of
the image. Fold the paper again at a
right angle to the original fold — this
will represent the arm. Unfold the
Changes of line Small tenninal loops should be drawn paper and work out the sequence,
have
direction complete; this is easier than trying loops, and interlaces of half the pattern.
been introduced to construct halfa loop
Finish the
Cadel by
terminating the
strokes with

loops and
hairlines

The balance of thick and thin 2. Using the right angle fold as a
strokes in the left arm will be centre line, work out the strokes for
the exact reverse of those in the arm. When this is complete, fold
the right arm the paper over the centre line and
repeat the pattern from the see-
4. Now add the crossbar, breaking the through image. Any flaws in the
strokes as they cross the lines of the legs. become immediately
design will
Finally, add the decorative loops and flourishes. obvious when the pattern is reversed.

83
ITALIAN & HUMANIST SCRIPTS
The right half of the
o has a smoother

Rotunda semi-circular

sweep than
the left

(pp. 86—87)
HE GOTHIC INFLUENCE on western European scripts between
the tenth and 13th centuries was largely resisted in one
major country — Italy. The clarity of classical inscriptions, still
evident throughout the land, the continued use of a wide,
rounded hand called the Beneventan, and the retention of the
Caroline Minuscule, were all factors in the emergence of ROTUNDA O
The roundness

a formal script that differed from its Gothic contemporaries of the o is the key to
Rotunda and is reflected
in its round, open aspect. It was known as Rotunda. in all the boived letters.

BY THE 12TH CENTURY, the prestige

Rotunda script had developed into
an extremely formal and upright
version of the Caroline Minuscule
(pp. 38—39), with slightly shorter
ascenders and descenders than Ozanotütotatrnofh.tl
itsparent script. The hand
also embodied elements of the
L) iOccrotc
Beneventan, most notably in
the rounded strokes on many mntna
letters. In contrast, straight strokes

were square-cut and rigidly upright.

A legible hand
In general, the Rotunda was bolder ptctattpicnt(li'
than the Caroline Minuscule, but
the rounded strokes and modest
ascenders and descenders created
ito:tuu congol.1t10Ufoi.1
a clear, legible script that was used
for handwritten work long after
ro.'tun
the introduction of printing. The
simplicity of the letterforms made
the script equally popular as a model
for typefaces, thriving in that form
crturgo pitfarni
until as late as the 1 8th century.
nuCcnco:otcf01ts
The many curved strokes, such as this
ctqvactc.fouspl
on the letter o, helped continue the

Italian tradition of open, rounded scripts

The square baselinefoot of the letter f is a

distinctive characteristic of the Rotunda

BOOK OF HOURS
This small Book of Hours, produced in
Bruges in about 1480, shows the evenness and
regularity of the Rotunda. The script differs
from that used for the Verona Antiphoner
(opposite) in one significant respect — the
upturned of the minims. Here, they are a
feet
continuation of the minim strokes, which results
in slightly more cursive letters than was usual.

84
 ROTUNDA

Large-scale letters
As a manuscript hand, the Rotunda was
written in a full range of sizes, from very
small to very large, and was the chosen
some of the largest known
script for
manuscript books in the world.
.1trc. cti1C. When written on a large scale, the
letters can have a rigid formality
uti.(n and the hairline strokes often seem
disproportionately light.
Rotunda Capitals
Accompanying capitals are written
with the same pen as the minuscules
A double stroke can be used
cö#ctll äsc1021i pfall,i
(pp. 88—89).
for the stem, with a clear gutter between
strokes. In some historical instances, the

Rotunda Capital was developed into a

Versal. In others, Gothic or Lombardic
Versals were used with Rotunda
mctw.p Cöfitc text script.
A common feature of all Rotunda
letters, both minuscule and capital,
CIC11i my is the sharpness of the cut of the nib,
which gives clear, precise strokes and
fine hairlines. In larger versions,
O n fcTec itjflic the pen should be clearly lifted after
the completion of each stroke, while
in smaller versions, many strokes can
be drawn in one continuous movement.

These large-scale Rotunda letters lack any

cursivefeatures: note the angularity with
which the ascenders and straight minim
strokes have been drawn

Compare the unusual broken forms of

the strokes on capitals A, C, and E with
the more commonform (pp. 88—89)

THE VERONA ANTIPHONER

This Antiphoner (book of chants and anthems) was
written in about 1500 for the monasteries of SS Nazro
Etnpbitbeofig fm 50tifutt1+C.oe lure ent
and Calio in Verona, Italy. This type of book was often pbi.z fin Bof,in futmrub2i.oe loca.z cow,
written in a large format to enable several choristers to
read it at the same time. The Rotunda letters have been
tiC+5Åd fit empbitbeof,$t empbitbeo
drawn with considerable precision, with idiosyncrasies
arising only in the unusual broken form of the capitals. fig greceé melio:qtio latie.Äb initio ei
This Carolineform of d features
flerilia p büc pccdebäf:vtig accipct
an upright stem and curved bowl
ré i meliozéffatfi Oeduceret:z fferilé fertile;
ROTUNDA AS A TYPEFACE redderet.poffea tn pmi(Tti5 rcb fcrtitib
The type used in this dictionary was possibly from the
founts of the Venice-based German printer Erhard z fructuofiffimifetnpbitbeoticgripofe:vt
Ratdolt (pp. 90—91), who had punches cut for a
Rotunda type in 1486. This detail shows two different C.öc iure empbi.l.j+in empbitbe
forms of d: the uncial form and the upright Caroline
offs '"1 empbitb€otic? ille qui
form — both can be seen in the middle of the sixth line.

85
ITALIAN & HUMANIST SCRIPTS
1
'lie foot of
4

Rotunda The a is characterized

2
the a could

altematively
by its hairline curl Jinish with
a sweep to
OTUNDA IS AN upright, open letter, which works well on
3 the right
both a large and small scale. The characteristic straight stem
strokes, such as those on letters b, f, and h, are constructed with
1

the pen held at about 300. The square foot is then added in one
T7tejlat-headed 3
of two ways. The simplest method is to use the corner of the nib ascender of the b
to outline the foot, before filling it in with ink. Alternatively, can be replaced by
a split ascender
the "dual ductus" technique can be used, which involves turning
the pen from 300 to the horizontal in one short movement. 2

Although the latter may seem more complex, it is probably 2

preferable when drawing large Rotunda letters.

On large-scale

Rotunda letters,

the curved stroke

is drawn separately

from the straight

stroke

Ifthe upright stroke begins 2

at 300, tum the pen to the

horizontal to create a Jlatfoot

Complete the sweep to the

right in a single stroke

2

Sweeping strokes
On letters in which the stem
stroke ends in a right sweep, Tteist the pen
1
such as I (above), the sweep is to the vertical
Alternative 3
usually completed in a single for the crossbar
crossbar
stroke. On larger letters, two of the f
separate strokes are used

(see b, l, and t, right).

2
Key letter
The o is the key letter of the
Rotunda. The bowls of b, d, g, p,
and q closely follow its shape, and its 3
1
open aspect is also echoed in the c
and e. The first stroke is only slightly
4
curved, closely following a vertical
before sweeping vigorously to the
right. The second stroke is much
Tie second
more semi-circular than the first. TheJ7at-headed
stroke of the
ascender of the h
1 2 h can be
can be replaced by
extended and
a split ascender
the third

stroke omitted
3
Terminating flicks 4 3
As an alternative to the sweeping
stroke, letters m, n, and u can
terminate with a flick. These are 2 2
severe and rather mechanical: the
stroke is simply executed with a pen
angle of 300 and without any
directional turn of the pen. 3

86
 ROTUNDA

T7teflat-headed
ascender of the k Twist the pen
Alternative 1 3 to the vertical
can be replaced by
a split ascender crossbar to complete the
crossbar of the t

3 2
second leg Of the
u can finish with a flick
1

Tie flat-headed ascender of the 5

1
I

1 can be replaced by a split ascender

Alternative 3 6
2
The finalfoot of the foot
m can finish with a Jlick
1

Alternative 7 3
foot

1 3 The secondfoot 1 4

Alternative 5 3 6
foot
2 1 5

Drag the ink with

2 the comer of the nib to
1
make the tail of the x

The second stroke of 4

the o is more semi-
circular than the first

1 2
Altematively, 1 2 3
twist from the

diagonal to the
horizontal for 4
the serif Of the p
2 1

q 1 3

Any tum letters with

The use of the
opposing bows
1 half r is common
can be conjoined
in Rotunda text

Full r Half r Conjoined Conjoined b Apart from conjoined

Each stroke of the s begins or d and e and o letters, Rotunda letterforms

2 ends on the central hairline are clearly separated

ITALIAN & HUMANIST SCRIPTS
1

Rotunda Capitals
HE STRUCTURE OF the Rotunda Capital is less clearly defined
than the minuscule (pp. 86—87). Both single and double stem 5
1

capitals can be used; historically, they were often combined with

Vertical

Lombardic Capitals (pp. 64—65). The double stem capitals shown hairlines can
2 5
here have been taken from a number of sources and should be be added

through the
regarded only as guide for individual interpretations. As with the
counter of
Rotunda minuscules, a "double ductus" applies, with all curved the B
strokes and some upright strokes drawn with the pen at 300, and 4
3
the remaining strokes drawn with the pen at the horizontal.

Sweeping curved strokes help 1 2

establish a rhythm

The pen is held at 300for the

curved strokes of the Rotunda

Capital

A single diamond
stroke reduces the

volume of space
Diagonal hairlines can be
2
in the counter ,
added to the letter D (left)
4

3
1

Counters 5
The round, open nature of the Rotunda
Capital tends to produce generous 2
counters. The expanse of white space
3
can be broken by the addition of spurs,
diamonds, double hairlines, or a Tie stem of
1
combination of these elements. the F can
altematively be
4
5 drawn with a
double stroke

Square feet
Ifthe pen is at 300 at the top of the 4
2
stem, the angle should be maintained
for the whole stroke, finishing at the
baseline. To create the square foot,
use the corner of the nib to trace
2
along the baseline and up to' join the
right side of the stem. Fill in this

triangle of white space with ink.

4

Tie feet are outlined

and filled in with the
comer the nib
5

Alternative form of M
In this form of M, the double
2
stroke is in the centre of the letter 6
1
and a large sweeping stroke has
been incorporated. The volume
3
of space in the counter has been
Hackles can be added
reduced by the double hairline.
to the Jirst stem of the I

The gap between the two stem strokes

shotdd be about halfa pen width

 ROTUNDA CAPITALS

2
4

1
Tum the pen
4
from the
horizontal to
300 to draw
the final stroke
of the U

4
2

horizontal for
2 the central stroke 2
of the M
5

2 4
2 7
1 4
Tum the

pen from 300 The cross stroke

1 5
2 3 4
to the on the X gives 3
horizontal to the letter
6
draw the first additional uvight
stroke

of the N 2
5 1

4
O and 1 5 To form the 2 3 4
the Q have Q, add a tail

the same basic to the O

form

2 6
Turn the 1

Tum the
1
4
A hairline
stroke can
3 33 Intemal decoration can take
4

thefonn of hairline cross

strokes and diamonds

of the R Alternative forms of O

2

Any Rotunda Capital can be

1 3
drawn with a single rather than

4 Single stem a double stem; this plainerform

Rotunda is best for use in text with

Capital R minuscules (pp. 86—87)

5
89
ITALIAN' 8. HUMANIST SCRIPTS

Humanist Minuscule
HE HUMANIST MINUSCULE (Littera Antiqua) and the Roman
Imperial Capital (pp. 108—109) are the two historical scripts
most influential in our modern society. Between them, they give
us the basic constructions of our capital and lower-case letters,
both in handwritten and typewritten form. In the Humanist HUMANIST MINUSCULE M
The serifs have All Humanist Minuscule
Minuscule, the darker overtones of the Gothic scripts gave way been dragn with have an upright aspect
letters
the pen held at 300 with clearly defined strokes.
to the lighter style of the
Renaissance letter. It would
be difficult to envisage a
script better suited to the

intellectual ideals of the age.

Lonc uo(uncaas cuc coronach nos c

THE HUMANIST Minuscule was utcm ccct-naltl n I) c- domrnc-t

essentiallv a rediscovery of the dcus mcus n confl»ecflu Oxo u iam
1 me
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38—39).
a 111 .A n Conucrccrc. S.
As a clear, unambiguous hand, free
from affectation, the Caroline was C) nunc nc tnfut•orc tT10 at- (tas mc nc
considered by 14th-century scholars, ( In it-a tua corri las Inc (crctT mct
including the Italian poet Petrarch,
donunc quomatn 111 firnuts nun Cana
to be in harmony with the ideals
of the Renaissance.
Although the Humanist Minuscule t antma Inca atr
was to have a profound and formative
bat a tu (lom:nc
influence on modern Latin-based
m-iting, acceptance of it was initially onucrt-crc donunc ct crrpc ai
slow. The widespread popularity of mam Incarn .
mc facproptcr
the script came only after manuscript

books were superseded by printed

m lfcrtcorc{tain tuanv
works, and it was adapted as a tn morte rncmor City tuc tn ('(cr

model for text hpefaces, notably by

Nicholas Jenson of Venice after 1470

(pp. 38—39). It gradually replaced

boraut ctntru Inco pcr fin
the Rotunda in Italy (pp. 8-#85) and
the Gothic scripts of Britain and
southern Europe as the principal
model for typefaces.

