LECTURE 4: METALS AND NON-METALS

1.0 METALS
1.1 Interatomic Forces in Solids

For simplicity we consider a two-atom system. In addition to the attractive forces, there isalso, when
the atoms are sufficiently close together, a repulsive force due to the interaction of the electron
shells. The repulsive force (FR) is a short-range force (since itis felt only when the atoms are
sufficiently close together) in contrast to the attractive force (FA), which is long-range. Thus the
repulsive force increases very rapidly when the interatomic separation is decreased. An equilibrium
position is reached when the two forces are equal, i.e., (FA = FR).
For an atom in a crystalline solid, the relation between the force (F) and the energy (U)with the
atomic separation distance (r) is shown in Fig. 4.1. These figures are obtained
from Equations (4. 1) and (4.2) respectively. It is important to note that at r  ro the
energy is a minimum and the net force is zero. In nature, stability is attained at theposition of
minimum energy.

Figure 4.1 The variation of energy of atom and force on atom with interatomic spacing
Fig. 4.2 Variation of Young’s modulus with interatomic bonding. Strong bonding. (b) Weak bonding

We have noted also that since the elastic constants are related to the fundamental (atomic)forces,
the magnitude of the Young’s modulus is dependent on the type of bonding (see Table 4.1 for some
typical elements). (Relate these values with concepts in Lecture 2 on type of bonds).
 Table 4.1. Some typical values of Young’s modulus

Material Bonding Young’s modulus (Nm-2)

MgO ionic 30 x 1010
Copper Metallic 13 x 1010
Diamond Covalent 54 x 1010

4.2. Mechanical Properties

4.2.1 Elastic Stiffness

Whenever atoms or molecules in a solid are subjected to a stress (force per unit area) so that they
are displaced from their equilibrium positions the interatomic forces act to restore them to their
original positions. For displacements that are not too large, the atoms will return to their exact pre-
stress positions when the stress is removed. In these conditions, the elastic or Young’s modulus (E)
is defined by

Note that the units of stress are Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa), whereas strain has no units since it isa ratio
of lengths.
4.3 The Elastic Properties of Solids

In this section we find some definitions that we shall meet repeatedly and therefore youshould
be very conversant with them.
Self-Reflection Question: What is the value of bulk modulus (K) when the
Poisson’s ratio is0.5? What conclusions can you draw from your result?
If you answer the above equation correctly you will have found that for  = 0.5, K= ∞ so that the
material is incompressible, and the hence tension and compression in such a material produce no
change in volume.

4.4 Mechanical Testing

The tests we consider here are those used to obtain information on the mechanical properties or
behaviour of materials.

4.4.1. Tensile tests

Tensile tests involve subjecting the specimen to tension, that is, the stress is parallel tothe axis of
the specimen. Such a specimen can behave in any of these three ways (see Fig.4.6).

OA - elastic deformation region (strain is proportional to stress)

Pt B - (limit) to which the specimen can be strained, i.e., limit of elasticity. It may not
coincide with point A.

Pt C - Upon release of stress, the body behaves linearly but along path CD. Line OD is
a permanent set. Upon reloading line DC is retraced. The load at C dividedby the original cross
sectional area is known as the yield stress.

Pt F - Fracture point. In ductile materials necking precedes the breaking point

Fig. 4.6 Tensile-tested specimens.

For pure metals, it is found out (by experiments) that if two specimens of identical material are
tested, one in tension and the other in compression, the true-stress versus logarithmic strain (log)
curves are identical.

Materials that undergo substantial extension as shown in Fig. 4.6 are called ductile. The ductile
behaviour is accounted for by the presence of dislocations (these are defects in atomic arrangement
in the structure of the materials). On the other hand, materials that break suddenly without
significant deformation or warning when subjected to tensile loads, such as an enamel cup or pot or
piece of chalk, are said to be brittle. Shown in Fig. 4.7 are possible types of behaviour of materials
in test. Polymeric materials such as rubber undergo extensive extension due to the uncoiling and
stretching of the large molecular chains there are composed of.

