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Edited by Harendra Singh, Devendra Kumar and Dumitru Baleanu

Methods of Mathematical
Modelling
 Mathematics and Its Applications:
Modelling, Engineering, and Social Sciences
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Methods of Mathematical Modelling:

Fractional Differential Equations
Edited by Harendra Singh, Devendra Kumar, and Dumitru Baleanu

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Edited by Harendra Singh, Devendra Kumar and Dumitru Baleanu

Methods of Mathematical
Modelling
Fractional Differential Equations
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Singh, Harendra, editor. | Kumar, Devendra, editor. | Baleanu, D.
(Dumitru), editor.
Title: Methods of mathematical modelling : fractional differential
equations / edited by Harendra Singh, Devendra Kumar, and Dumitru Baleanu.
Other titles: Methods of mathematical modelling (CRC Press)
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2019. |
Summary: “Mathematical modelling is a process which converts real-life
problems into mathematical problems whose solutions make it easy to
understand the real-life problem. Fractional modeling has many real-life
applications in mathematics, science, and engineering. Such as
viscoelasticity, chemical engineering, signal processing,
bioengineering, control theory, and fluid mechanics. This book offers a
collection of chapters on classical and modern dynamical systems
modelled by fractional differential equations. This book will be useful
to readers in increasing their knowledge in this field” – Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019020280 | ISBN 9780367220082 (hardback : acid-free
paper) | ISBN 9780429274114 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Mathematical models. | Fractional differential equations.
Classification: LCC TA342 .M43 2019 | DDC 515/.35–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019020280

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Contents

Preface vii
Editors xi
Contributors xiii
1 Mathematical Analysis and Simulation of Chaotic 1
Tritrophic Ecosystem Using Fractional Derivatives
with Mittag-Leffler Kernel
Kolade M. Owolabi and Berat Karaagac
2 Solutions for Fractional Diffusion Equations with 21
Reactive Boundary Conditions
Ervin K. Lenzi and Marcelo K. Lenzi
3 An Efficient Computational Method for Non-Linear 39
Fractional Lienard Equation Arising in Oscillating
Circuits
Harendra Singh
4 A New Approximation Scheme for Solving Ordinary 51
Differential Equation with Gomez–Atangana–Caputo
Fractional Derivative
Toufik Mekkaoui, Zakia Hammouch, Devendra Kumar and
Jagdev Singh
5 Fractional Optimal Control of Diffusive Transport Acting 63
on a Spherical Region
Derya Avci, Necati Ozdemir and Mehmet Yavuz
6 Integral-Balance Methods for the Fractional Diffusion 83
Equation Described by the Caputo-Generalized
Fractional Derivative
Ndolane Sene and Abdon Atangana
7 A Hybrid Formulation for Fractional Model of Toda 105
Lattice Equations
Amit Kumar, Sunil Kumar and Ranbir Kumar
8 Fractional Model of a Hybrid Nanofluid 131
Muhammad Saqib, Sharidan Shafie and Ilyas Khan

v
vi Contents

9 Collation Analysis of Fractional Moisture Content 151

Based Model in Unsaturated Zone Using q-homotopy
Analysis Method
Ritu Agarwal, Mahaveer Prasad Yadav and Ravi P. Agarwal
10 Numerical Analysis of a Chaotic Model with 167
Fractional Differential Operators: From Caputo to
Atangana–Baleanu
Jyoti Mishra and Abdon Atangana
11 A New Numerical Method for a Fractional Model of 189
Non-Linear Zakharov–Kuznetsov Equations via
Sumudu Transform
Amit Prakash and Hardish Kaur
12 Chirped Solitons with Fractional Temporal Evolution 205
in Optical Metamaterials
Dépélair Bienvenue, Betchewe Gambo, Justin Mibaille,
Zakia Hammouch and Alphonse Houwe
13 Controllability on Non-dense Delay Fractional 219
Differential System with Non-Local Conditions
C. Ravichandran, K. Jothimani and Devendra Kumar

