1

Dr. Sunil Kumar Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, H.R. (P.G.) College,
Khalilabad, Sant Kabir Nagar, (U.P.), Mob. No. 9415261727; 8400259327; E-mail:
sunil_shrinet@rediffmail.com; sunilkzoology@gmail.com

Abiotic factors:

The pond is a large earth depression where water collects, often has shallow
depth which allows sunlight to penetrate up to the bottom, allowing aquatic plants to
grow. Ponds could support a large variety of animal and plant life, such as crayfish,
small fish, frogs, insects, turtles, protozoa, algae, Crustaceans etc. Ponds usually
regulate the same water temperature ranging from the water's surface to the bottom.
A pond ecosystem, a basic unit in ecology formed from the cohabitation of
plants, animals, microorganisms, and a surrounding environment, refers to a
community of freshwater organisms largely dependent on each of the surviving
species to maintain a life cycle. Ponds shallow water bodies barely reach 12 to 15 feet
in-depth and allow the sun to penetrate to its bottom. A pond ecosystem comprises
all three distinct classifications, producers, consumers, and decomposer. The pond's
natural cycle begins with the producers and then to the consumers before ending
with the decomposers.

Density and pressure:

The most remarkable change in density of water is that caused by temperature.

Pure water has maximum density at 4°C, and as it cools to 0°C the density decreases
from 1 to 0.999868, and as it warms to 30°C also it decreases to 0.995673 (Fig. 1).
While the change might appear negligible this physical phenomenon has profound
influence on the freshwater bodies, especially those in the temperate region. In winter
when the ice-cover is formed the water at 4°C being heavier sinks to the bottom and
would not freeze - otherwise the whole lake would be a solid mass of ice.
A pond's ecosystem consists of abiotic environmental factors and biotic
communities of organisms. Abiotic environmental factors of a pond's ecosystem
include temperature, flow, and salinity. The pollutants, nutrients, and pH of soil are
also critical abiotic factors in a pond ecosystem. The percentage of dissolved oxygen
levels in a water body determines what kind of organisms and fish grow there.
Anaerobic bacteria will not thrive in an ecosystem with surplus dissolved oxygen. A
water body's salinity may also determine the different species present. For instance,
brackish water organisms tolerate salinity, while freshwater organisms will not thrive,
when exposed to salt.
 2

Figure 1: Density in relation to temperature in pure water

During spring and fall overturn the density changes, which and wind action
again cause the mixing of water. We have referred already to the thermal
stratification of lake water during summer.
Density of water changes due to pressure (unity at 1 atmosphere; 1.0001 at 20
atmospheres) and also due to dissolved solids. Salinity effects will be discussed
separately.
Viscosity of water: This property changes greatly with temperature, from
unity at 0°C to 0.5 at 25°C. This is of biological interest in that fish can move through
at much less frictional drag in warmer waters, a saving in energy of locomotion and
also perhaps in pumping of water for respiration. This point is mentioned more as an
example where the aqua culturist has to be vary of every aspect of culture where
energy saving is involved, for further scientific developments in fish culture might
depend on such facts.
Hydrostatic pressure increases by 1 atmosphere for every 10 meter depth and
thus at 20 meters depth the effective pressure is 3 atmospheres and at 100 meters,
11 atmospheres. (1 at= 1 kg.cm-2 = 0.80665 × 104 Newton m2, See EIFAC, 1986 for
conversion factors). The effect of pressure is so much that some wooden beams taken
to deep water have been crushed by the effect of pressure, the phenomenon referred
to as ‘implosion’, as opposed to ‘explosion’. Quite often when fishes are hauled up
from bottom waters their stomachs become averted, as they are not able to adjust to
the sudden changes in pressure. Many fishes, however, have the air bladder or swim
bladder which helps in secreting or absorbing gas to adjust the body density and
then can move up or down.
 3