BOOK OF HOURS
This Book of Hours was written in Bologna
in about 1500 for Giovanni II Bentivoglio.
Arguably, the surnptuous decoration and
bright colours of the Versals detract fiorn the
dignity of the text script itself. The flat serifs

at the heads of the ascenders are the natural

product ofa horizontally held pen (pp. 92—93).

90
 HUMANIST MINUSCULE

Vote the scrupulous

PIOohata Pauli Ad EpbCtas
consistencv "'ith Ilbich these

small ampersands hare been

drau•n throughout the text fouet earn "cut tn promdftone • Vt ttbt
• Chnftusecclefiam gut. membrafu
:
gaus tetram. F t patres no
mus coepns nus de caene aus lite ad tracundiam prou«are ve
01Gbusetus Peopterbcr relinquet aros fed educate illostndlfciphnaet
Mar mo patrem e, matccm Cuam & ad •
correpttone domini. Serot o&dtte do
The book has been berebit vxon aunt duo i cat
eq,
mtntS catnaGbus cum timore trerno

handtvritten on vellum
ne vna.Sacramentum lxr magnum re • m Ctr+ettatecordts veilrt ficut c h
eff. Ego autem m cbrtfro i no:non ad «uium fermentes quaG bo
ecclefia. Verdtamen vos f
mtntbus placentes Ced Vt Grut cbnlh
:

vnuCqutCvxorem Cuam ficut etp faaentes voluntatem dei : ex ammo

The •ersals are based on
I
Cum dil.gat :vxorautem tnneat byna volantate Cetutentes Gcut donu
Roman and not Lombardic Iuum. oc & non bommibus •fctentes quanta
letterforms (pp. 5S 59) .[eq. A popol%.prvmgtn vnuqtnfqy fecertt bourn
os epentes quomodo snuicem Vtuat reaptet a domtno, Gue feruus
rnfhtuit • det"de feruos e domtnos ,

lt&r. Et vos domtni eadem faette dbs

ST. PAUL's EPISTLE fdt•prentes honorent .pgrentes illes remittentø mrnas : Cc.enus quta 'lb
Written in about ad nm' frouocent. Serga/b' rum vener domtnusen m . e
Edh domano. dotnjn/
this text cornbines Ffonarum accepuo non en apud dea
and Hutnanist
Italic
trufent. Popremø E De enerofratres confortarmni m do
bejGos ad mdtttamfidet hortatørxg
mmo & tn ptentia vtrtutnetus. in
Minuscule hands to
Jiu oird'te parenttbus vns duttevos armaturam dei Vt FOIGtis
dratnatic etiéct. Despite •n donuno. emm liare aduerfus infidtas : ao
the diniinutive size of ell. tuum matrem. mam non ea nobts colluaatio aduer
the letters, reproduced tuam quai en mandatum pnmum
:
(us carnern Cangutnem. fed aduer
here approxinntely the
saine size as they are
written, each character
rennins distinct and
clearly legible, At a

glance, the nnnuscript

tnav be Inistaken for a
printed book.

In this margin annotation,

THE HANDWRITING
the early use g/ Arabic
OF PETRARCH
A small letter
numerals is cridcnt
The developed
script Like the Caroline Minuscule, the
by Francesco Petrarch
Humanist Minuscule was an elegant
PRINTED TEXT as probably the first
Fifteenth-centurv Hurnanist Minuscule. hand that worked most successfully
text type was closely This annotation by on a small scale. This is evident in
tnodelled on the the poet to his copy
handwritten letters of Suctonius's Lives the diminutive letters of the Epistles
of the period, The Caesars, was Inade in Italv, the Rotunda
-12B text (above). In
between
sitnilarities about 1370 and clearly
this typeface (belou), detnonstrates the
(pp. 84—85) continued to be used
printed after 1486, degree to which for large-scale book work.
and the handwritten he had adopted the
Hutnanist Minuscule Caroline Minuscule as
Versals and capitals
of St. Paul's Epistle a model for his hand. Versals, so popular with Gothic
(above) are verv clear.
scribes, 'svere also used with the
The satne serif
forrnation has been These Italic letters u•ere Humanist Minuscule, but these were
used tör both capitals probably cut by the goldsmith
and Ininuscules. Francesco Gri/fb in
increasingly modelled on Roman
forms (pp. 108—109). The use of
capitals for sentence openings was
ex cis quæ maniÉefte apparent concludamus,af/ now universal. Also derived from
yatquc abipfoadcö Cöctudit B Roman forms, the Humanist Capitals
tru Ariftot. were drawn with the same ductus as
aquæq; humorétn ad fc loco ali/
teßcs Temets the minuscules and were the same
lus natur er autem unicuiq; par height as the minuscule ascender
gcncr,tre ex
n fccü umorutil quæipfi infunt (pp. 9809). A rigid adherence to

lidorume orutn fubftantiams å quibusetiam ascender and descender lines, along

NVith clear line separation, helps give
; alteratio contingit. Verum fiquidem hoc ita
an ordered aspect to a page of text.

91
 ITALIAN 8. HUMANIST SCRIPTS

Humanist Minuscule
2
RT*HE HUMANIST MINUSCULE is a direct descendent of the

Caroline Minuscule (pp. 40—41). Letters are clearly defined,

*Ille wedge serif of the If using a "slanted" pen,
separate, and open — very close in form to modern letters, b can be replaced by the bowl of the b will

particularly those used as typefaces. There is no exaggeration a Jlat serif have a diagonal axis

of ascenders and descenders in the script and interlinear spacing

is clear and regular. Humanist Minuscule can be written with a 3

square-cut "slanted" or an oblique-cut "straight" pen. The letters

shown here have been written with a "straight" pen. In both

2
cases, the letters are upright and usually small in scale, with
a minim height of about five pen widths. 2

"Slanted" pen
The "slanted" pen
Humanist Minuscule
is based on the early
Tie wedge serif of the
hand of Poggio and
d can be replaced by
300. relates quite closely to
aflat serif
the Caroline Minuscule.
It is written with a pen
angle of 30-400. The 1 2
a is a double-storey
letter; this distinguishes

itfrom the Italic a,

If using a "slanted" pen,
which is a single-storey the bowl of the d will
letter (pp. 96—97). have a diagonal axis

"Straight" pen 1
During the latter part 2
of the 15th century,
there was an increasing 2 Like the Rotunda

tendency to write the f, the Humanist

Humanist Minuscule Minuscule f does

with a "straight" pen.

10 not have a tad

The pen angle for this

1 3
is shallow — 5-150 —
and a greater contrast
between thick and thin
strokes can be produced.
If using a
5 "slanted"
2
Wedge serif drawn pen, the bowl
1
in two strokes Flat serif Foot drawn with Foot drawn with of the g will

a "straight" pen a "slanted" pen have a

diagonal axis

Tie wedge serif of the

h can be replaced by
ajlat serif
h can

Serif types Minim feet 1 2

terminate with

The script features two types of serifs: When using a "slanted" pen, the a tuntedfoot

wedge-shaped and flat. The wedge tendency is to create a turned foot,

serif is created either in a single produced by terminating the minim
stroke or in two separate strokes stroke with a flick to the right.
(above). The flat serif is created with When using a "straight" pen, this
a single horizontal stroke. When flicking movement is more difficult.
1 1
using a "straight" pen, the flat serif Instead, use the flat serif, or finish the
can also be used to terminate upright stroke with a slight movement to the
minims and descenders (see letters right along the baseline and then add
f, h, k, m, n, p, q, r, opposite). a separate serif to the left. 2

92
 HUMANIST MINUSCULE

The wedge serif of

the k can be replaced

by a Jlat serif 2
ente top of the t should
1 2,
rise only slightly above
the headline

The wedge soifof Pull the tail of the I along

the I can be replaced the baseline, or terminate
1

by a Jlat serif the stroke with a Jlat serif

2 3

1
4

1 3 5

11 n (fusing a "slanted"
pen, the

a diagonal axis
o will have 3
6

1
2

1 3

If using a "slanted"
pen, the bowl of
2
1 2 the p will have
4
a diagonal axis

The basic form of the y

is the same as the u,

with the fourth stroke

extended into a tail

1
2

2
Humanist Minuscule letters drawn with a
If using a "slanted" pen,
"slanted" pen can lean forward slightly; in
the bowl of the q will have
this form the a, f, and g differ from the Italic
a diagonal axis
(pp. 94—95) in that they are unlinked

fiteJirst stroke
of the r can
terminate with

a turned foot

2 "Slanted"
letters
Tie tail of the g differentiates the
1
letter from its Italic counterpart

(pp. 96—97)

93
ITALIAN 8.1--IUMANIST SCRIPTS

Italic
N ITS BASIC FORM, Italic script (Chancery Cursive, Cancellaresca ITALIC A
The Italic a,

Corsiva, Littera di Brevi) is a cursive offspring of the Humanist with its fully
formed bowl,
Minuscule (pp. 90—91). Over time, it became a distinctive is the earliest

ancestor of our
hand in its own right, spawning, in turn, the Copperplate modern lower-
(pp. 102—103). The script was invented in 1420 by Niccolo case letter a.

Niccoli, an Italian scholar who found the Humanist Minuscule

Letters generally
too slow to execute. By 1440, his new, less labour-intensive join at the midway

point between the

script had been adopted as the official hand of the Papal Chancery. baseline and the

headline

THE FOUR BASIC characteristics

of Italic that were established by
Niccoli tend to occur naturally when
the Humanist Minuscule is written
rapidly and with the minimum
number of pen lifts: there is a
tendency for the hand to lean to
the right; circles become more oval;
many letters can be written in a single
stroke; and letters are joined to each
other with a connecting stroke.
Changing the a
The character altered most u@lfindo a ucl(aflJ1?
by Niccoli was the a,
significantly ronl c ua cyc cna
which he transformed from a tall
10tzcÖGlaeTJ/a cod a o
two-storey letter (p. 92) into a single-
storey letter of minim height (above
(P ifar(a •u ci

right). His q also tended to follow this

rc
new form, resembling an a with a tail.
The terminals of Italic ascenders and 1141110

descenders were drawn in one of two

forms: the formata (semi-formal), in
which they were horizontal or wedge-
shaped and left-facing, or the corsiva,
which they were rounded and
in
ID carnc pore-ho calÅa unta M
right-facing (pp. 96—97).
C ct bcllis{11H0 ct b titilro ct 10

TREATISE ON HAWKING Ikolato bcllill

This page from a work by the Italian scholar tro ct Ancora clic
Francesco Moro was penned in about 1560-70
and consists mainly of alphabets and texts in
different hands. At the top, in gold, are two lines
of Cadels (pp. 80—81). Beneath the blue border
are the Italics, fully separated and generously
spaced. The minuscule hand is a formata,

identifiable by the wedge-shaped ascender serifs.

Four linesof Textura Quadrata (pp. 50—51)
follow and, below the green border, there are
several lines of Humanist Minuscule (pp. 90—91).

94
 ITALIC

F vpuvs IN AN N A Ll.
mnctqnt'.• Hyhc

H rede ref: idil¯'. H omen' H nnc fectdtt4

In idbrv

SKRI centvnn:a enttto

ceffl:, H"
flne
etcyvpfio j',ec •

This fine Italic script was written by Ambrosius

The long ascenders and descenders have Theodosius Macrobius in 1465. Each letter is
presented a problemfor the scribe where clearly defined, reminiscentboth of the Humanist
they clash in the interlinear space Minuscule (pp. 90-91) and the earlier Caroline
Minuscule (pp. 38—39). The capitals are small and
In this Italic text, the calligrapher has restrained compared with those by Moro (opposite).
included bothformata and corsiva
ascenders; this I is the corsiva type

I C/IÜIP.CRI PRINTING TYPE CATALOGUE The influence of type

is by the
This design from 1990
The changing.demands brought about
Norwegian calligrapher Christopher
Haanes. He has achieved harmony by the developing printing industry of
between the capitals and minuscules
the 15th century had an important
by reducing the size of the capitals
to just above minim height. influence on the Italic script. In 1501 ,

the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius

commissioned goldsmith Francesco
Griffo to design a small Italic type
The relative crudity of Morris's
capital letters is probably owing
(pp. 90—91), in which most of the
ofa pointed pen nib
to his use
characters were clearly separated.
rather than the more suitable

broad-edged nib From that point, calligraphers began

rostere
to follow the example of type by
separating their penned letters. This
Although clearly an Italic

script, Morris's letters are

led to a loss of some of the Italic's

noticeably upright compared efcl o cursive quality and the script quickly
with a classic Italic such as

Francesco Moro's (opposite) n•cinet reached its full maturity as a carefully

crafted text hand. But by the 1 550s,
oris the complaint from scribes was that it

WILLIAM MORRIS o e i oertto had become too slow to write. From

Although Edward tetttet•e insecufne• then, its decline was rapid, eventually
Johnston is

regarded as the father of

generally
o lot being used only for text in parenthesis
modern calligraphy rte Of and for annotation.
(pp. 42—43), William
Morris had been
deres Johnston's o
exploring the methods For the modern calligrapher, Italic
of medieval scribes two
script remains a constant source
decades before him. This
so
illuminated work of 1874 of inspiration. However, much new
is an attempt to realize Italic can be traced back not to the
the vision of the Arts and
voriif se "tn
movement by
Crafts 15th century but to the influence of
achieving communion
the early 20th-century calligrapher
between craftsman and
tool (pp. 42—43). But Edward Johnston. The script was
since a pointed nib rather subtly modified by his introduction
than a broad-edged pen
has been used to draw
of two pulled strokes for the o and
the capitals, the attempt related letters, in place of the
is only partially successful.
original single stroke (pp. 42—43).