Index 237
Preface

This book is planned for graduate students and researchers working in the
area of mathematical modelling and fractional calculus. It describes several
useful topics in mathematical modelling having real-life applications in chaos,
physics, fluid mechanics and chemistry. The book consists of thirteen chapters
and is organized as follows:
Chapter 1 presents the dynamical behaviour of two ecosystems of three
species consisting of prey, intermediate predator and top-predator that are
still of current and recurring interests. The classical integer-order derivatives
in such models are replaced with the Atangana–Baleanu fractional derivative
in the sense of Caputo. Existence and uniqueness of solution are established.
Linear stability analysis is examined in a view to guide the correct choice
of parameters when numerically simulating the models. In the analysis, the
condition for a dynamic system to be locally asymptotically stable is provided.
A range of chaotic and spatiotemporal phenomena are obtained for different
instances of α  (0, 1) and are also given to justify the theoretical findings.
Chapter 2 investigates the solutions for fractional diffusion equations sub-
jected to reactive boundary conditions. For this, the system is defined in a
semi-infinity medium, and the presence of a surface that may adsorb, desorb
and/or absorb particles from the bulk is considered. The particles absorbed
from the bulk by the surface may promote, by a reaction process, the formation
of other particles. The particle dynamics is governed by generalized diffusion
equations in the bulk and by kinetic equations on the surface; consequently,
memory effects are taken into account in order to enable an anomalous diffu-
sion approach and, consequently, non-Debye relaxations. The results exhibit
a rich variety of behaviour for the particles, depending on the choice of char-
acteristic times present in the boundary conditions or the fractional index
present in modelling equations.
Chapter 3 presents an efficient computational method for the approximate
solution of the non-linear fractional Lienard equation (FLE), which describes
the oscillating circuit. The Lienard equation is a generalization of the spring-
mass system equation. The fractional derivative is in a Liouville–Caputo sense.
The computational method is a combination of collocation method and oper-
ational matrix method for Legendre scaling functions. Behaviour of solutions
for different fractional order is shown through figures.
Chapter 4 introduces a new approximation scheme to solve fractional dif-
ferential equations with Gomez–Atangana–Caputo derivatives. The algorithm
is easy to use and converges very quickly. Some examples are presented with

vii
viii Preface

some numerical simulations to show the efficiency of the proposed scheme.

Comparisons are made with exact solutions or numerical solutions obtained
with other methods.
Chapter 5 presents a spectral formulation for a fractional optimal con-
trol problem (FOCP) defined in spherical coordinates in the cases of half and
complete axial symmetry. The dynamics of an optimally controlled system are
described by space–time fractional diffusion equation in terms of the Caputo
and fractional Laplacian differentiation operators. The first step in numerical
methodology is to represent the state and control functions of the system as
eigenfunction expansion series. This is clearly obtained by the discretization of
space fractional Laplacian operator term. In the next step, the necessary opti-
mality conditions are determined by using fractional Euler–Lagrange equa-
tions. Therefore, the space–time fractional differential equation is reduced into
time fractional differential equations in terms of forward and backward frac-
tional Caputo derivatives. In the last step, the time domain is discretized into
a number of subintervals by using the Grunwald–Letnikov approach. An illus-
trative example is considered for various orders of fractional derivatives and
different spatial and temporal discretizations. As a result, limited number of
grid points is sufficient to obtain good results. In addition, the numerical solu-
tions converge as the size of the time step is reduced. Note that the solution
techniques in the sense of analytical or numerical for space–time fractional
differential equations defined by fractional Laplacian, Riesz or Riesz–Feller
spatial derivatives are quite complicated. In reality, these equations corre-
spond to systems that show the behaviour of anomalous diffusion. For this
complexity, the spectral approaches depend on the spatial domain on which
the main problem is constructed, are clearer and so has extensive applicability
than the alternative ones.
Chapter 6 presents a new approximate solution for the fractional diffusion
equation described by the Caputo-generalized fractional derivative. The heat
balance integral method and the double integral method have been used for
getting an approximate solution of the generalized fractional diffusion equa-
tion. The effect of the order ρ in the diffusion process has been analyzed. The
approximate solution of the fractional diffusion equation described by the inte-
ger order derivative, the Caputo derivative and Caputo-generalized fractional
derivative have been proposed and compared.
Chapter 7 presents an analytical algorithm for non-linear time fractional
Toda lattice equations. The proposed algorithm is a new amalgamation of
the homotopy analysis, Laplace transform and Adomian’s polynomials. First,
an alternative framework of the proposed method, which can be simply used
to effectively handle non-linear problems arising in science and engineering, is
presented. Comparisons are made between the results of the proposed method
and exact solutions. An illustrative example is given to demonstrate the sim-
plicity and efficiency of the proposed amalgamation of the homotopy analy-
sis, Laplace transform and Adomian’s polynomials. The results reveal that
Preface ix