Temperature:
Since most of the radiant energy of light is absorbed as heat by the surface and
upper layers of water in the fish ponds, (because of the high concentration of
dissolved organic and particulate matter on the top layer of water) the lower water
layer becomes cooler. This at times is quite beneficial, for during the hottest part of
the day the fish can move down safely to the lower layers. Mixing of the layers would
however take place due to wind action. Boyd (1979) (Fig. 2) clearly shows a well
developed thermo cline (thermal stratification) in a fish pond - as we have discussed
elsewhere herein this thermo cline is not strictly according to the classical concept of
thermo cline (see below), as the change in temperature with depth in a small pond of
say 2.5m is much higher than 1°C/one meter - e.g. given change from 28 to 21°C in a
depth change of 1.8 to 2.2 meters (e.g. 7°C per 0.4m or 17.5°C/one meter). In shallow
ponds (1m) the water would destratify on cooling at night, whereas in deeper ponds
(1.5 – 2m) at Auburn, Alabama remained stratified throughout the warm months.
There is usually a close correlation between air temperature and pond water
temperature, though usually pond temperatures do not fluctuate as greatly as air
temperature and epilimnion temperature. Temperature of turbid waters is
greater than those of clear waters. At the beginning of plankton bloom the surface
temperature of a pond was 31°C, which increased to 35°C at the peak of the algal
bloom (Idoso and Foster, 1974), but at a depth of 60cm the temperature remained
unchanged.
Temperature Relations of Large Bodies of Water:
This aspect of study is relevant to aquaculture in as much as it is important in
stocking and management of man-made reservoirs, lakes and large coastal water
bodies. A phenomenon of much significance in temperate lakes and also in the
deeper tropical water bodies is the thermal stratication of water in summer. The
warmer surface water remains in a separate zone on the top, referred to
as epilimnion, and cooler deep water, being heavier, remaining in the bottom,
referred to as hypolimnion (Fig. 2). The two zones are separated by
the thermocline where the temperature changes sharply with increase in depth -
according to Birge the thermocline is characterized by change in temperature of
1°C/metre - perhaps this definition need not be so rigid. According to this
characteristic very few tropical lakes have thermocline, even though Ruttner in
Indonesia and Sreenivasan in India recorded thermoclines in tropical lakes and
reservoirs. Worthington and Beadle did not find thermocline in African lakes,
Rudolyph, Victoria Nyanza and others, but did find a definite thermocline in Lake.
 4

Figure 2: Thermal stratification in a fish pond (after Boyd, 1979).

Controlling Temperature in Fish Ponds:

The temperature of water in a pond can be usually decreased during the warm
season if water level is increased and vice versa. Temperature death due to high
temperature takes place during peak summer and this can thus be avoided often.
Provision of shade (cover) over a part of the pond can also be of help in hot months. It
is significant that temperatures at which mortality occurs is so precise that change of
even a fraction of degree of temperature can make difference of life or death of the
aquatic organisms.
In cold countries, providing wind breaks during winter causes increase in
temperature of ponds e.g. carp - spawning pond in Europe; Milkfish pond in
Taiwan. Evacuation of bottom water by any device (properly designed monk or
otherwise) can also help in warming of water. In certain temperate regions tilapias
are reared in artificially warmed ponds.
It is also noteworthy that heated effluents from power generation units can be
used for warm water facilities in cold months especially for rearing fish as indeed is
done in certain cases (salmon and trout culture) in temperate regions.

Salt contents in water:

Most fish that live in the ocean tend to lose water the high salt content of the
ocean causes water to constantly flow out through the fish's gills. And because
seawater is so salty, they also must pump out the excess salt, both through their
kidneys and using specialized cells in their gills.
Keeping the homeostasis in balance is a big challenge for freshwater and
marine fishes, because metabolic processes can only take place in very specific
 5

physical and chemical environment. In order to keep the “internal environment”

constant, continuous adaptations with regard to temperature, pH and the
concentrations of Na+, K+, Ca2+, glucose, CO2 and O2, take place. The key to their
problem is osmoregulation – active regulation of the osmotic pressure to maintain
the fluid balance and concentration of salts.
Let first take a look at freshwater fishes. Because the salt concentration inside
their body is higher as in the surrounding water, water enters the body due to
osmosis. Without any active regulation of this process, fishes would swell and get
bigger and bigger. To compensate, the kidney produces a large amount of urine,
which at the same time means loss of salts. In order to maintain a sufficient salt
level, special cells in the gills (chloride cells) take up ions from the water, which are
then directly transported into the blood.

Figure 1: Osmoregulation in freshwater fish.

 6

Figure 2: Osmoregulation in seawater fish.