95
 ITALIAN & HUMANIST SCRIPTS

Italic 1 2
Tlte Italic a is

always a single.

storey letter
HE ITALIC HAND is written with a square-cut "slanted" pen, held
at an angle of between 35 and 450. Letters should be written
with the minimum number of pen lifts — most can be written with
1 1

a single stroke. The two traditional examples shown here are

formata and corsiva. Formata letters are distinguished by the wedge 2
serif to the left of the stem, corsiva by the swashes to the right of
the stem. Ideally, the two different types should not be mixed. The
o is the key letter of the script: it establishes the basic ductus of
Formata Corsiva
form of b form of b
the hand, the curve of other letters, and the letter width (below).

Joining strokes 1 Altentatively, the top curve Of the c

Where strokes spring
Connecting can be drawn as a separate stroke
from the stem Of a -Italir.lpttpr« a
letter, such as on h, m,
forward lean of about begin about two
and n, the stroke should 10 or 150 pen widths short
begin about two pen
of the headline
widths below the
headline.

the

baseline. All
d, g,
The bottom
curve of the bowl of
and q meets
the stem stroke about
two widths above the
connecting
strokes follow these
basic rules.
_ddcC[
Formata
form of d
Corsiva
form of d

2
The top loop
of the e can be
A tongue can be
Ascenders and descenders added when the e is
drawn as a
Tliis wedge can be the same height as at the end ofa word
separate stroke
serif, drawn the minims or slightly shorter
in two strokes,

is common in
Tlis serif
can also be
modem work Tliis corsiva serif
clubbed
has been drawn
Without the
in a single 1 2 crossbar, the f
stroke
becomes the

longfonn Ofs
T7te clubbed

corsiva serif
creates bold

ascenders
Altematively,
the descender
2
Serifs of the g can
Serifs can be wedge-shaped and left-facing (formata) or terminate with
right-facing (corsiva). On letters b, d, h, k, and I in the a swash
Step-by-step o alphabet (pight), both formata and corsiva types are shown.
(above left)

1 Altentatively, the

secondfoot of the
2 h can terminate

with a flick
above left)

1. To create the o in 2. Maintaining the 3. Push the pen

a single stroke, use an 400 pen angle, curve towards the headline in 1

angle of 400. Begin just the stroke downwards an arc, meeting the top
below the headline and towards the baseline, curve just below the
push the pen upwards before moving along the headline. Alternatively,
to the headline, before baseline and beginning draw the letter in two
curving down to the left. to curve upwards. strokes (opposite).

96
 ITALIC

1 2 1 2

Formata Corsiva
form form Of k
of k

1 1
1 2

Formata Corsiva
form of I form of I
2

1
1
Tie Jirst stroke of
the v can begin,
like the u, with

Tie legs of the m can be a wedge serif

drawn as separate strokes

1 2 1 2 4

TheJirst stroke of
the w can begin,
3
like the u, with

a wedge serif

1
1 2

2
Altematively, the o can be drawn

in a single stroke (opposite)

3 The second
p
stroke of the
can be extended into
the stem and the third
-Y 1
Altematively, the y can be
constructed from the basic

form of u, with the addition

stroke omitted_ of a descender

The first and third

strokes of the z can be
replaced by a single stroke

from right to left

1 2 Conjoined letters do
not appear in Italic

script and ligatures

Italic ampersands can be

decorated with flourishes
2

S—t ligature Ampersand

97
ITALIAN 8eHUVfANIST SCRIPTS

Humanist & Italic Capitals 5

H UMANIST CAPITALS ARE closely modelled on

Minuscule
Capitals (pp.

(pp.
110—119) and can be used with the Caroline
40-41) and Foundational Hand
Roman

(pp.
Imperial

44—45), as
3

well as with Humanist Minuscules (pp. 92—93). A pen angle of 3

300 is most likely to produce letters with a similar stroke weight

to the stone-cut Roman originals. Italic Capitals are based on 4

the Humanist letterforms but have a distinctive forWard lean.

There are various possible serif formations (below), and any 2

2
of these can be used on either type of capital.
Twist the pen to

the vertical to

draw the serif of

the C (see left

Humanist and Italic for alternative

Capitals should never methods)

exceed the equivalent

of two minims in height

1 3

Italic Capitals lean to the

2
right at the same angle as
3
the minuscules (pp. 96—97)

Pen nibs 1 4
The same pen nib should be used for capitals as is used
for the minuscules that they accompany. The serifs

can be drawn with the pen at a slightly shallower

angle than that used for the main stem strokes.
2
3

Arm serifs
LJ

Alternative serifs
L? 2
2
Twist the pen
the vertical

draw the top

to

to

serif

Draw the arms of E and F and the Alternatively, the top left serif can
of the G (see left
4
for altemativt
top curves of C, G, and S in a single simply be the beginning of the stem 1

stroke and the right serif can be methods)

stroke and, if desired, build up the 3
two serifs with the corner of the nib, created with a slight flick to the left,

ILL
Basic foot serif
Create the basic foot serif
by extending the stem
to theleft and finishing
Bracketed serif
Alternatively, finish the
stem stroke with a sweep
to the right and add the
Inner fillet

A third option is to draw

the basic foot serif (left)
and add the inner fillet
H LH
3 3

1
Tie letter J

below the
can drop
baseline

with a baseline stroke. left serif separately. with a short curve.

98
 HUMANIST 8. ITALIC CAPITALS

3 4

1 5 T7te top arm of

the K can be 2
Alternative drawn with a
arm 6 straight stroke

3
2
3

3
2
7
utt 4
3

Tie second T7teJirst diagonal

5 stroke of the of the V can be a

M can be straight stroke

straight

Tie first
and third
strokes of
the W can

be straight

2
2 4

2 1 3

1 2
3
Thejirst diagonal
stroke of the Y
3 can be straight
4

2 4

Q 1

3
2

z 1

2
3

2
2
5

Twist the pen to the

ERI
Italic Capitals
2 2
Tie first altemative
Italic

E shows
Capitals should be
slightly shorter

ascender height of the

bracketed
than the

minuscule

serifs
1
3 at the top and bottom Of the letter, and the
vertical to draw the
second shows a straight stem and straight anns
serif of the S (see

opposite for
1 Two alternative
altemative methods) forms of E

3 4 4

99
ITALIAN 8.1--1U1fANIST SCRIPTS

1 5 2

Italic Swash Capitals 6

SWASH CAPITAL IS A flamboyant letter that traditionally served 3

a similar function in Italic text to that of the coloured Versal 2

in Gothic text (pp. 58—59). It should never be used to write

5 4
a complete word, but can be combined with standard Italic Capitals
(pp. 98—99). The Swash Capital's characteristic showiness is created
by the extension of stem strokes above or below the capital line and
the extension of bowls and horizontal strokes to the left of the stem. 3
These extended strokes terminate with a swash or, alternatively,
2
can be looped like Copperplate Capitals (pp. 106—107).
drawn in
stem has been 1
two separate
extended above the bowl of
curved strokes
the letter to form a swash

ld/lten a swash is added 2

both to the top and the

left of the stem, the letter Balance the

gains a particularly 4 3 top swash

Jlamboyant appearance of the D

over the

sweep of
the arc
5
2

1 3 5
The swash to the left of the stem
is a natural continuation Of
the rounded stroke of the bowl To draw
Italic Swash
4
Left swashes Capitals, use

When creating a swash the same pen 3

from the bowl ofa letter, as for Italic

such as that of the B or R, it minuscules Alternatively,

1 4 5
is itnportant that the swash (pp. 96—97) the stem of the F
is a natural extension of the can tenninate in

bowl stroke, with the pen a horizontal foot

2 H, below)
pulled in a sweeping Top swashes (see

movement. The letters in The stem can be extended

the alphabet (right) show upwards and pulled to the right in the 2
the swashes added as manner ofa corsiva ascender on the
separate strokes. Italic minuscule (pp. 96—97). 5

Draw the loop in a single

movement teithout

altering the pen angle

4

Twist the pen front

300 to the vertical,
move downwards
slightly, and lift

Looped terminals Formal arm serifs

This clubbed, looped terminal can be This formal type of serif provides an
used as an alternative to the swash in , elegant contrast to the flourishes. In
finishing the stem stroke. It works construction, it closely imitates the
particularly well on a single stem brush-drawn Imperial Capital serif
letter such as an I or P. Create the (pp. 110—119). On reaching the end
loop by crossing back over the stem of the arm, begin to twist the pen
and pulling the stroke out to the right. from 300 to the vertical.

100
 ITALIC SWASH CAPITALS

2 4

3
2 3
5

The final stroke

of the L can drop 3 5
below the baseline

3 5
1

3 4

5
6 5 6

T7te second stroke

3 2
of the N is drawn
just below the
baseline

*Ille tail of the

1 2
X extends below 2
the baseline and
tenninates with

a swash

2 The tail of the Y

_ is looped and
3 extends to the
1
Tiefoot of the P right of the letter
1
3
can be omitted
2
4

5
2

3 4

The tail of Z extends

below the baseline and
terminates with a swash
3 2
4 Tiefoot on the
1 stem of the R
can be omitted This simple uprightfonn
The stem of this of E can be adaptedfor

5 upright form of B lettersB, D, F, H, 1, K,

features a wedge serif P, R, and T
2

Upright Swash Capitals, such as

this B and E, can replace Italic

Capitals (pp. 98—99) in Italic text

3

Alternative B Alternative E

101
POST-RENAISSANCE SCRIPTS

Copperplate
LTHOUGH THE began life as a quickly
ITALIC script
penned, cursive version of the Humanist Minuscule,
by the beginning of the 16th century it had become a Loops usually
terminate with a
formal script in its own right with a correspondingly hairline curl

slower ductus (pp. 94—95). In 1574, an instruction manual

for Italic script was printed from text that had been
engraved on sheets of copper with a pointed tool known
COPPERPLATE CAPITAL B
The hand developed for this new engraving
as a burin. The stem of the Although written to the same stroke
thickness as the minims, Copperplate
method, combined with the narrower pen and slanted Copperplate Capital
usually terminates Capitals tend to be relatively large
writing angle that scribes had begun to favour, led to the with a blob (pp.106—107). The degree of
expansion or contraction should
emergence of a new handwritten script: Copperplate. closely echo that of the minim.

THE PRINCIPAL INNOVATION of the

Copperplate was that, for the first

time, all the letters in a word were

linked,making it a fast and practical
hand to write. By the mid- 18th
century, it was the established script
anv /Z'&Y//Z, zz.J/maW
of commerce, replacing the various
bastard hands that had previously been _Y/ 77/0"' azzu,
used for much business and vernacular
work in Europe (pp. 66—79). "h'%4d/Ä'///
Throughout the 17th and 1 8th
W/' //////d/,• //'V/awzz',•
centuries, Copperplate writing also
acquired the status of an art form awa.ue vam•z.yzwz
suitable for gentle folk, who used d' t7e/Wzzzz
the impressive script for both private
and business correspondence.
Eventually, Copperplate replaced
the Humanist hands — including
the Italic itself— altogether.

THE UNIVERSAL PENMAN

This version of an instructional text by Samuel
Vaux is from Tie Universal Penman, a celebrated
volume of engraved work by the calligrapher and
engraver George Bickham. Published in 1743, the
book epitomized the elegant writing manuals of
the 18th century. The engraved letters, written
Ct/Q: , with very few lifts of the tool, closely follow

pen-drawn Copperplate letterforms.

WALPURGIS NIGHT
This handwritten text ofa poem by the artist
Richard Dadd dates from about 1840, The letters
closely follow the approved "school" hand of
the period: the minims are small, ascenders are
relatively large and unlooped, and the hand is

written at the very steep angle of nearly 400.

102
 COPPERPLATE

azure are
// atez///up'/,/æ gnorant
/åao ///uuz hm•ean an7m;3

en, m/u;/za/zæcz' null"ea//ezvance

//mr/ /,/æpe ec/

THE UNIVERSAL PENMAN

This engraving of an instructional
textby W. Kippax is also from
George Bickham's Universal
Penman. Notice the looped and
unlooped forms of ascenders
used;on the third line, the word
"which" includes both types.