the proposed method is explicit, efficient and easy to use. The fractional
derivatives here are described in a Caputo sense.
Chapter 8 applies the idea of the fractional derivative to the heat transfer
problem of a hybrid nanofluid. More exactly, this chapter deals with the gen-
eralization of natural convection flow of Cu − Al2 O3 − H2 O hybrid nanofluid
in two infinite vertical parallel plates. To demonstrate the flow phenomena
in two parallel plates of hybrid nanofluid, the Brinkman-type fluid model is
utilized. The governing equation of Brinkman-type fluid together with the
energy equation is subjected to appropriate initial and boundary conditions.
The Caputo–Fabrizio fractional derivative approach is used for the generaliza-
tion of the mathematical model. The Laplace transform technique is used to
develop exact analytical solutions for velocity and temperature profiles. The
general solutions for velocity and temperature profiles are brought into light
through numerical computation and graphical representation. The obtained
results show that the velocity and temperature profiles show dual behaviour
for 0 < α < 1 and 0 < β < 1, where α and β are the fractional parameters. It
is noticed that, for a shorter time, the velocity and temperature distributions
decrease with an increase in the values of fractional parameters, whereas the
trend reverses for an increase in time.
Chapter 9 solves mathematical model obtained due to groundwater and
is recharged by rain water or spreading the water on the ground in vertical
direction; hence, the wetness of the soil increases using the Caputo, Caputo–
Fabrizio and Atangana–Baleanu fractional derivative operators, respectively.
The q-homotopy analysis method is applied to obtain the solutions of the
equations and is affirmed by comparing the model results with those avail-
able in the literature. This method has great freedom to choose the auxiliary
parameter h, auxiliary function H(ξ, T ) and the initial guesses. The conver-
gence region of solution series can be adjusted and controlled by choosing
proper values for auxiliary parameter h and auxiliary function H(ξ, T ).
Chapter 10 studies a range of chaotic and hyperchaotic processes mod-
elled with the Atangana–Baleanu fractional derivative that has both non-local
and non-singular properties in the sense of Caputo. A modified Chua chaotic
attractor have been extended and analyzed within the scope of fractional dif-
ferentiation and integration. Three cases of fractional differential operators are
considered, namely the Caputo, Caputo–Fabrizio and the Atangana–Baleanu
derivatives. Fixed point theory and approximation method are applied to show
the existence and uniqueness of solutions. Due to non-linearity of this modified
model, a user-friendly scheme is used to provide numerical solutions.
Chapter 11 discusses a new numerical method, namely the Adomian
decomposition Sumudu transform method (ADSTM), to find the numerical
solution of non-linear time-fractional Zakharov–Kuznetsov (FZK) equation in
two dimensions. The suggested technique is applied on two test examples and
the solution is graphically presented.
Chapter 12 studies the propagation of wave envelop with fractional tempo-
ral evolution by considering the transverse surface in the non-linear dynamic
x Preface

system as optical metamaterials. Using variable separation, two equations

are obtained: The first one is of the Bessel type and the second is a non-
linear Schrodinger equation. Solving these equations, when the fractional time
derivative is taken in the modified Riemann–Liouville sense, provides three
kinds of chirped solitons. The obtained soliton solutions are new and have
physical meaning. Through their graphical representations, it is possible to
deduce a pulse that propagates in a dynamic system as optical metamaterials.
Chapter 13 studies the non-local fractional integro-differential equations
with finite delay, where the linear operator is non-densely defined in Banach
space. The existence of a control term is acknowledged using Monch fixed
point theorem and non-compact measure.
These results will be helpful for engineers, mathematicians, scientist and
researchers working on real-life problems.