If you like to watch documentary films, you have probably come across one
that presents a life cycle of salmons. A young salmon start its life in a freshwater
river where it has to prepare for a life in a salty ocean. Three important changes must
occur before this happens. Firstly, it has to start drinking lots of water. Secondly, the
kidneys must drop their urine production dramatically. And thirdly, the chloride cells
in the gills (also called molecular pumps) must shift into reverse, meaning pumping
sodium out instead of in. At some point, adult salmons return to their place of birth
to spawn (in the documentary this is a moment of feast for grizzly bears). By re-
entering the freshwater river, the above-mentioned processes have to change back.
They stay a few days in the estuarial zone as these changes happen automatically.
There are also species living in estuaries – environments, where freshwater
meets the sea and salt concentration changes gradually. Some species of sharks can
swim very far upwards the freshwater stream. Their osmoregulating process is quite
different that the one of salmons. They are able to convert ammonia to urea and
retain it in the blood to such an extent that the blood is slightly more concentrated
than seawater. In this way, the loss of water via osmosis is prevented and animals do
not need to drink seawater and excessive salt is excreted through the rectal gland [6].
These switches are controlled in the brain and regulated by hormones. The cortisol
and thyroid hormone are the main regulators of osmotic process – influencing the
rate and direction of ions pumped through the chloride cell
Light:
The spectral qualities of light (electromagnetic radiation spectrum) are shown
in Fig. 8.5, in which the “visible” range is indicated. Originally the term light perhaps
 7

was restricted to this visible portion of the radiation spectrum only, but now the use
of the term is broadened. The visible light extends from about 4000 to 7000 angstrom
(1 angstrom (Ao) = 10-8cm).
Illumination of a surface such as that of a fish pond or tank is the luminous flux
which it receives per unit area. Lux (1 lumen per m 2) is the common unit used.
EIFAC (1986) while reviewing the terminology and measurements used in
flow/through and recirculation systems in aquaculture recommends that Lux be
indicated in terms of radiant power rather than as lumen, the latter is evaluated in
terms of its action on a selective receptor. The irradiance of a surface can be given as
the radiant power:
1. per unit area - Watts per m2 - (Wm-2)
2. per unit area per second - Einstein per m2 per second (E.m-2.S-1)
Conversion of lux:
1 lux = 0.0027 Wm -2
= 0.0125 M EM -2 -1

Figure 3: Spectral radiation of radiant energy (after Hutchinson, 1957).

Of the total light falling on water a portion is reflected, which depends on

the roughness of water surface and the angle of the radiation. The smoother the
surface and closer the angle of radiation to the vertical the greater is the radiation
penetrating the surface. The spectral quality and intensity of light changes as it
enters deeper waters. In pure water 53% of incident light is lost as heat (quenching -
light extinction) within the first meter of water. Light penetration is further decreased
by impurities in water. Light penetration is further decreased by impurities in water.
The upper water mass receiving a minimum of 1% of incident light and over is
referred to as euphotic zone - in zones where light intensity is less than 1% of
 8

incident light photosynthesis cannot proceed at rates greater than respiration. In fish
ponds usually the euphotic zone will be less than 1 metre due to the density of
plankton. Boyd (1979) gives details of light penetration in Auburn fish ponds, where
at 0.5m depth the incident light had “quenched” close to 1% (Fig. 4) Almazan (1977)
points out that the depth of Secchi disc visibility multiplied by 2 gives an estimate of
the depth of euphotic zone in Alabama fish ponds. Secchi disc visibility can also be
used to estimate the extinction coefficient (K) of light penetration (Lambert's law
equation):

K = 1.7/ZsD, where
ZsD is Secchi disc visibility in meters

Figure 4: Penetration of light in two separate fertilized fish ponds (Boyd, 1979).

Sound:
The bodies of fish have approximately the same density as water,
so sound passes right through their bodies, which move in concert with the
traveling sound wave. Fish have bones in the inner ear, called otoliths, which are
much denser than water and the fish's body.
Sound is important in the marine environment and fishes have developed
sensory mechanisms for detecting, localizing, and interpreting sounds. Two
independent but related sensory systems used by fish to detect sound are the inner
ear (the auditory system) and, to a lesser extent, the mechanosensory lateral
line system, which is generally used to detect vibration and water flow. One
 9

interesting question is why hearing evolved. While the sound is used for
communication, it is likely that hearing evolved well before animals could produce
sounds to communicate. Instead, it is likely that hearing evolved to help animals
learn about their environment. In considering all of the sensory abilities an animal
has, it becomes apparent that each provides a particular type of information and
thus has special roles that enable an animal to survive and thrive in its environment.
For example, chemical signals are long lasting (especially in air) but they do not
provide very good directional information and work best when the receiving animal is
very close to the chemical source.
The Inner Ear:
The bodies of fish have approximately the same density as water, so sound
passes right through their bodies, which move in concert with the traveling
sound wave. Fish have bones in the inner ear, called otoliths, which are much denser
than water and the fish’s body. As a result, these ear bones move more slowly in
response to sound waves than does the rest of the fish. The difference between the
motion of the fish’s body and the otoliths bend or displace the cilia on the hair
cells that are located in the inner ear. This differential movement between the
sensory cells and the otolith is interpreted by the brain as sound. Otoliths are made
of calcium carbonate and their size and shape is highly variable among species.