"COMMAND OF HAND"
In order to maintain their status as teachers,
the 18th-century writing masters often
produced a series of virtuoso calligraphic
performances that were each known as The strokes cross each

"striking" or "command of hand",

which in other at the most acute Copperplate in education
increasingly complex baroque flourishes were angle possible The adoption of Copperplate script
produced without the removal of pen from
paper. This ornate work is one such example. The loops, drawn to varying sizes, would occurred remarkably rapidly, a
have been carefully planned in advance phenomenon owing partly to the role
in education of the writing master.
COPPERPLATE WORKSHOP
In letterpress printing, the raised In the past, writing skills had been
surface of the type is inked and
taught by university academics, but,
impressed on to paper. In copperplate
(intaglio) printing, this process is by the late 17th century, increasing
reversed. Ink is applied to the literacy and the demands of business
inscribed surface and wiped from the
face of the plate. Dampened paper is created the need for a teacher who
then pressed onto the plate, picking
taught writing exclusively. Examples
up the ink from the recesses. In this
engraving, we can see the paper of writing masters' work were
being forced onto the plate, while,
reproduced by copperplate
in the background, printed sheets
engraving, and schoolbook manuals
are drying on the racks.
began to supersede the elegant
writing manuals — such as The

The calligrapher has

Universal Penman — that had
broken with Copperplate previously been widely favoured.
convention by looping
the letter d
Technical skill
/t/tira
//tc/pamJ By the 19th century, Copperplate was
the standard school hand in Europe
DAVID HARRIS
In the past, the production and the United States of America,
of Copperplate script from and students were judged as much
type was a very limiting
process —joins did not fully on writing technique as the content
connect and ascenders and of their work. This emphasis on
descenders were atrophied.
This 1984 design for a Izmu;zazarquzzz/ technical skill lasted well into the
Copperplate typeface shows 20th century, when the Copperplate
smoothly linked letters that

are very close in form to

pen was usurped by the ball-point
the engraved script. pen, typewriter, and word processor.

103
POST-RENAISSANCE SCRIPTS

Copperplate
The bowl of the
HIS ELEGANT SCRIPT is probably the most cursive of all hands.
a is enclosed
Most letters can be written in one stroke and there are few
pen lifts between letters. Minims can be slightly compressed and
the characteristic loops of the ascenders and descenders can be
drawn either open or enclosed. The best effects are often achieved

by using compressed minims with enclosed loops. The fine lines

The bowl of the
of the burin engraving (pp. 102—103) are difficult to replicate with
b is open
a steel nib but, with practice, impressive results can be achieved.

Thefonvard lean Of the

Copperplate letter is

about 300
300 The ascender
of the d is
Tool selection
not looped
Always use a pointed
nib for Copperplate
letters. A flexible The bowl of the
d is enclosed
drawing nib or purpose-
made Copperplate nib
will ensure the best
variation of thick and
thin strokes.

The top loop of

the f is enclosed

T7te lower loop of the

men strokes overlap, keep the pen angle
f can alternatively be
as close to 900 as the script will allow
drawn to the right of

the stem

Adjusting the pressure

The pressure is adjusted twice on the
average minim stroke. Begin with a
gentle pressure to produce a fine line, The bowl of the
1
increase it to thicken the stroke at g is enclosed
the centre of the minim, then relax
it agam at the bottom of the stroke.

The bottom loop of

theg is enclosed
A void joining
letters close to The looped
the baseline ascender of the
Linking letters h can be open
Link letters wherever possible, or enclosed
ensuring that the link is as high up
the stem as is practicable. Do not
join letters near their base.

Try to leave a neat

triangle of space
between each letter

The loop of the

Internal spaces
j is enclosed
Once you have decided whether to
use compressed or expanded minims,
make sure each counter contains the
same amount of space. The inter-

letter space should be approximately

half the internal space.

104
 COPPERPLATE

The top loop of

thek can be
open or enclosed

1 2

The ascender of
the I can be looped

The top loop of the v

can be open or enclosed

The two loops of

the w are enclosed

Tie stem of the p

2
often rises above

minim height

The bowl Of The loop of the y

the p is is enclosed
usually open

The bowl of the

q is enclosed

The final loop of

the z is enclosed

Tie full r has two

looped strokes
Letterfonns can be slightly

The small top modified to accommodate the

loop of the half r connecting strokes

can be open

Full r Half r Joined letters Copperplate is tvritten with

as few pen lifts as possible:

s is the only this word can be written with
Copperplate letter in Tiisfonn offis the most only one pen lift —for the
the alphabet with no formal and restrained of crossbar of the t

natural linking stroke all possible options

105
POST-RENAISSANCE SCRIPTS

1 2
Copperplate Capitals
A MONGST THE MORE useful practical advice offered in the
Copperplate manuals of the 19th century (pp. 102—103)
is this tip from writing masters James Lewis and Joseph
Carstairs: "The writing hand should be lightly supported by the
tip of the finger and the forearm free to move in a circular
little
1 2
movement". This can very helpfully be applied to the drawing
of Copperplate Capitals, a script in which the precise control
of pressure on the pen is central to the execution of each letter.

As a general rule, the Increase the pressure

1
thick stroke should not at this point

continue into the curve;

2
avoid this happening Increase the

by controlling the pen pressure at

pressure this point

Decrease the
pressure at this point
1 2

Incorrect S Correct S
This S shows how the letter will To draw the S correctly, begin the
look if the pressure on the pen is not stroke with light pressure, increasing it

meticulously controlled. The stroke when reaching the italic slope angle.
should only increase in weight when Decrease the pressure when moving
following the angle of the italic slope. away from the italic slope angle. 2

1 2

Loops Crossing strokes

Loops should balance over the As a rule, thin strokes can cross both
upright axis and, when used spirally, thick strokes and other thin strokes. 1

should diminish proportionately, However, thick strokes should never

rather like a snail's shell. be crossed with other thick strokes.

Capitals
1
and minuscules All the loops should 2
Never use Copperplate closely relate to each
3
Capitals to wHte a whole other in proportion

word. Where several

capitals have to be used,
such as for initials, plan

the letters very carefully.

When used to begin
a word (pp. 104—105),
the features of the 1 2

Copperplate Capital Here, the tail of the L terminating a

can be adapted to has been elongated and stroke, finish with a

complement the lowered to complement hairline or apply pressure

minuscules. the minuscule letters on the pen to leave a blob

106
 COPPERPLATE CAPITALS

urur

Arabic numerals Arabic numerals harmonize with Copperplate

scripts better than Roman numerals

107
ROMAN 8. LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Imperial Capitals
HE IMPERIAL CAPITAL (Capitalis Monumentalis) The proportions of Diirer's letter A are
based on a subdivided square, with the
was the letter used on the monuments of serifs based on compass-drawn circles

Ancient Rome to proclaim the might of the DURER'S CLASSICAL A

The and rediscovery of
analysis
Roman Empire, and is indisputably the most antique letters was a matter of

stately of all scripts. The earliest examples of 5 great industry for Renaissance
scholars and artists. This Imperial
a mature Imperial letter date from the first Capital, drawn by Albrecht
Dürer in 1525, demonstrates the
century B.C., and some of the finest models are widespread belief that the key to
understanding classical letters lay
inscribed on the base of the Trajan Column in in geometric dissection.

Rome (opposite). These stone-cut letters were

carved directly on top of brush-drawn forms
(pp. 110—111), their proportions dictated • ETF)
by the natural movement of the hand. •AETATEI

r TE I'VEI.

CAPITAL LETTERS with serifs had

OVEM .r
been written by the Greeks from the Thefrequency of the
occurrence of Q in Latin
fourth century B.C.. However, it was text provides a distinct

only when the Romans developed a design advantage, with the

tail gracefully descending

springy, broad-edged brush from the below the baseline

hairs of the red sable that it became

technically possible to draw serifs and
The regulation of space
other letter parts quickly and with between letters, words,

precision. When used within the and lines was of primary

concern to the Roman scribe

natural compass of the hand, this tool

proved crucial in determining the
shape of the Imperial Capital
A keyfunction
In a society with a high degree of
literacy but without the benefit of
the printed word, Roman scribes
and signwriters performed key
functions. Although what remains
of their work is fragmentary,
know, from one small painted section
of an election poster in Pompeii, that
by simplifying some strokes
Imperial Capital was adapted from
the prestige letters of state for use
in everyday documentation.
The Imperial Capital has proved to
be the most enduring of all scripts.
Over 2,000 years after it was first
used,its form remains virtually
unchanged, as the capital letters in
the type print of this book testify.
DETAIL FROM THE VIA APPIA MONUMENT
on the Via Appia Monument,
In this inscription
the interlinear space is equal to about half the
itself.
height ofa letter. Were the spacing any tighter,
as it is on the Arch of Constantine (opposite), the
ease of horizontal scan would be reduced and
the letters would become jumbled.
ompare the inter-letter spaces of
the eleventh line veith those of the
twelfth to sec how the spaces have
we do been compressed to accommodate
the allocation of text
— the VIA APPIA MONUMENT
The beautiful proportions of the letters on this
monument in the Via Appia, Rome, compare
very favourably with those on the base of the
Trajan Column (opposite). Such a large amount
of text would have required considerable
forward planning. The initial allocation of
words to each line may have been calculated
on a wax tablet or slate, before working rules
were drawn to letter height on the marble.
Once the position of the letters was marked
in chalk between the rules, the letters were
painted with a brush. Only then were the
words actually carved into the stone.

10S
 IMPERIAL CAPITALS

sE POPVLVSOVEROIVIAI\IV
DIVINERVAE

I IA POTNVI IPS71COSVlPlÄ
\RAIXIDVIVOVAINT
SSITVCIESTVS

THE TRAJAN COLUMN The letters on the top line are The letter A, like the N Father Catich
This inscription on the base of the Trajan I I. 5 centimetres (4J/2 inches) and M, has a pointed
Since the Renaissance, Imperial
Column in Rome, cut in A.D. 112-3, is 2.74 high, reducing to 9.6 apex, aform d Imperial
metres (9 feet) wide and 1.15 metres (3 feet centimetres (31/' inches) on Capital more difficult to Capital letters have been studied,
the bottom line probably construct than the
9 inches) high. The
inscription, commemorating • -

analyzed, improved, and recreated by

the battles of Trajan against Germany and Dacia, indicating the relative common serifed orpat-
begins with the phrase "SENATVS POPVLV'S importance u the words headed letter (p. 1 1 3)
countless scholars and calligraphers.
Senate and People of However, it is only through the
Rome"). The were originally coloured
letters THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE
This monument dates from A.D. 315, some 200
pioneering work of a modern scholar,
red so that they would stand out from the
background. Words are separated by a medial years after the Trajan Column (above). In sonle the late Father E.M. Catich, that we
inter-point and the horizontal stroke over ways, marks the degeneration of Rorne, since
it

many of the statues and reliefs on the column

can now fully understand the ductus
certain letters indicates their use as numerals.
have been scavenged from earlier work. The of the hand. His analysis of Roman
letters are square-cut in shallow relief. letter construction was demonstrated
The words 'SENATVS POPVLVS Originally, the grooves would have housed
QVEROMANVS" have been abbreviated to bronze letters — the circular fixing holes can on 19 letters of the alphabet in his
still be seen inside each letter.
'S.P.Q.R. "and relegated to the second line work, The Origin of the Serif,
definitive
published in 1968. These methods
are interpreted for all 26 letters in

the following pages (pp. 110—119).

Spontaneous letters
The great strength and beauty of
the Imperial Capital lies in the fact
that the letters can be written with
spontaneity, the tool and hand
determining the form, and one letter

part relating naturally to the next.

In much modern work, excessive
pre-planning can have the effect of
making the letters appear laboured.
However, the methods explained in
the following pages will enable the
modern scribe to work in the same
way as his or her Roman forebears
and produce spontaneous letters
for our own time.

109
ROMAN SC LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Imperial Capitals: Brush Strokes

N ORDER TO RECREATE authentic Imperial Capitals, it is essential to use a

broad-edged brush. This should be made from sable or synthetic hairs, A mahlstick is useful for

which are fine enough to create a sharp clean edge when wet. Imperial keeping the hand clear of
the writing surface
Capitals are constructed either from "pulled" or "manipulated" strokes,
or from a combination of both. In both types of stroke, the angle between
the brush and the work surface is equally as important as the angle of the
brush edge on the letter. When drawing letters with a brush, differences in

many factors, including changes in rhythm

stroke thickness are created by
and tempo, and the increase or decrease of pressure on the tool. This Brush movement
for "pulled" strokes
sensitivity is generally most apparent on "manipulated" strokes (opposite).
With the harid resting
directly on the work
The basic "pulled" stroke surface, the movement
The "pulled" stroke is used in the majority of Imperial A movement of about of the brush will be very
Capital letter strokes. The basic "pulled" stroke is the ve or six centimetres small for a "pulled"

vertical stem stroke. For this, the hand moves only slightly, (two inches) can be stroke — about two or

with the index finger drawn towards the palm of the hand, achieved teith the hand three centimetres (one

causing the brush to be pulled downwards. resting on a mahlstick inch). With the right
hand resting on the left
hand or on a mahlstick,
The index finger the movement can be
should be positioned increased.

on the ferrule of
the brush
3. Continue pulling the brush 4. On letters B, D, E,
downwards, reducing
slightly and L, the vertical stem
the pressure as you reach the stroke is continued into
centre of the stem — this will the bottom horizontal
give the stroke a slight waist. arm. In these instances,
Increase the pressure again the angle of the brush
and, at the bottom of the stem, edge on the letter

begin to lift the brush while should be about 300.

moving to the right.
Adjust the brush angle to

300 for the addition ofa

1. Begin the stroke with the brush
thicker stroke to the right
at a fairly flat angle to the surface.
Gently edge the brush to the
right and begin the downward
sweep of the stroke. 2. As you move downwards
into the stem, gradually pull
the brush towards the palm
of your hand, until it is

almost upright.