Harendra Singh,
Ghazipur, India
Devendra Kumar,
Jaipur, India
Dumitru Baleanu,
Etimesgut, Turkey
April 2019

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Editors

Harendra Singh is an assistant professor in the Department of Mathemat-

ics, Post Graduate College, Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh, India. He received his
master of science (M.Sc.) in mathematics from Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, and Ph.D. in mathematics from the Indian Institute of Technology
(BHU), Varanasi, India. He has qualified GATE, JRF and NBHM examina-
tions in mathematics. He has been awarded a post-doctoral fellowship (PDF)
in mathematics by the National Institute of Science Education and Research
(NISER), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. He primarily teaches subjects like real
and complex analysis, functional analysis, abstract algebra and measure the-
ory in post-graduate-level courses in mathematics. His areas of interest are
mathematical modelling, fractional differential equations, integral equations,
calculus of variations and analytical and numerical methods. His research work
has been published in Applied Mathematics and Computations, Applied Math-
ematical Modelling, Chaos Solitions & Fractals, Numerical Methods for Partial
Differential Equations, Physica A, Astrophysics and Space Science, Electronic
Journal of Differential Equations, Few Body-System and several other peer-
reviewed international journals. His 17 research papers have been published in
various journals of repute with an h-index of 7. He has attended a number of
national and international conferences and presented several research papers.
He has also attended short-term programs and workshops and is a reviewer
of various journals.

Devendra Kumar is an assistant professor in the Department of Math-

ematics, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. He received
his master of science (M.Sc.) in mathematics and Ph.D. in mathemat-
ics from the University of Rajasthan, India. He primarily teaches subjects
like real and complex analysis, functional analysis, integral equations and
special functions in post-graduate-level courses in mathematics. His areas
of interest are mathematical modelling, special functions, fractional cal-
culus, applied functional analysis, non-linear dynamics and analytical and
numerical methods. He has published two books: Engineering Mathematics-
I (2008; Saroj Publishers (P) Ltd., Jaipur) and Engineering Mathematics-
II (2013; Vigyan and Takniki Prakashan, Jaipur). His research work has
been published in Nonlinear Dynamics, Chaos Solitions & Fractals, Physica
A, Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics, Applied Mathemati-
cal Modelling, Entropy, Advances in Nonlinear Analysis, Romanian Reports
in Physics, Applied Mathematics and Computation, Chaos and several other

xi
xii Editors

peer-reviewed international journals. His 121 research papers have been pub-
lished in various journals of repute with an h-index of 26. He has attended
a number of national and international conferences and presented several
research papers. He has also attended summer courses, short-term programs
and workshops. He is a member of the Editorial Board of various journals of
mathematics and is a reviewer of various journals.

Dumitru Baleanu is a professor in the Department of Mathematics, Cankaya

University, Ankara, Turkey, and Institute of Space Sciences, Magurele-
Bucharest, Romania. His research interests include fractional dynamics and its
applications, fractional differential equations, dynamic systems on time scales,
Hamilton-Jacobi formalism and Lie symmetries. He has published more than
600 papers indexed in SCI. He is one of the editors of five books published
by Springer and one published by AIP as AIP Conference Proceedings and
a co-author of the monograph book titled Fractional Calculus: Models and
Numerical Methods, published in 2012 by World Scientific Publishing. He is
an editorial board member for the following journals indexed in SCI: Math-
ematics, Journal of Vibration and Control, Symmetry, Frontiers in Physics,
Open Physics, Advances in Difference Equations and Fractional Calculus and
Applied Analysis. He is the editor in chief of the Progress of Fractional Differ-
entiation and Applications. He is also a member of the Editorial Board of 12
different journals that are not indexed in SCI. He is a member of the advisory
board of the ‘Mathematical Methods and Modeling for Complex Phenomena’
book collection, published jointly by Higher Education Press and Springer.
Also, he was a scientific board member for the Chemistry and Physics of
InTech Scientific Board in 2011/2012. He has received more than 8,000 cita-
tions (excluded from citation overview: self-citations of all authors) in journals
covered by SCI, with an h-index of 46. He was on the Thompson Reuter list
of highly cited researchers in 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018.
Contributors
Ritu Agarwal
Department of Mathematics
Malaviya National Institute of
Technology
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Ravi P. Agarwal
Department of Mathematics
Texas A&M University—Kingsville
Kingsville, Texas
Abdon Atangana
Département de Mathématiques de
la Décision
Université Cheikh Anta Diop de
Dakar
Dakar Fann, Senegal
and
Institute for Groundwater Studies
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein, South Africa
Derya Avci
Department of Mathematics
Balikesir University
Balikesir, Turkey
Dépélair Bienvenue
Department of Physics
The University of Maroua
Maroua, Cameroon
Betchewe Gambo
Department of Physics
The University of Maroua
Maroua, Cameroon
Zakia Hammouch
Department of Mathematics
FST Errachidia, Moulay Ismail
University of Meknes
Errachidia, Morocco
Alphonse Houwe
Department of Physics
The University of Maroua
Maroua, Cameroon
and
Department of Marine Engineering
Limbe Nautical Arts and Fisheries
Institute
Limbe, Cameroon
K. Jothimani
Department of Mathematics
Sri Eshwar College of Engineering
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Berat Karaagac
Department of Mathematics
Education
Adyaman University
Adyaman, Turkey
Hardish Kaur
Department of Mathematics
National Institute of Technology
Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
Ilyas Khan
Department of Mathematics
College of Science Al-Zulfi, Majmaah
University
Al-Majmaah, Saudi Arabia
xiii
xiv Contributors