Figure 5: The ear has three otolithic organs and three semicircular canals.
Abbreviations: A, H, P- anterior, horizontal, posterior semicircular canals; AN-
auditory nerve to saccule; CC- crus commune; L- lagena; LM- lagena macula; LN-
eighth nerve to lagena; LO lagenar otolith; S saccule; SM saccular macula; SO-
saccular otolith; U- utricle; UO- utricular otolith.
 10

The Lateral Line System:

Sound pressure waves passing through water also creates particle motion close
to the source of the sound. Fishes have organs called neuromasts on the skin or in
canals below the skin’s surface. These are composed of hair cells, like the inner ear.
They detect the relative motion between themselves and the surrounding water.
Fishes can use the lateral line system to detect acoustic signals at short range, over a
distance of one to two body lengths, and at low frequencies (lower than 160 to 200
Hz).

Figure 6: Lateral line system in fish.

Electric currents:
Strongly electric fish are fish with an electric organ discharge that is powerful
enough to stun prey or be used for defense. Typical examples are the electric eel,
the electric catfishes, and electric rays. Strongly electric marine fish give low voltage,
high electric current discharges. The use of electricity to capture fish was first
introduced in 1863 when a British patent was granted (Vibert 1967). As early as
1917, the first, of many patents was granted for an electric screen to guide the
movements of fish. The use of electricity in guiding or capturing fish increased during
the early part of the twentieth century but the major efforts in applying electro fishing
as an important tool in fishery management did not occur until after 1950. Several
major attempts to synthesize the principles and techniques of electro fishing as well
as the effects of electricity on fish and invertebrates have been made since that time.
BASIC RESPONSES OF FISH TO AN ELECTRICAL CURRENT:
The motion of fish in an electric current is believed to be the result of direct
stimulation of the central nervous system which controls the animal's voluntary
reaction, the autonomic nervous system which controls the animal's involuntary
 11

reaction, and the muscles (Vibert 1967). Stimuli are transmitted via sensory nerve
fibers to modulators (brain and spinal cord) and via motor nerve fibers to effectors
(glands and muscles). Neurons within the nerve fiber carry the impulse by a "wave of
electrical depolarization" that moves along the nerve fiber producing an electrical
potential or polarization that is dependent upon the semi permeable membrane of the
neurons.
Water as a Medium:
The chemical composition of water and its temperature determine its
conductivity which is defined by the American Public Health Association, American
Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation (1976) as "a
numerical expression of the ability of a water sample to carry an electric current. This
number depends on the total concentration of the ionized substances dissolved in the
water and the temperature at which the measurement is made. The mobility of each
of the various ions, their valences, and their active and relative concentrations affect
conductivity".
The electric organs are specialized organs, derived from the muscles or the nerve
cell's axon, that can generate electric current, employed from catching the prey
(electro-paralysis) to defense, orientation (electro-location, similar the way bats and
dolphins use ultrasounds in echolocation), or as a means of communication, for
mating, feeding or territory defense. The electric fish, producing electricity, are
electrogenic, but as they sense the electricity they are also electro receptive. There are
species that are not electrogenic, being only electro receptive, detecting the weak fields
generated by their prey (any living thing generates a weak electric field, which could be
just 0.01 microvolt’s), like sharks, rays (except the electric ones, which are also
electrogenic), lungfishes and even the platypus (a mammal!). It clearly appears that
electricity works only in water.
There are about 500 species of electric fish. Here are the most important examples:
1. Electric eel
2. Electric rays
3. Electric catfish
4. Elephant fishes
5. The African knife fish

Bottom deposits and particles suspended in water:

The effect of suspended solids on freshwater fish is illustrated from field and
discharge of clay and particles of quartz, feldspar, and mica, into otherwise crystal.
Smith & Kramer (I963) showed that stream bottom deposits. Sediments occur
naturally and are integral components of aquatic systems. Nearly all waters have
some solid matter in suspension that may be of physical, chemical or biological
origin, and the quantities of this material usually vary with season. This natural
variation in suspended sediment concentrations occurs, typically, in response to
events (e.g. rain fall, snow and glacial melting) which increase both water flows and
levels resulting in land erosion and sediment input to waterways. The increased
energy within watercourses may move the stream-bed substrate and also increase
the amount of material in suspension. Accordingly, aquatic organisms are subjected
 12