Other ' 'pulled" strokes

The brush is held in a
similar way on curved Letters A, M, and N
strokes as on vertical always begin with a This sweeping
strokes, but instead of Basic stroke is used
pointed apex
Opposing
drawing the brush towards "pulled"
sweep for
the palm of the hand, the stroke This is an an) Q letters D,
hand moves in a semi- altemative left
O, and Q
circular movement to the seriffor A, M,
right or left. To make this The centre stroke and N
movement smooth and of the S is both

easy, the angle of the "pulled" and

This tail stroke of K, R,
brush edge on the letter sweeping
and Q is executed with
should be about 150.
the brush turned to 300
V, and W have
a diagonal stroke
Small semi- that tums upwards
circular sweeps at the baseline

occur on B, P,
and R

110
 IMPERIAL CAPITALS: BRUSH STROKES

The "manipulated" stroke Top left serif on T and Z

To draw "manipulated" strokes,
you need to be able to twirl the
brush through 1800. To make this
possible, hold the brush between
thumb and index finger with an
angle of about 900 between the
brush and the work surface.
"Manipulated" strokes are used to
create the four main types of serifs in
Imperial Capitals: the top left serifs

and arms of letters T and Z (above

right); the top serifs that terminate the
arms of letters C, E, F, G, S, and T
(right); the bottom serifs and arms I. Begin the top left serif on the 2. Twirl the brush to 300 to create 3. Without adjusting the angle of the
of C, E, L, and Z (below); and the T and Z by bringing the brush the left serif, slightly increasing the brush edge on the letter, move the

bottom left serif of the S (below right). downwards in a short stroke. pressure as the brush twirls. brush horizontally to create the arm.

Although the top strokes of C,

S, and G are curved, the principle
remains the same as for the straight
top arms of the E and F. For the Top right serif on C, E, F, G, Rotate the brush, pivoting Finish the arm with the

bottom arms of E, L, and Z, the brush S, and T it at the top right comer left comer of the brush

is positioned so that the angle of the

edge on the letter is about 1500. The

strokes of the top serifs are known as

"forward" and those of the bottom

serifs as "reverse". The bottom serif The angle
of the S is unique in that the brush of the brush
begins rather than ends at the serif tip. edge on the
letter is 300

1. To create the top right serif 2. Continue moving the brush 3. Continue to rotate the brush on
of C, E, F, G, S, and T, hold the horizontally, maintaining the angle of its left corner until the edge is 900 to
brush in an upright position and 300 until the brush approaches the end the arm. Finally, move it downwards
begin the horizontal stroke with of the arm. At this point, begin to slightlyand "edge off', gently lifting

the brush edge on the letter at 300. rotate the brush on its right corner. the brush from the surface.
Bottom arm and right
serif on C, E, L, and Z
Bottom serif
on S

The angle of "Ille angle of

the brush edge the brush edge

on the letter is
on the letter is

about 1500 about 1500

1. To create the bottom arm and right 2. On reaching the end of the stroke, 1. The bottom serif of the S is the 2. Twirl the brush to 300 and curve to

serif on C, E, L, and Z, begin with the twirl the brush to the vertical, then only bottom serif on the left side the right and upwards. Work carefully,
ofa Begin of the
at the tip for the part of the stroke will be
first
angle of the brush edge on the letter move upwards and edge off, finishing letter.

at about 1500, and move to the right. on the left corner of the brush. serif, moving the brush downwards. obscured by your hand.

Straightand curved
"manipulated" strokes

"Fonvard" stroke
Curved "forward"
stroke used on the top preceded by a serif
"Forward" stroke used
curve of C, G, and S on T and Z
on the top and centre

anns of the E and F Curved "reverse"

Curved "reverse" stroke
stroke used on the
beginning at the tip of the
bottom curve of C serif— used only on S
"Reverse" stroke used on the
bottom arm of E, L, and Z

111
ROMAN & LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Imperial Capitals: Construction 2

VIIIite lines

indicate a change
HE 26 CHARACTERS constructed in the following pages are based on the 19 letters
of brush angle, in
on the base of the Trajan Column in Rome (pp. 108—109).
included in the inscription this instance from

The two Greek-derived letters, Y and Z, are based on other Roman sources, and the 300 to the

vertical
remaining three letters, J, U, and W, are modern characters, which, as such, are open
to individual interpretation. In principle, the letters adhere to the ductus described
bv Father E.M. Catich in his book The Origin of the Serif. Each letter is individually
demonstrated by stroke sequence and brush angle. The pressure on the brush and
the speed at which the strokes are drawn will vary from the brush of one calligrapher Tiejirst stroke — the

to another, and the rhythm that suits you best will be acquired with practice. key to the letter — is

drawn in pink

Five stent Six stent Seven stem Nine stem Nine stem Ten stem
widths widths widths widths widths widths
3
One stem Il'idtlt

EBXANM Each
Colour coding
letter has been constructed from

-FPZCOW
a series of colour-coded strokes: pink
indicates the first stroke, purple the

9.5 Stem second, green the third, and yellow

widths the fourth. The frequently changing
brush angles are represented by a
series of white lines across the stroke.

L TDRQ-
Letter weight
It is generally assumed
that the weight — the
Letter proportions
relationship between When writing a series of Imperial Capitals, it is
stem width and stem
Tron: two Is joined essential to know the relative width of one Imperial
height — of the Trajan
Capital to another. The width ofa letter — including
with a crossbar
letter is 10:1. A balance serifs — is measured in stem widths. The apparent
of 1 is generally
discrepancy in weight between rounded and straight
considered acceptable,
letters is optical; rounder letters appear lighter than
although the actual
To

KY
straight ones. our modern eyes, this can be
weight is
letter
The Jillet between the displeasing and the effect is "corrected" by the
about 9.5:1.
serif and stem of an addition of extra weight to the curved strokes.
hnperial Capital can be Arguably, the original weight differences give the
slightly fuller than this Imperial inscriptions a more natural rhythm than
that achieved in more formal modern work.

Arabic numerals

Numerals
Although Arabic numerals were not
introduced into Europe until the
13th century, avoiding their use in
favour of Roman numerals can be an
incumbrance in modern calligraphy.
Arabic numerals can be drawn using
a similar ductus to the Imperial
Capital letters and can be contained
within the capital height. The 0 is
usually a narrow numeral, but if
2

used singly, it can be made wider,

resembling a letter O (p. 116).

112
 IMPERIAL CAPITALS: CONSTRUCTION

The small gap

can be filled
after the letter

is contpleted

2 Imperial Capital A
Flat-headed A Serifed A Although rnost Roman As were flat-

headed, all of the As on the Trajan

inscription (pp. 108—109) are pointed.
When building the pointed serif, it is

essential to draw the apex first. You will

In modern u'ork, the crossbar notice that a small gap is left bet'vveen
of the A tends to be positioned the first and the second strokes.
lower than this 4 Historically, on stone-cut letters, this

gap could be eradicated with a

The left leg is chisel. For the brush-drawn
3
alteays thinner letter, the gap can be left

than the right leg as or can bet filled

2) it is it

in with the brush.

In post-Renaissance times, an
Edge the serif
The third stroke Of the A tan
mner serif teas included on the alternatively be draten as a
ti'ith the tip of
right leg of the A — this is the brush continuation gftheJirst stroke
omitted in ynodern work'

T71(' right axis of the arc

2 is above the horizontal

The second and third

strokes (f the B can be 4
contbined in a single
Imperial Capital B
steeeping stroke On the between the stem
B, the fillet

and curve of the lower bowl is an

3
ilnportant characteristic, which only
occurs on the brush-drawn letter. It will

only occur at the bottom of the stern,

never The top bowl is always
at the top.
smaller than thebottom and the joining
5 stroke always above the stem's centre.
The bottom bowl can alternatively be
constructed with a single sweep.

Turn the brush from the horizontal

to 300 and move along the baseline

Treist the brush from 300

to 900 to drat/' the top

2 serif of the C

Imperial Capital C
The top and bottom strokes of the
C are pulled out horizontally and do
not curve inwards. The two serifed
The axis of the lcft of Turn and
the brush over tu'ist arms are very sirnilar in construction
the arc is belote the
front 1500 to the vertical to to those on the E (p. 1 14), which
horizontal
drat/' the bottont serif should be used as a model. The only
difference is that the arms on the C
3 are curved, not straight. Retnernber
to turn the brush over to 1500 for
the bottorn stroke.

113
ROMAN QI-ATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Pull the stroke to the right

before commencing the arc

1 2

The axis of the arc is

above the horizontal

Imperial Capital D
As on the letter B (p. 113), the stem
and rounded stroke of the D are
connected with a fillet. This is always
at the bottom of the letter — never

at the top. The width of the letter

presents a problem connecting

in
the baseline stroke to the bowl. In
3 anticipating this, the Trajan escribe
sloped the stem slightly to the right.
In modern usage, the steni is upright.

Tum the brush from the horizontal

to 300 and pull it along the

baseline as far as possible

The L is constructed from Twist the 'brush from

the stem and foot of the E 300 to 900 to create

the top serif

Imperial Capitals E, F, and L

In The Origin of the Serif, Catich
regards the E as the key letter in

determining the form of the Imperial

letter. This is owing to the fact that

EFLE
the length of the top arm and the
size and form of the serif are natural

strokes — in Catich's words, "the

most satisfyingly natural stroke the
brush makes". Therefore the E is
an ideal letter with which to start

learning the brush technique, The

F is created in the sameway as E but
without the foot, while the L is made
up of the stem and foot of the E.

For the fourth stroke of the

E, tum the brush over and
twist from 1500 to 900

T7te top serif of the

G should balance over
the right side of the 2
short stem
To create the top serif of the G, pull
the stroke horizontally to the right
1
before ttvistingfrom 300 to 900

The axis of the arc is

below the horizontal

The stem of the G is

about half the height

of a full-size stem

Imperial Capital G
For practical purposes, the G is the
C (p. 113) combined with the upper
half of the stem of the I (p. 115).
The top serif is a manipulated stroke
similar to the top arm of E (above).

114
 IMPERIAL CAPITALS: CONSTRUCTION

Imperial
Capitals H, I, and J
The H, I, and J are very
alike in their basic form.
As a modern letterform,

the J can be partly your

own invention — for
instance, the tail can be
extended and edged off
with a fine hairline stroke.

FIJI
The I is the basis for all the
serifed, stemmed letters

J
in the hand. The H is

constructed from two Is.

Tie tail of the J can sweep

out further to the left

This ann is similar to

4 2
the right fork of the V
(p. 118)

Imperial Capital K
The arm and leg of the K connect to
the stem with a point. It is acceptable
to leave a small gap between arm
and leg juncture and the stem. This is
preferable to connecting the leg to a
6 point on the length of the arm. Alter
the angle of the brush on the third
stroke to finish at the horizontal.

Turn the brush to the

horizontal before edging off

The apex must be drawn
first to create the angle for

The pointed M is in the downstroke

harmony teith the A

Imperial Capital M
Although more commonly
flat-topped, the pointed
M is used on the Trajan
inscription. The first and
second strokes of the M are
always the thickest, and the
third and fourth always the
thinnest, In classic usage,
the first and last legs incline
inwards, but never as steeply
as the inner V (p. 118).

115
ROMAN & LATE ROMAN CAPITALS

Draw the apex of

1
the letterfirst

2
Imperial Capital N
The gap between the
The first and last legs of
serif and the top of
the N are slightly thinner
the second stroke can than the diagonal stroke;

be Jilled after the letter

in modern work, they
is completed
are often drawn as thinly
as the crossbar of the A
(p. 113). Note the slight
Ille diagonal is curve at the bottom of
the thickest of the diagonal, caused by
the three strokes sweeping the brush from
Tum the brush to the diagonal to the vertical.
finish at the vertical The N can be drawn either
3) flat-topped or seriféd.

Tlte O and Q are slightly

narrower than a perfect circle

Imperial Capitals
O and Q
The same ductus is used for
1

The axis of the

the bowl of the Q as for the
right arc is above
key letter O. The stress of
the horizontal
each below centre
letter is

left and above centre right,

creating a diagonal axis that
is compatible with the
naturalsweep of the wrist.
The of the Q sweeps
tail

well below the baseline

The axis of the
and, because of its frequent
left arc is below
occurrence in Latin text,
the horizontal
attractively breaks the

3 formality of an otherwise
bilinear script.

Construct the Q by adding

a tail to the letter O
Slightly tum the brush to

horizontal on the tail of the

Q before edging off

Tie axis of the

*Ilte basic form of arc is above the

1 2
the letter P is the horizontal
same as the R
(opposite)

Imperial Capital P
Although the bowl of the P appears to
be smaller than that on the corresponding
letter R, they are, in fact, the same size.
curved stroke of
The illusion is caused by the absence
the lower bowl does
of the connecting stroke to the
not join the stem
stem of the P. In modern usage, a
connecting bar is often added, and
in type it nearly always is. The bowl
finishes just below the centre line.

116
 IMPERIAL CAPITALS: CONSTRUCTION

The axis of the arc is above

the horizontal
The bowl of the R is the
same size as that of the P 2
(opposite)

Imperial Capital R
The R, together with the E (p. 114),
is a useful letter on which to practise

3 brush-drawn Imperials because it contains

more elements of other letters than any
4 other character. The juncture of the
Tie tail of the R continues bowl and connecting stroke is a valuable
an imaginary diagonal line indicator of the brush-drawn origins of
across the letter that begins the script. This has systematically been
at the top serif removed by scribes in an attempt to
' 'Improve" the letter. The tail is a very
5
satisfying stroke to draw, producing
a gradual thickeningsof the
tail near the baseline.