Amit Kumar Kolade M. Owolabi

Department of Mathematics
Balarampur College
Purulia, West Bengal, India
Devendra Kumar
Department of Mathematics
University of Rajasthan
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Ranbir Kumar
Department of Mathematics
National Institute of Technology
Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India
Sunil Kumar
Department of Mathematics
National Institute of Technology
Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India
Ervin K. Lenzi
Departamento de Fı́sica
Universidade Estadual de
Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Marcelo K. Lenzi
Departamento de Engenharia
Quı́mica
Universidade Federal do Paraná
Curitiba, Brazil
Toufik Mekkaoui
Department of Mathematics
Faculty of Sciences and Techniques,
Moulay Ismail University of
Meknes
Errachidia, Morocco
Justin Mibaille
Higher Teachers’ Training College of
Maroua
The University of Maroua
Maroua, Cameroon
Jyoti Mishra
Department of Mathematics
Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology
and Sciences
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
Institute for Groundwater
Studies
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein, South Africa
and
Department of Mathematical
Sciences
Federal University of
Technology
Akure, Nigeria
Necati Ozdemir
Department of Mathematics
Balikesir University
Balikesir, Turkey
Amit Prakash
Department of Mathematics
National Institute of Technology
Kurukshetra-136119, Haryana, India
C. Ravichandran
PG and Research Department of
Mathematics
Kongunadu Arts and Science College
(Autonomous)
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Muhammad Saqib
Department of Mathematical
Sciences
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia JB
Skudai, Malaysia
Ndolane Sene
Département de Mathématiques de
la Décision
Université Cheikh Anta Diop de
Dakar
Dakar Fann, Senegal
and
Institute for Groundwater
Studies
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein, South Africa
Contributors
Sharidan Shafie
Department of Mathematical
Sciences
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Skudai, Malaysia
Harendra Singh
Department of Mathematics
Post-Graduate College
Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Jagdev Singh
Department of Mathematics
JECRC University
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
xv
Mahaveer Prasad Yadav
Department of Mathematics
Malaviya National Institute of
Technology
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Mehmet Yavuz
Department of
Mathematics-Computer
Necmettin Erbakan University
Konya, Turkey
1
Mathematical Analysis and Simulation
of Chaotic Tritrophic Ecosystem Using
Fractional Derivatives with Mittag-Leffler
Kernel

Kolade M. Owolabi
University of the Free State
Federal University of Technology

Berat Karaagac
Adyaman University

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Method of Approximation of Fractional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Model Equations and Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Fractional Food Chain Dynamics with Holling
Type II Functional Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Multi-Species Ecosystem with a Beddington–DeAngelis
Functional Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Numerical Experiment for Fractional Reaction-Diffusion
Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.1 Introduction
In the past few decades, population systems consisting of one or two species
have attracted the attention of scientists and other scholars [2,10,15–17,25,28].
It was observed that only a few handful of research findings reported on multi-
component systems of three or more species [20]. The aim of this work is to
study the dynamics of predator–prey model consisting of spatial interactions
among the prey, intermediate predator and the top predator. The concept