Fig. 4.7. (a) ductile behaviour (b) brittle behaviour (c) plastic behaviour

4.4.2 Hardness test

Different definitions and measurements of hardness have been proposed. These areclassified into:

1. Resistance to indentation by a particular shape of indenter.

2. Resistance to scratching.
3. The rebound of a steel ball from the surface.

We shall adopt the first definition, for our purposes but to get a feel for the definitionsnumber
(2) and number (3) try out the following activities.

Activities:
1. Take sharp iron nail and try to scratch, using same force every time,
the surfaces of (i) your tooth (ii) cup saucer (iii) steel surface.
2. Drop a steel ball, from a constant height, onto (i) flat plasticine
surface (ii) cement floor and in each case assess the depth of the
resulting indentation. What conclusions can you draw from these
simple experiments?
The main test methods of measuring hardness are:

Brinell Hardness (HB), test wherein a spherical ball of steel is pressed onto the surface under
steady load, maintained for few seconds and indenter removed. A measure of hardness is expressed
by

136
(a) (b)

d==0.376D d
Fig. 4.8. (a)Relation of diamond indenter to Brinell indentation (b) Plan view of the diamond impression

The loads applied range between 1 to 120 kgf, depending on the hardness of the materialbeing
tested, with the load chosen such that 0.5<d<1 mm.

Rockwell Hardness: (HRB)- for soft materials, and (HRC) for harder materials. The
procedure in Rockwell hardness testing is as shown in the Figure 4.9 below.

Fig. 4.9 The stages of HRB tests; d is the difference in depth between (a)and (c)
It is thus possible to estimate the strength of steel (material) from a single hardness measurement.
 Question: What is yield stress?

The approximation in equation (4.18) is useful in estimating the tensile strength of steel from just a
single hardness measurement.

4.5 NON-METALS

In the previous sections we have dealt exclusively with metals. We now take a brief look at some
other materials we are very familiar with but which are not metals. Most of you are conversant with
ceramic teacups or mugs, clay pots, plastic plates or water troughs, wood, or fibreglass. We broadly
categorize these as non-metals, and now briefly look at their general characteristics. These materials
may be either ceramics, or polymers or composites.

4.5.1 Inorganic materials (Ceramics)

Ceramics is a term used to refer to products derived from inorganic materials and have been defined
as solid materials manufactured from inorganic, non-metallic substancesthat exhibit high thermal
stability.

The properties of ceramics, quite often differ markedly from those of metals. Common examples
of ceramics are pots, cups, china, and tableware made from clay, fired bricks (made from e.g.
Magnesia (MgO) or aluminum oxide (Alumina) – Al2O3, Silicon Carbide(SiC) etc). Many ceramic
materials are ionically bonded e.g. MgO, or covalently bounded e.g. SiC.

This class of materials has unique properties that make them advantageous to use over metals or
other classes of materials. For example, most ceramics have high melting points, high corrosion
resistance and chemical stability (chemically resistant to most acids and alkalis), and resistance to
abrasion. Most ceramics do not have free conducting electrons as a result have relatively low
thermal and electrical conductivities, have high compressive, and mechanical strengths at high
temperatures. The densities of ceramic materials are also low in comparison to those of most
metals; hence they have strength-
weight ratios, which tend to give them weight-saving advantages. Table 4.2 gives some mechanical
and physical properties of some ceramic materials.

Table. 4.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Some Ceramics

Magnesia Sintered Vitreous Hot pressed Hot pressed

Property (MgO) Alumina Silica SiC Si2N4
Al2O3 (SiO2)
2800 2040 1710 Decomposes at 2300 Sublimes at 1900
Melting Point (0C) 3.6 3.9 2.5 3.2 3.2
Density x 103Kgm-3 36-45 12-32 1-2 100 10-16
Thermal Conductivity 100 400-500 80-160 350-800 500-900
(Wm-1K-1) 210-310 350-380 70 350-470 150-320
Tensile Strength (MPa)
Young’s Modulus (GPa)

These values are typical since they are influenced by the degree of porosity of the ceramic material.

One major weakness of ceramic materials is that they are brittle and hence sensitive to all manner
of stress concentrations and flaws. This requires that special attention be paid to the design of
ceramic components that may be susceptible to any load bearing.