Flatten the brush to the

horizontal before edging off

3
Twist the brush from 300
to 900 to complete the serif

1
Imperial Capital S
The curved strokes of the S often
present a rather awesome prospect to the
beginner. In fact, once the E has been
mastered (p, 1 14), the S should not prove
difficult. The Trajan S has a forward lean,
Commence at the which slightly interferes with the flow of
tip of serif, twist the the script. The tail serif is the only part
brush backwards, of the letter that may require additional
and pull it along practice. It is the only arm serif that is

the baseline constructed tip first, and aggravated

by the hand obscuring the first stroke.
For this reason, it isdraw essential to
2 the of the serif as the second stroke,
tail

while the hand "remembers" where

the first stroke finished.

Each arm is the

same length as the

arms of the E and
F (p. 114)

Tie right arm of the T is

exactly the same as the top

2 arm of the E (p. 1 14)

Imperial Capital T
The cross stroke of the Tis an extremely
elegant shape with subtle changes of
angle between serifs, and a gradual
swelling of the arm leading into and
away from the serifs. The arm starts
with a slight downwards movement
with the edge of the brush twisting
back to 300 before moving along the
arm and finishing at 900. On an
inscription, the initial juncture
would be filled in by the chisel.

117
ROMAN 8. LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Imperial Capital U
In Latin, the character
V was used to represent
both U and V sounds.
In medieval scripts, the
V often took the form
ofa U; by about the 14th
century the two letters
were differentiated and
used separately. It is a
matter of personal opinion
as to what extent the

Imperial Capital script

should be adapted. to
languages other than Latin.

Tie bott0'11 serif of the U At the end of the second stroke,

can be omitted, u'ith the steeep the brush to the right and
curve steeeping up to meet edge offli'ith a Jinc stroke
the right vertical stroke

4 3 2

Imperial Capital V
The first stroke of the V begins in
the same way as a vertical stroke and
finishes with the apex of an M. The
change of brush angle is reflected in
the slight turn at the bottom of the
Slightly the brush to
stroke. The V can end in a flat base
tteist

finish at the angle of the

when used with flat-headed A, M,
second stroke
and N, but make sure this base is no
wider than the thin stroke.

6 7

The W can be Imperial

made narrower by Capital W
replacing the crossed The letter W first

centre strokes wit/l a appeared in the 1 lth

single pointed apex century. In principle,

composed of
it is

two Vs. which can

either cross one
another or join in
a single apex in the
centre of the letter.

118
 IMPERIAL CAPITALS: CONSTRUCTION

2
The top V-shape of the X 1 3
should be slightly smaller
than the bottom one

Imperial Capital X
The letter X appears with relative
frequency in Latin inscriptions, used as
a numeral to represent 10. The slope
Tiere is no is more inclined than that of the A
serif on the and ideally, the top V-shape should be
right inner leg
smaller than the bottom one to make
of the X the letter optically correct — balanced
and not top heavy. There is no serif
5
on the right inner leg.

Internal serifs can

be included on the
two anns of the Y

Imperial Capital Y
3 The letter Y was used by the Romans
for words of Greek derivation, and it
appears only occasionally in Latin
inscriptions. This construction is

based on a Greek inscription of

the letter Upsilon. It is also correct
to include an inner serif, as on the
letter X (above).

Twist the brush to 300 and move

horizontally to create the top stroke of the Z

Tie second stroke is

thicker than most diagonal

Imperial Capital Z
The Z is an interesting construction,
strokes in the script
which combines the top arm of the
T and the bottom arm of the E,
separated by an awkward diagonal
stroke — awkward in the sense that a
Tum the brush over and twist stroke moving to the left is naturally
from 1500 to 900 to draw the thin (see A, p. 113). However, a thin
bottom stroke stroke would make the letter appear
inordinately light, and so the brush
is held near to the horizontal to
create a thick diagonal.

119
SCRIPT REFERENCE CHART

Script Reference Chart

hnperial
Capitals
A F GHI KLM N O
Rustic L N 0
ROMAN
& LATE
ROMAN
Uncial e q b 1 k I
SCRIPTS
Square
Capitals
C, 1 N O
Half Uncial b e k t
INSULAR
NATIONAL
&
Insular
Majuscule b h
SCRIPTS Insular
Minuscule

CAROLINE
& EARLY
Caroline
Minuscule c d g t

GOTHIC
SCRIPTS
Early
Gothic a b c d f b 1 k t m
Textura
Quadrata
f g h 1 k I m n o
Textura
Prescisus
b f g h 1 I m n o
Gothic
Capitals 21

GOTHIC
Lo:nbardic
Capitals C o F G 1) L m
SCRIPTS Bastard
Secretary

Bastard
Capitals (5 21

Båtarde a 6 c C)

Fraktur 6 i L itt

Rotunda a b c f g b i j
I m
ITALIAN & Rotunda
HUMANIST
Capitals
SCRIPTS
Hutnanist
Minuscule
c d f h j k m
Italic
f g b i k I In O
Hunnnist
Capitals
C D E F H J L M
Posy- Copperplate
RENAISSANCE
6
Copperplate
Capitals
SD 6 V9 SY-CU
120
 SCRIPT REFERENCE CHART

NOTES ON SCRIPTS

v XYZ Prestige Roman hand used in brush-drawn and carved

forms; the letterforms are the basis efmanv modern capitals

First-century script used in manuscript, signu-rittcn, and

y Z carved forms; later used only Ibr chapter headings

l.atjn version of the Greek Uncial u•ith rudimentarv

T u ascenders and descenders; used bv the early Christian Church

Roman capitals reservedJbr non-Christian de luxe

y z Late
manuscripts; a time-consuming letter to pen

p z 'l more cursive form of Uncial incorporating ascenders and

dcsccndcrs; the letterforms arc the basis of minuscule letters

p q u 70
Combines Uncial and Half Uncial elements; developed
bv Irish-Northumbrian Celtic monks

CursiveJbrm gfthc Insular ,llajuscule used Ibr documentarv

n•ork; continued to bc used in Ireland into thc 20th centurv

c u X z Reformed [lab/'

Empire; the model for

Uncial; established
I
hand ofthc Frankish
Sth«enturv Humanist Jfinusculc

Compressed version gf•the Caroline ,llinusculc used in

Z the 12th century; presaged later Gothic scripts
p
Fully compressed Gothic letter from the early 13th

t ccnturv; characterized bv diamond terminals of' minims

p
Twin script efthc Quadrata; characterized b} Illat feet

on minims; used for prestige manuscript n•ork

Accompanving capita,Gfbr Textura minuscules

built-up, prestige display and l'crsal capital; usually

used in coryunctlon "'ith Quadrata or Prescisus scripts

cursive Gothic script used only Ibr vernacular and

t 3 documentarv n•ork

Capital letters used "'ith bastard minusculcs, including

those in the P,åtarde and Fraktur hands

pc 5 French version (f the Bastard Secretary

German, late bastard scnpt vvith manv Textura features; "ith

t v 3
Schn•abacher, it remained in use until the mjd-20th centurv

Italian hand; contemporary '10th Gothic scripts; rounder

p t v and morc open than other northern European hands

,'lccompanvin$l capitals Ibr Rotunda minuscules

f t v y z Renaissance hand influenced by the Caroline

the letterforms are the basis Ibr much modern printing
,llinusculc;

tipc

Cursive form cfthe Humanist Minuscule; used in

t v modern tvpefor text in parenthesis and annotation

T v z Accompanving capitalsfor Humanist and

minuscules; pen-dragvn derivatives of Imperial Capitals
Italic

Extreme fbrrn of cursive script u•ith most letters linked;

derivedfrotn Italic and influenced b" copperplate engraving

.lccompanyng capitals for Copperplate minuscules

121
GLOSSARY

Capital letter See majuscule. "Elephant's trunk" A broad,

sweeping stroke that hangs from the
Capital line The writing line ascenders in certain bastard scripts,

Glossary to
The
which upper-case
capital line is
letters rise.

often slightly
such as the English Bastard Secretary.

Ampersand The character denoting the lower than the ascender line. Expanded letter A style of
word "and". lettering in which the characters
Capsa A container for storing and inter-letter spaces are wider
Anthropomorphic decoration A style of scrolls. than is usual.

letter decoration that incorporates imagery of

Hairlines are drawn with the
human forms. Compressed letter A style of Filigree Elaborate decoration
lettering in which the characters corner of the pen nib and often in the form of fine, curved lines.
taperfrom a thicker stroke
Apex The pointed tip ofa letter, as in A. and inter-letter spaces are
narrower than is usual. Fillet The name given to the
Arch The portion of a lower-case letter filled angle that is formed between a stroke and
formed by a curved stroke springing from the Conjoined A term used to describe letters its serif.

stem, as in h and n. that are joined together.

Floriated Decorated with images of flqwers.
Arm A horizontal stroke touching the letter Copperplate An
extremely slanted script with
at only one end, as in E and F. distinctive flourishes that developed from letter Folio A leaf ofa manuscript. Also refers to the
engraving on thin plates page number.
Ascender The upper of copper.
stem ofa lower-case Fret patterns Ornamental designs that can
letter, as in b, d, and k. Counter Any space be used to form the border of a page or can be
within a letter, either fully woven into the text. The simplest fret patterns
Ascender line A or partially enclosed. are composed solely of straight lines.

writing line to which the

upper stems of letters rise. Crossbar The Gilding The application of gold leaf to the
horizontal stroke on a writing surface.
Axis In Roman Imperial letter, as in t and H. Also
Capitals, this is the known as the "bar". Gothic scripts The generic term for hands
imaginary line that passes written between about 1200 and 1500.
through the thickest points Cross stroke A
of aletter. Also known as horizontal mark essential Gouache Watercolour mixed with a type
the "stress" of the letter. to the letter, made either of chalk to achieve an opaque effect.
Cadels are ornate Gothic Capital letters
from left to right or right
that were originally used with bastard text scripts
Baseline The
writing to left, such as on the Hairline A fine line used to link letters,

line on which the main letters E, F, and T. terminate strokes, fill large counters, and
body of the letter sits. decorate letters.
Cursive A rapid form of writing, using
Bastard script A Gothic script of mixed elements such as linking and loops. Half r A form of the letter r, the spine of
Textura and cursive elements. which is provided by the previous letter.

De luxe A term used to describe the highest

Bilinear The term used to describe a script grade of manuscript writing. Headline The line to which the uppermost
that is written between, and adhering to, two point ofa letter — excluding its ascenders or

imaginary writing lines.

Descender The lower stems of letters such as descenders — rises. Also known as the "waistline".

p, q, and f.
Black Letter See Textura. "Hierarchy of scripts" The name given to
Descender line The line on which a letter's the code of practice whereby different scripts
Bookhand The generic term for scripts used descender should rest.

in books before the age of printing. Bookhands

include Uncial and Caroline Minuscule. Display capitals Decorated capitals
used in the introductory word or "If,oltofonortntb a Qucl(afl
Bowl The curved stroke attached to the letter words ofa text but not singly as versals. ronlPc c ua c yc pcntt
stem that creates an enclosed space (counter), as
in letters b, d, and g. Also known as "bow". Downstroke A stroke that is gone co d a conapprcso
directed downwards.
Bracketed serif A type of serif that forms a
u011jPfar[t •ufi
fillet with the stroke of a letter. Ductus The direction and order of
the strokes used to construct a letter.
re (t) cauarltgtcllo effuccgonccllo (It) [tc

Built-up letters Letters that are outlined and

Italic script is characterized by linked letters
filled, or constructed a section at a time. Ear A small stroke that projects from the with a distinctiveforward slant
top of the letter g.
Burin A pointed tool used in copperplate
engraving.
Edge off A term used with reference to appearing in the same manuscript adhere to a
brush-drawn letters to describe the technique strict order of use: the most regal hand is used
Cadel An ornate Gothic capital letter of removing the edge of the brush from the for the titles and important details, the next most
constructed from a series of interlacing pen strokes writing surface, with the left corner lifted last. formal script for the first sentence, and so on.
written with the minimum number of pen lifts.

Edge on The technique of gradually placing Historiated The term used to describe initial

Capital height The height ofa majuscule the edge of the brush onto the surface, with
full letters that are decorated with the human figures

(capital) letter. the right corner touching the surface first. described in the text.

122
 GLOSSARY

Illumination Originally, the term referred Movable type Individual letters made from Stipple To engrave, paint, or write in dots.
only to gilded decoration, but it is now used metal that can be inked and printed in any order.
to describe any form of text decoration. "Straight" pen A pen with the nib cut
Palaeography The study of the history of obliquely to the shaft, facilitating the drawing of
Insular Originating from the Latin word for handwriting and documents. an upright stem. When positioned horizontally,
"island", this applied by palaeographers
term is it produce a greater contrast in thick and
will
to indicate a shared culture between Ireland and Papyrus The earliest form of paper, made thin strokes, an effect known as "shading".
northern Britain, free from Continental influence.
Stroke Any straight
Interlace Aform of decoration in which lines or curved line that
weave in and out of each other. has been penned or
painted.
Inter-letter space The space between
characters. Tail A diagonal line
that connects to the
Interlinear gloss Words written in the letter at one end, as

of the main text to provide a

interlinear space in Q and y.
commentary on the text or a translation of its
contents. Terminal A stroke
that does not end with
Interlinear space The
space between the a serif.
baseline of one line of text and the headline
of the line below it. Text script A script
that is particularly
Italic A Humanist style of writing in which suitable for pages of
the oval-shaped, linked letters slant to the right. text, owing to its

A manuscript is a book or document written by hand clarity and lack of

Leading minim The name given to the first decoration. Also known as

minim ofa letter, as in m and n. from the stem of the papyrus plant. "body text" or "text hand".