1
2 Methods of Mathematical Modelling

of predation could be dated back to the pioneering predator–prey system of

Lotka and Volterra in 1925 and 1926, respectively [12, 29].
Many research scholars have reported that modelling with fractional cal-
culus concept is very suitable and reliable to give an accurate description
of memory and some physical properties of various materials and processes,
which are completely missing in classical or integer-order equations, and a
fractional mathematical model can give more reliable information about real-
life phenomena [3–5, 27]. In addition, many physical systems encountered in
various disciplines have been described by fractional differential equations,
which include the hydrology and groundwater flow [4, 7], diffusion-like waves,
pattern formation in chemical and biological processes [9, 18, 26], non-linear
movement of earthquakes [9], viscoelastic materials [14] and muscular blood
vessel model [1], among several other applications. Also, fractional-order prob-
lems are naturally connected to models with memory, which arise in some
biological scenarios [22–24].
Hence, we are motivated by the dynamics of multi-species ecosystems with
fractional derivative in this work. Some of the definitions and properties of
fractional derivatives are as follows.
The Riemann–Liouville fractional derivative of order α ∈ (0, 1] for a
function u(t) ∈ C 1 ([0, b], Rn ); b > 0 is given by [27]
Z t
RL α dn 1−α 1 dn
D0 u(t) = n I0 u(t) = (t − ξ)n−α−1 u(ξ)dξ, (1.1)
dt Γ(1 − α) dtn 0
for all t ∈ [0, b] and n − 1 < α < n, where n > 0 is an integer.
The Caputo fractional derivative of order α ∈ (0, 1] for a function u(t) ∈
C 1 ([0, b], Rn ); b > 0 is given by [27]
Z t
C α 1
D0,t u(t) = (t − ξ)n−α−1 un (ξ)dξ, (1.2)
Γ(n − α) 0
for all t ∈ [0, b].
Recently, Atangana and Baleanu proposed a new fractional derivative with
non-local and non-singular kernels in the sense of Caputo as [3]

M (α) t 0 (t − ξ)α
Z  
ABC α
Dt [u(t)] = u (ξ)Eα −α dξ (1.3)
1−α 0 1−α
where M (α) has the same definition as in the case of the Caputo–Fabrizio
fractional derivative [8], and Eα is a one-parameter Mittag-Leffler function
given as
∞
X zk
u(z) = Eα (z) = , α > 0, α ∈ R, z ∈ C. (1.4)
Γ(αk + 1)
k=0

The derivative given in (1.3) which we are applying in the present work
is popularly called the Atangana–Baleanu fractional operator in the sense
Chaotic Tritrophic Ecosystem 3

of Caputo. This derivative has been applied to model a number of real-life phe-
nomena. The remainder part of this work is arranged as follows. The method
of approximation of fractional derivative is given in Section 1.2. Model equa-
tions and analysis are introduced in Section 1.3. Numerical experiments that
confirm the analytical findings are reported for some instances of fractional
power in Section 1.4. The conclusion is drawn in the last section.

1.2 Method of Approximation of Fractional Derivative

In this section, we follow closely the approximation techniques reported in [6]
to approximate the novel Atangana–Baleanu fractional operator as follows.
Consider the differential equation
ABC α
0 Dt z(t) = F (t, z(t)), (1.5)

where z = (u, v, w) and F = f1 (u, v, w), f2 (u, v, w), f3 (u, v, w). Follow [6] and
apply the fundamental calculus theory to have
Z t
1−α α
z(t) − z(0) = F (t, z(t)) + (t − τ )α−1 F (τ, z(τ ))dτ.
ABC(α) ABC(α)Γ(α) 0
(1.6)

At tn+1 , we have
1−α
z(tn+1 ) − z(0) = F (tn , zn )
ABC(α)
Z tn+1
α
+ (tn+1 − τ )α−1 F (t, z(t))dt
ABC(α)Γ(α) 0

and at tn leads to
1−α
z(tn ) − z(0) = f (tn−1 , zn−1 )
ABC(α)
Z tn
α
+ (tn − τ )α−1 F (t, z(t))dt
ABC(α)Γ(α) 0

on subtraction leads to
1−α
z(tn+1 ) − z(tn ) = {F (tn , zn ) − F (tn−1 , zn−1 )}
ABC(α)
Z tn+1
α
+ (tn+1 − t)α−1 F (t, z(t))dt
ABC(α)Γ(α) 0
Z tn
α
− (tn − t)α−1 F (t, z(t))dt. (1.7)
ABC(α)Γ(α) 0
4 Methods of Mathematical Modelling