Ceramic materials can be amorphous (non-crystalline) such as silicon (SiO2) or crystalline such as
alumina (Al2O3). We have already discussed crystalline metals in Lecture 3.

Exercise
List as many applications as you can where ceramic materials are used or
would be the best material to use. For each application cite the relevant
physical or mechanical (or both) properties of the ceramic material.

4.5.2 Organic Materials (Polymers)

We are familiar with plastics, rubbers, resins and fibres, all of which are polymers. In fact,
polymers have become technological materials, for mundane products such as plastic carrier bags
to more sophisticated products found in aircrafts. When we talk of organic compounds we mean
those that contain carbon and often with other elements like hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen e.g.,
Organic Materials or polymers are molecular materials, since the constituent atoms aggregate
together into molecules, which are then held together by either Van der Waalor hydrogen bonds-
the so called secondary bounds. A distinguishing characteristic of a polymer is the long chain or
repeating units that make up its molecule. Figure 4.10(c) is an example of the network-repeating
units. The smallest unit is known as a monomer(Fig. 4.10(a) and the repeating network unit forms
the polymer.

You can observe that the polyethylene molecule is as a result of joining together many molecules
of the monomer ethylene (C2H4). The number of units contained in the larger molecule (e.g.
polyethylene) is known as the degree polymerization (D.P). At low D.P. values (e.g. 10 – 20) the
substance formed is light, but as D. P. increases the substance becomes waxy, and at values of D.P.
~ 1000, the substance is a solid. The value of D.P.is unlimited and can be as high as 100,000.

Another measure of the chain length or molecular size is the molecular weight and its equal to the
product of D.P. times the molecular weight of the monomer, e.g., ethylene
has a molecular weight of 28. Thus the molecular weight of the polymer polyethylene is280,000.
Polyethylene we considered in Fig (4.10(c)) is a linear polymer. A linear polymer canalso be
depicted thus;

……. ― M ― M ― M ― M ― M ― M ― M ― ….
where M = a monomer unit e.g. ethylene or vinyl chloride.

If we joined together different monomers is the same chain, we can create a copolymer.

. ― M ― L ― M ― L ― M ― L ― M ― … (a regular copolymer)

. ― M ― M ― L ― M ― L― L ― M ―… (a random copolymer)

L, M = monomer Units.

Apart from linear polymers we can also form branched polymer e.g.

Polymers can be categorized into two groups, which differ in their structure, their properties, and
in the methods used in their manufacture. The two groups are thermosetting, and thermoplastic
polymers.

Thermosetting Polymer – This is a polymer that forms a network, with cross-linksbetween chains.
The polymer sets into a given network when it is manufactured, and hence subsequently cannot be
remolded into a new shape. They degrade when the temperature is increased to a point where the
cross-links are broken down.
The thermosetting polymers are manufactured by the process of condensation polymerization (see
Fig. 4.11). Retention of some of the superfluous groups leads to easy branching and hence cross-
linking.

Fig. 4.11 Process of condensation polymerization

Thermoplastics, are another group of polymers and unlike thermosetting polymers, are readily
remolded or extruded because they do not have cross-links. Their mechanical properties are
temperature sensitive. The thermoplastic polymers on the other hand are prepared by additional
polymerization. Cross-links are nearly always absent in this process.

4.5.3 Composites

A composite is a material that consists of two or more components that can be distinguished from
one another under a microscope. By combining two or more materials to obtain a composite, one
gets a superior material whose property of interest is superior to those of the individual components.
For example, the combination of strength and ductility may be realized in solids that comprise fibres
or precipitated particles embedded in a ductile host material. Polymers are particularly suitable
materials to host fibres. You must be aware of the fibreglass roof covers of pick-up trucks or car-
bumpers that are made of composites.

The broad classification of composites is as follows:

Examples
Natural composite Wood, bone, bamboo, muscle and other tissues
materials
Microscopic materials Metallic alloys: eg., steels, toughened thermoplastics
e.g. impact polystyrene
Macrocoposites Galvanized steel, reinforced concrete, helicopter blade,
car bumpers, pick-up truck roofs, skis etc