Letterform The shape ofa letter. Parchment A writing surface made from Textura From the Latin word for "woven",
mammalian skin, usually sheepskin or goatskin. this is the name given to a style of Gothic script
Ligature The linking of letters by one or characterized by dense, cornpressed characters
more strokes. Quill A writing implement rnade from the tail and minimal interlinear space.
or wing feather ofa bird, such as turkey or goose.
Thorn sign The Anglo-Saxon sign resernbling
Reed pen A writing tool made from a a y that was used to represent the "th" sound.
hollow-stemmed marsh plant.
Uncial A late Roman script with rudimentary
Roman The Latin alphabet. The term is also ascenders. The name means "inch high".
used to describe any plain, upright letter.
Upper case See majuscule.
Rubricated Originating from the Latin word
ruber for "red", this describes letters in a heading Vellum A type of writing surface made from
Jl'here the bowls of letters are combined, the or within a passage of text that are coloured red. calfskin.

letters are rderred to as "conjoined"

Rune Any letter in the ancient Gerrnanic Versal A built-up ornanwntal capital letter
Link The stroke that connects the top and alphabet. The characters contain no curved used to open verses and paragraphs.
bottom of the minuscule g. strokes and very few horizontal strokes,

Loop The enclosed space in an ascender or Sable A very fine pointed brush, made from
descender, as in g. the tail hairs of the sable, a dark-furred arctic
manunal.
Lower case See minuscule.
Serif A short, decorative stroke used to finish off
Majuscule A bilinear script in which the the stroke ofa letter. Many different types exist,
letters are of equal height. A capital letter. including the bracketed serif and the wedge serif.

Manuscript A handwritten book or Skate The technique of gently pulling the wet
document pre-dating the invention of printing. ink fronl one stroke to create another stroke, Decorative abbreviated strokes known as "serifs

Can be abbreviated to "MS". often a hairline. can be drawn in a variety of different styles

Minim A downstroke that is as tall as the ' 'Slanted" pen A pen with the nib cut at Waistline See headline.
body height of the script. right angles to the shaft. Held at an angle, the
position of the nib is "slanted" to the stem. Weight The relationship ofa letter's nib width
Minim height The
height ofa minuscule to its height.
letter, excluding the ascender and descender. Spur A small projection Offa main stroke.
Also known as ' 'x height" or "body height". Word space The amount of space between
Stem The main vertical stroke ofa letter. It words.
Minuscule Any non-capital letter. Minuscule can be drawn at an angle for a slanted script,
scripts contain letters of uneven height because and can be the main diagonal stroke of the Zoomorphic decoration A style of decoration
of the ascenders and descenders. letter, as in N
and Z. incorporating imagery Of animal forms.

123
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography
The Decorated Letter, J.J.G. Alexander/Thames and Hudson, London, 1978

The Winchester Bible, Clare Donovan/British Library, Winchester Cathedral,

1993

Manuscripts at Oxford — R. W. Htmt Memorial Exhibition, Edited by A.C. de

la Mare and B.C. Barker-Benfield/ Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1980

Eyewitness Guide to Writing, Karen Brookfield/ Dorling Kindersley, British

Library, London, 1993

The Golden Age of English Manuscript Painting 1200-1500, Richard Marks

and Nigel Morgan/Book Club Associates, London, 1981

Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts, Michelle P. Brown/British Library, London,' 1991

A Book of Scripts, Alfred Fairbank/ Penguin Books, London, 1949

Writing, David Diringer/Thames and Hudson, London, 1962

Das Schreib-Biichlein von Rudolf Koch, Johannes Stauda Verlag Kassel, 1984

Tiesauro de Scrittorio 1535, Ugo da Carpi, introduction by Esther Potter/

Nattali and Maurice, London, 1968

Writing and Illuminating and Lettering, Edward Johnston, originally published

1906, reprinted by A. & C. Black, London, 1983

English Handwriting 1400-1500, Jean F. Preston and Laetitia Yeandle/State

University, New York, 1992

A Guide to Western Historical Scripts from Antiquity to 1600, Michelle P.

Brown/ British Library, 1990

The Book of Kells, Selected and introduced by Peter Brown/ Thames and
Hudson, 1980

The Lindisfarne Gospels, Janet Backhouse/Phaidon, Oxford, 1981

The Universal Penman, Engraved by George Bickham, 1743/Dover

Publications Inc., New York, 1954

The Art of Calligraphy, Western Europe and Anterica, Joyce Irene Whalley/
Bloomsbury Books, London, 1980

The Story of Writing, Donald Jackson/Studio Vista, 1981

Medieval Calligraphy, Its History and Technique, Marc Drogin/George Prior

Associated Publishers Ltd., London, 1980

Calligraphy: T7te Art of Written Forms, Donald M. Anderson/Dover

Publications Inc., New York, 1992

The Origin of the Serif, Edward M. Catich/Catich Gallery, St. Ambrose

University, Iowa, 1968

Masters of the Italic Letter, Kathryn A. Atkins/ Penguin Press, London, 1988

The Calligraphy Handbook, Carolyn Knudsen/ Stemmer House Publishers

Italic

Inc., Maryland, 1985

Calligraphy, Inspiration, Innovation and Communication, David Harris/Anaya,

London, 1991

Books of Hours and their Owners, John Hartharn/Thames and Hudson, 1977

Lettering Old and New, Translated by Dr. W.E. Walz/Batsford, London,

c. 1930

Ornmnental Alphabets and Initials, Alison Harding/ Thames and Hudson, 1983

Celtic Knotteork, Iain Bain/Constable, London, 1986

124
 INDEX

Brown, Denis, II, 31 8—13

Index brushes, 14 diamond, letter anatomy, 6
Dürer, Albrecht, 75, 108
Haanes, Christopher, 95
hackle, letter anatomy, 6
Durham Gospels, 30 Hagen, Johannes von, 74
c hairline, letter anatomy, 6
Adam and Eve, 67 Cadeaux see Cadels hairline tail, letter anatomy, 6
Alcuin of York, 9, 38 Cadels, 59, 94 Half Uncial:
Anglo-Saxon minuscules, history and development, 81 Eadfrith, Bishop, 30 and the Caroline Minuscule,
history and development, 9 practical, 82—3 ear, letter anatomy, 6 38—39, 40
Arabic numerals, 107, 112 Cambrensis, Giraldus, 31 Early Gothic: history and development, 8,

arch, letter anatomy, 6 Cancellaresca Corsiva see Italic history and development, 9, 9, 12
Arch of Constantine, 109 capital letter, letter anatomy, 6 12, 46—7 Halliday, Peter, 17
Artificial Uncial: capital line, letter anatomy, 6 practical, 48—9 handmade papers, 14, 47
history and development, 24—5 Capitalis Monumentalis see Echternach Gospels, 30 Harris, David, 103
practical, 26—7 English Bastard Secretary see headline, letter anatomy, 6
Imperial Capitals
Arts and Crafts movement, 42, Capitalis Quadrata see Square Bastard Secretary Henry of Blois, Bishop, 46
95 Capitals
English Caroline Minuscule, Henry V Ill, King of England, 51
ascender: Caroline Minuscule, 16, 35, 84, 42 hierarchy of scripts, 16
letter anatomy, 6 90 Etruscan alphabet, 8 Historia Ecclesiastica, 35
height, 7 Early Gothic and, 46, 47 Exeter Book, 35 horizontal foot, letter anatomy, 6
ascender line, letter anatomy, 6 history and development, 9, Humanist Capitals, 91
Aubert, David, 71 12, 38—9 98—9
practical,

Augustine, St., 24 practical, 7, 40—1 Humanist Minuscule, 50, 94

Carstairs, Joseph, 106 fibre-tipped pens, 14 history and development, 11,

Catich, E.M., 109, 112 Flamel, Jean, 81 13, 90—1

Chancery, 66 flourish, letter anatomy, 6 practical, 92—3
Chancery Cursive see Italic foot, letter anatomy, 6
baseline, letter anatomy, 6
Charlemagne, Emperor, 9, 38 Foundational Hand:
Bastard Capitals, practical, 78—9
Chichester Cathedral, 51 history and development, 1
bastard scripts, 10, 11
Citeaux, 47 42—3 Imperial Capitals, 7, 16, 90
Bastard Secretary:
history and development, 13,
Cockerell, Sidney, 43 practical, 44—5 brush strokes, 110—11

66-7 Codex Amiatinus, 24, 25 fountain pens, 14 construction, 112—19

Codex Vaticanus 3256, 20—1 Fraktur, 67 history and development, 8,
practical, 68—9
Coefrid, Abbot, 24 history and development, 13 13, 108-9
Båtarde, 7, 11
Columba, St., 34 74—5 In Proverbia Salamonis, 34
history and development, 13,
70-1
"Command of hand", 103 practical, 76—7 inner-letter space, letter anatomy,
Copperplate, 10 Franciscus, Ricardus, 81 6
practical, 72—3
history and development, 11 Froissart, Jean, 71 Insular Display Capitals, history
Bede, Venerable, 34
13, 102-3 Froissart Chronicle, 70—1 and development, 13
Beneventan Minuscule, history
and development, 9, 12, 84 practical, 104—5 Insular Majuscule:

Bentivoglio, Giovanni II, 90 Copperplate Capitals, history and development, 12,

practical, 106—7 29-31
Bernard, St., 47
Corbie, 9 Gellone Sacramentary, 63 practical, 32—3
Berry, Duc de, 81
counter, letter anatomy, 6 German calligraphic revival, Insular Minuscule:
Bickham, George, 102—3
Black Letter see Textura cross stroke, letter anatomy, 6 history and development, 13 history and development, 9,
crossbar, letter anatomy, 6 German Letter see Fraktur 12, 34—5
Quadrata, Textura Prescisus
Cultural Decomposition, 31 Gill, Eric, 43 practical, 36—7
Bobbio, 9
Cursive Half Uncial, history Gothic Capitals, 10 insular scripts, 9
body height, letter anatomy, 6
and development, 12 history and development, interlaced patterning, 81
Bonaventura, St., 66
curved stroke, letter anatomy, 6 58—9 inter-letter space, letter
Book of Durrow, 30
Book of Hours, 70, 84, 90 practical, 60—1 anatomy, 6
Book ofKe11s, 29-31 Gothic scripts, history and interlinear space, letter anatomy,

bow, letter anatomy, 6 D development, 9, 10 6

bowl, letter anatomy, 6 Dadd, Richard, 102 Grandval Bible, 38—9 Iona, 34
bracketed serif, letter anatomy, descender, letter anatomy, 6 Greek scripts, 8 Irish scripts, 9
6 descender line, letter anatomy, 6 Greek Uncial, history and Italic:

British calligraphic revival, detachable nibs, 14, 15 development, 12 history and development, 13,

history and development, 12 development of \Vestern script, Griffo, Francesco, 91, 95 94—5