to these natural variations in their environment. They have adapted their life cycle to
accommodate them and in so doing ensured the survival of the species.
In addition to natural seasonal fluctuations of sediment levels in the aquatic
environment, there are catastrophic events, such as volcanic eruptions, and certain
anthropogenic activities that have the potential to add unusually large amounts of
sediment to a water body, thereby markedly affecting its physical, chemical, and
biological structure and integrity. Such activities as logging, road building, dredging,
and placer (gold) mining, etc., may cause significant environmental changes proximal
to the activity and at distances further downstream.
In 1964, the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC),
assessed the literature that was available on the effects of suspended solids on
aquatic organisms and concluded that there are at least 5 ways in which an excessive
amount of sediment might be harmful to a fishery. These are by:
a) acting directly on the fish swimming in the water in which solids are suspended,
and either killing them or reducing their growth rate, resistance to disease etc.,
b) preventing the successful development of fish eggs and larvae
c) modifying natural movements and migrations of fish
d) reducing the abundance of food available to the fish and,
e) affecting the efficiency of methods for catching fish.
Sediment quality of lakes:
Sediment quality in lakes is extremely variable geographically. The introduction
of excess fine sediment can be addressed in lake tributaries or in the watershed, but
the actual sediment quality is difficult to alter because once it is in the lake, it is hard
to remove. Sediment traps such as filter dams and desalting basins can be used in
the tributaries above a lake to reduce the amount of fine sediment that is delivered to
the lake (EPA 1973).
Dredging of lake bottoms is often considered as a remedial technique to remove
excess sediment, increase lake depth, or remove toxic or nutrient-rich sediment from
the lake environment. There are many problems associated with dredging lake
bottoms. Dredging temporarily increases turbidity in the lake and can cause
environmental degradation because of the decrease in primary productivity. The
sediment may be a nutrient sink and dredging may reintroduce the nutrients back
into the lake. The interstitial water may also be high in nutrients or toxins, and
removing this interstitial water is very difficult and expensive. The loss of shallow
zones may result in the loss of large macrophyte beds, resulting in turn in an
increase in the algal population. The disposal of dredged material can be a problem,
especially if the sediment contains toxins (EPA 1973). To further complicate the
dredging issue, lakes and other bodies of water are often used for disposal of sludge,
which can contain very high levels of toxins. Similar problems exist for river and bay
dredging as well. Because of the potential problems and the potential for further
damage, obtaining permits for dredging can be a long and costly process.
Suspended sediments – direct and indirect effects:
Elevated levels of suspended sediments can impact fish by physically damaging
tissues and organs or by decreasing light penetration and visual clarity in the water,
which can cause a range of effects from behavioral changes to mortality. The severity
of the impact may depend on several factors, including sediment concentration,
 13

duration or frequency of exposure, particle size and shape, associated pollutants,

species, and life stage at time of exposure. Most direct effects are caused by the
scouring and abrasive action of suspended particles, which damages gill tissues or
reduces respiration by clogging gills, leading to decreased resistance to infection or
disease, reduced growth, or mortality (Ryan 1991; Wood & Armitage 1997). Severe gill
damage, gill thickening, and clogging tend to occur at relatively high levels of
suspended sediments (i.e. >500 mg/L), but this level can differ between species and
life stages, with minimal to no damage reported for some species at very high
concentrations (e.g. arctic grayling; McLeay et al., 1987). However, longer exposure
times to lower levels of suspended sediment (100 mg/L) can still cause moderate gill
damage.
Suspended sediment guidelines:
Most international guidelines use turbidity or total suspended solids as a
measure of suspended sediments and give an absolute value (e.g. not greater than 25
mg/L) or are stated in the form of exceedance over a background level (e.g. maximum
increase of 8 NTU above background) (Table 3). In the United States, many states
have set their own numeric or narrative (or both) guidelines, but there is little
consistency among these (see US EPA (2006) Appendix D for guidelines listed by
state) (Berry et al., 2003). Comparisons of guidelines can be difficult, particularly
when written as an exceedance above background levels, as often, what constitutes
‘background’ is not well defined. In the European Union (EU), guidelines for
suspended sediment concentrations are minimal; however, a guideline value for the
EU Freshwater Fish Directive was established to support and protect salmonids and
cyprinids. In British Columbia (Canada), the scientific rationale for water quality
guidelines related to suspended sediments and turbidity are provided by Caux et al.,
(1997). In the case of suspended sediments, the guideline values are based on
changes in concentration that result in an increase of 1 in a severity-of-ill-effects
score – determined from a severity-of-ill-effects model – for the most sensitive
taxonomic group of organisms, which are salmonids in British Columbia (Caux et al.,
1997). In many cases, the scientific basis or biological justification supporting the
guideline value is not given.