125
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 INDEX

practical, 96—7
Italic Capitals, practical, 98—9
manuscript sources, 7
Manutius, Aldus, 95
Quadrata see
Q
Textura Quadrata
Textura Quadrata, 10, 94
Early Gothic and, 46, 47
Italic Swash Capitals, Matthäus Evangelium, 75 history and development, 12,
quill pens, 7, 14—15
practical, 100—1 Maximilian, Emperor, 75 50—1
Meditations on the Life of practical, 52—3
Christ, 66 tongue, letter anatomy, 6
Mercian prayer-book, 34 tools, 7, 14—15
Ramsey Psalter, 42—3
Jarrow, 25, 29 Merovingian script, 9 Trajan Column, 8, 108—9, 112
Ratdolt, Erhard, 85
Jenson, Nicholas, 38, 90 Metz Pontifical, 50 Treatise on Hawking, 94
reed pen, 14
Jerome, St., 24, 31 minim height, letter anatomy, 6 Trewhiddle, 35
Rochester Priory, 46
Johnson, Edward, 11, 42—5, 95 Minuscules: turned foot, letter anatomy, 6
Roman Imperial Capital, 7
letter anatomy, 6
history and development, 8
development, 8
Roman scripts, history and
origin, 24
development, 8
Kane Medieval Manuscript, 66 Moralia in Job, 47
Romanising Uncial of the Uncials:
Kippax, W., 103 Moro, Francesco, 94
Canterbury Style, 25 history and development, 8,
Koch, Rudolf, 11, 74—5 Morris, William, 43, 95
Rotunda: 9, 12, 24-5
history and development, 11,
practical, 26—7
12, 84—5 The Universal Penman, 102—3
practical, 86—7 upper-case letter, letter
Larisch, Rudolf von, 11 Neudörffer, Johann the Elder,
Rotunda Capitals, practical, anatomy, 6
Late Caroline see Early 74, 75
88-9
Gothic New Roman Cursive, history
Runic Capitals, history and
Late Uncial, 25 and development, 12
development, 13
left-handed calligraphy, 7 nibs, 14—15
Rustic Capitals, 8
Lethaby, W.R., 42 Niccoli, Niccolo, 94
history and development, 13, Vaast, St., 59
letter height, letter anatomy, 7
16-17 Vatican Basilicanus, 38
letterpress printing, 103
Lettre Bourguignonne see O practical, 18—19 Vaux, Samuel, 102
vellum, 7, 14
Båtarde Old English see Textura
La Vengeance de la Mort Ihesa,
Lewis, James, 106 Quadrata
ligature, letter anatomy, 6 Old Roman Cursive, history
s 71
St. Ambrose, De Misteriis I, 46 Verona Antiphoner, 84—5
Lindisfarne, 29—31, 34 and development, 12
St. Paul's Epistle, 91 Versals, history and
Lindisfarne Gospels, 29—31 Orgemont, Guillaume d', 51
St. Vaast Bible, 59 development, 58—9
link, letter anatomy, 6 Ormesby Psalter, 55
San Sebastiano, Rome, 20 Vespasian Psalter, 25
Littera Antiqua see Humanist
Saturnalia, 95 Via Appia Monument, 108
Minuscule
Virgil, 16, 21
Littera di Breva see Italic p Schwabacher, 50, 67
history and development, Visigothic Minuscule, history
Littera Uncialis see Uncial papers, 14
76—7 and development, 9, 12
Lombardic Capitals, 88 handmade, 47
Sherbourne, Bishop, 51
history and development, Papyrus, 17
62-3 "slanted" pens, 15
13, parchment, 7, 14, 20
sources, 7
practical, 64—5 Patrick, St., 29
Lowe, Nicholas, 66 pattern books, 59 spring-loaded pens, 14
waistline, letter anatomy, 6
lower counter, letter anatomy, 6 pen angle, letter anatomy, 6, 7 Square Capitals:
Walpurgis Night, 102
lower-case letter, letter pen width, letter anatomy, 6 history and development, 8
Waters, Sheila, 39
anatomy, 6 Petrarch, Francesco, 90, 91 13, 20-1
Wearmouth, 25, 29
Luttrell Psalter, 55 Philip the Good, Duke of practical, 22—3
wedge serif, letter anatomy, 6
Luxeuil, 9 Burgundy, 71 stem, letter anatomy, 6
Weston, Thomas, 81
Luxeuil Minuscule, history Phoenician scripts, 8 "straight" pens, 15
whetstones, 15
and development, 12 Phoenix, 1 1 stroke sequence, 7
Winchester Bible, 46, 62
Pliny,10 swash, letter anatomy, 6
Windmill Psalter, 10, 55
Pointed Minuscule, 34
Poligny family, 70
Macrobius, Ambrosius Prescisus see Textura Prescisus

Theodosius, 95 printing, 103 Tara brooch, 30 x

majuscule, letter anatomy, 6 Proto-Gothic see Early Gothic Textura Prescisus, 10, 5() x-height, letter anatomy, 6

manipulated strokes, 111 Pugin, A.W.N., 62 history and development, 55 x-line, letter anatomy, 6

127
 College, Dublin p30: tl: Tara Brooch, National Pages 74—75: Fraktur & Schwabacher
Museum of Ireland, Dublin; b, tr (detail): Lindisfarne p74: cl (detail): MS Lat 20 f384 v, Berlin,

Acknowledgment Gospels €29 COTT Nero DIV 129, BL p31: MS

COTT Nero DIV f5v, BL; b: Cultural momposition,
t: Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin

— Handschriftenabteilung pp74—75:
— Preußischer Kulturbesitz
b: MS 64/35v &
Denis Brown, 1993 36r, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,Miinchen p75: t, r
PICTURE CREDITS
(detail): Rudolf Koch, Gospel of St. Matthew, 1921,
Every effort has been Inade to trace the copyright
Pages 34—35: Insular Minuscule Offenbach/Klingspor-Museum der Stadt Offenbach
holders and we
apologize in advance for any
unintentional omissions. would be pleased to We p34: tr: Lindisfarne Priory, photo: Andy Williams; cr am Main
insert the appropriate acknovaedgtnent in any (detail): Bedes Conunentary on the Book of Proverbs,
subsequent edition of this publication. MS 819 folio 29/ BO; bcr, bcl (detail), b (detail): Royal Pages 80-81: Cadels
2 Axx f17 Prayer-book, English Mercian, BL p35: p80: 054/107 fr380 Page de Garde, BN p81: 1: MS
Key: t: top b: bottom c: centre r: right l: left t (detail), tcl, bcl (detail): Historia Ecclesiastica Genis Ashmolean 789 fol. 4v/BO; tr: Initial Letter, Speedball
Angloru,n COTT TIB Cl 1 f5v, BE; l,cr: spirit Textbook 1952, Ross F. George; br: An example of
Abbreviations: g/ Men 11.71- end, Il'idsith, 11.1-13 fol 84b, fine initials from a book by Thomas Weston in 1682,
AA: Ancient Art and Architecture Collection Speedball Textbook 1952, Ross F. George
Reproduced by Pertnission of the Dean and
BL: By Pertnission of the British Library, London
Chapter of Exeter
BN: Cliché Biblioth&que Nationale de France, Paris
Pages 84—85: Rotunda
BO: The Bodleian Library, Oxford
Pages 38—39: Caroline Minuscule p84:b: MS.L.4929-1866 f.27r Verona Antiphoner,
1K: Ikona, Rotne
VA: By Courtesy of the Board of Trustees of the p38: b: Arch. S. Pietro 1)182 fol. 159v, Bascicicanus mid-15th century, VA p85: t: L.2384-1910 f. 203r
Victoria and Albert Museutn, London D 182 f 159v/Foto Biblioteca Vaticana/IK p39: tl: Epistle Book, Italian Book of Hours, VA; b: Sheet

Sally-Anne Reason; tr: Cloud Conceptions front Above, of printed Rotunda, Author's own copy
Jacket: Calligraphy by Carol Kernp back jacket: II:
1st verse, Sheila Waters; b: Moatiev Grandval Bible

Add 4213 f 73, BL; lc: Worksheet, Author's own ADD/MS 10546 f 2513-26, BL Pages 90—91: Humanist Minuscule
copy; tr: Harl 2904 t36, BL; rc (detail): MS 64
Reid f. p90: b: Reid MS 64 VA p91: t: MS L 1721-1921
33, VA; b: Historia Ecclesiastica Genis Anglorll"l, COTT Pages 42—43: Foundational Hand f96v-97r, VA; c: MS 186 fol 21r, The Rector and

Tlb Cll f5v, BL p42: l,r, 1 (detail): Harl 2904 201 v, BL p43: d: Fellows of Exeter College, Oxford; b: Petrarch's

Worksheet, Author's own

Photograph of copy; tr: Annotation, Author's own copy
Pages 2—3 Edward Johnston, Holburne Museu:n and Crafts
p2: Reid MS. 64 f, 33, VA p3: Metz Pontifical, early Study Centre, Bath; b: Edward Johnston's Winchester Pages 94—95: Italic

14th century, MS. 298.f.138v/Fitzwilliam Museum, Fonnal Writing Sheet C. 778, Holburne Museutn and p94: MS L 1485-1946 Francesco Moro: Alphabet
b:

University of Catnbridge Crafts Study Centre, Bath Page, VA p95: Skrift Katalog, Christopher Haanes,
tl:

Oslo; tr (detail): MS L1769-1952 f.1 13r, VA; b: Lat

Pages 46—47: Early Gothic Class E38, William Morris manuscript, BO
Pages
pp4—5: Add 42130 (detail), BL p46:c: Winchester Bible, AA; Or: C07 6Bvl, BL
p47: 1,1: Moralia in Job, Lib XVII-XXXV, MS 173, Pages 102—103: Copperplate
Pages 6—7: Introduction fo 41, Bibliothéque Municipale de Dijon; tr: The p102: c, b: The Universal Penntan, Dover Publications
p6: tl: Beatus of Liebana, Spain, c. 22(), Scriptoriurn 1
Paper Maker, Dover Publications Inc., New York Inc., New York p103: t, cr: The Universal Pennmn,

in the Tower of the Monastery of Tavara, The Dover Publications Inc., New York; (l: Copperplate
Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, M.429, f. 183 Pages 50—51: Textura Quadrata workshop, Fot01nas Index; b: Copperplate typeface
p50: b: Metz Pontifical, Early 14th century, MS 298 design, David Harris

Pages 8—11: The Development of Western Script fl 38v/Fitzwilliam Museurn, University of Cambridge

p8: r: Oscan script,

Terracotta Marker, inscribed with p51: t, I (detail): Chichester Cathedral, I-lent-y VIII Pages 108—109: Imperial Capitals
Italy, The Trustees of the British Museutn, London; (Bishop Sherbourne asking Henry VIII to confirm the p108: t: Lettering from On the Just Shaping of Letters,

b (detail): Inscription on the Base of the Colonna charter for Chichester Cathedral), Fototnas Index; Albrecht Dürer, Dover Publications Inc., New York;
Traiana, Monti, Rotne/lK p9: t: Charlernagne with b: MS Rawl liturg.e. 40 fol 40v/BO Appian Way: Inscription, De Luca,
b, c (detail):

Alcuin, Mary Evans Picture Library; b: MSC. Patr. 5 Rotne/IK p109: t: Inscription on the Base of
f. 1 v, Staatsbibliothek Banlberg pl(): t (detail): M 102, Pages 54—55: Textura Prescisus Colonna Traiana, Monti, Rotne/IK; b: The Arch
f.lv-2, The Pierpont Morgan Library, New York; b: p54: Judgernent of S0101non, The Pierpont Morgan of Constantine, De Luca, Rotne/IK
Frontispiece of translation of Pliny's Natural History, Library, New York, M. 102, f.Iv-2 p55: cl (detail):

1473, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence pl 1: Add 42130 201 v, Bl.; c: MS Douce 366 fol 154r/BO Pages 124—127: Bibliography & Index
t: Ms.Lat 9474, BN; b: Phoenix, Denis Brown, 1993 p124: I MS 2981, Magdalene College,
(detail):

Pages 58—59: Gothic Capitals & Versals Carnbridge p126: MS Lat 20 f384 v, Berlin,

Pages 16—17: Rustic Capitals p58: MS 2981, Sets of Capitals, Magdalene College, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin — Preußischer

pp16—17: tr, I (detail), b (detail): VAT 3867 f.3v, Catnbridge p59: tl: MS 55 G v013 F52V, Bible of St. Kulturbesitz — Handschriftenabteilung

Vergilius Romanus Ecloga 1 1 & 4, Biblioteca Vaast, Bibliothéque Municipale d'Arras; r (detail): MS
Apostolica Vaticana/IK; c: Ms. Bodl. 218, fol.62r, 2981, Sets of Capitals, Magdalene College, Special photography:
BO p17: lit: Peter Halliday, Quotation frotn Virgil: Catnbridge; bl: MS.83-1972 flr, Fitzwilliatn Michael Dunning: p6: tr
Eclogue V II, 43 x 31.5 ctn, 1983, black ink on Museutn, University of Canlbridge Peter Haynnn: p17: br

creatn paper. translation by the scribe

Author's acknowledgments:
Pages 62—63: Lombardic Capitals
To my wife Nancy who untiringly typed and
Pages 20—21: Square Capitals p62: b (detail): Winchester Bible, Ezekiel, 12th century,
corrected my rnanuscript pages. To Miss Pernberton
p20: tc: The Parchrnent Maker, Dover Publications AA p63: Latin 12048 fiv, BN and the staff of the Bodleian Library for their kind
Inc., New York; c: Inscription at San Sebastiano/IK help beyond the call of duty, and to Liz Brown and
pp20—21: b (detail): Pontificia Conunissione de Pages 66—67: Bastard Secretary
Louise Candlish of Dorling Kindersley who stopped
Archeologia Sacra/ 1K p21: Pontificia Commissione p66: cr: Kane Medieval MS 21 folio Or, Grenville
t:
rue straying too far from the chosen path. And finally
de Archeologia Sacra/lK Kane Collection of Medieval Manuscripts, to farnily and friends who have also suffered a little
Manuscripts Division, Departtnent of Rare Books and with me over the last years.
Pages 24—25: Uncial & Artificial Uncial Special Collections, Princeton University Libraries;
p24: r: MS E Museo f7v/BO; b: Ceolfrid Bible, bl: E Mus 35 f 98/ BO p67: English Genesis, MS Dorling Kindersley would like to thank:
AA p25: t, b (detail): COTT VESP A1 30v-31, BL Bodley 596 f2r/BO Janos and Sally-Anne Reason for their
IVIartFy

artworks; Richard Bird for the index; Jane Carter,

Pages 28—31: Insular Majuscule Pages 70—71: Båtarde Stephen Croucher, and Mark Johnson Davies for
p28: The Book of Kells MS The Board
58 fol. 40v, p70: b: MS Douce 267 f.36r/BO p71: t, c (detail): design assistance; Lol Henderson and Helen Castle tor

of Trinity College, Dublin p29: br (detail): The Book Jean Froissart's Chronicle, 14th century, BL; 61: editorial assistance; Jo, Simon, Liz, and Louise for
of Kells MS 58 töl. 179v, The Board of Trinity Roy 16 Gill BL their hands; and to Morag Hislop for all her help.

12S