Thus,
1−α
z(tn+1 ) − z(tn ) = {F (tn , zn ) − F (tn−1 , zn−1 )} + Eα,1 − Eα,2 .
ABC(α)

Next, we consider
Z tn+1
α
Eα,1 = (tn+1 − t)α−1 F (t, z(t))dt
ABC(α)Γ(α) 0

With approximation
t − tn−1 t − tn−1
q(t) = F (tn , zn ) + F (tn−1 , zn−1 ) (1.8)
tn − tn−1 tn−1 − tn
we get
Z tn+1
α
Eα,1 = (tn+1 − t)α−1
ABC(α)Γ(α) 0
 
t − tn−1 t − tn
× F (tn , zn ) − F (tn , zn )
h h
Z tn+1 
αF (tn , zn )
= (tn+1 − t)α−1 F (t − tn−1 ) dt
ABC(α)Γ(α)h 0
Z tn+1 
αF (tn−1 , zn−1 ) α−1
− (tn+1 − t) F (t − tn−1 ) dt
ABC(α)Γ(α)h 0
( )
αF (tn , zn ) 2htα n+1 tα+1
= − n+1
ABC(α)Γ(α)h α α+1
( )
α+1
αF (tn−1 , zn−1 ) htα n+1 t
− − n+1 , (1.9)
ABC(α)Γ(α)h α α+1

and
htα tα+1
 
αF (tn , zn ) n F (tn−1 , zn−1 )
Eα,2 = − n − . (1.10)
ABC(α)Γ(α)h α α+1 ABC(α)Γ(α)h

Thus,

1−α αF (tn , zn )
z(tn+1 ) − z(tn ) = {F (tn , zn ) − F (tn−1 , zn−1 )} +
ABC(α) ABC(α)Γ(α)h
( ) ( )
2htα
n+1 tα+1
n+1 αF (tn−1 , zn−1 ) htα n+1 tα+1
n+1
× − − −
α α+1 ABC(α)Γ(α)h α α+1
 α α+1

αF (tn , zn ) htn t F (tn−1 , zn−1 ) α+1
− − n + t
ABC(α)Γ(α)h α α+1 ABC(α)Γ(α) n
(1.11)
Chaotic Tritrophic Ecosystem 5
( " #
1−α α 2htα
n+1 tα+1
zn+1 = zn + F (tn , zn ) + − n+1
ABC(α) ABC(α)h α α+1
 α
tα+1

α htn
− − n + F (tn−1 , zn−1 )
ABC(α)Γ(α)h α α+1

α−1 α
× −
ABC(α) hΓ(α)ABC(α)
" #)
htα
n+1 tα+1
n+1 tα+1
× − + . (1.12)
α α + 1 hΓ(α)ABC(α)

Scheme (1.12) is known as the two-step Adams–Bashforth method for the

approximation of Atangana–Baleanu fractional derivative.
Existence and uniqueness of the solution for a general three-species sys-
tem is briefly discussed via the fractional derivative operator. The general
multi-species fractional system of ordinary differential equation in the sense
of Atangana–Baleanu derivative of order α is given in compact form
ABC α
0 Dt U(t) = F (U, t), U(0) = U0 , t ∈ (0, T ], (1.13)

where

u1
   1  
u0 f1 (u1 , u2 , . . . , un , t)
 u2   u20   f1 (u1 , u2 , . . . , un , t) 
U =  .  , U0 =  .  , F (U, t) = 
     
..
 ..   .. 

 . 
n n
u u0 fn (u1 , u2 , . . . , un , t).

The supremum norm is defined as

kSk = sup |S|,

t∈(0,T ]

we define the norm of matrix A = [aij [t]] by

X
kAk = sup |aij [t]|.
i,j t∈(0,T ]

So for three-species system, we have

ABC α
0 Dt u(t) = f1 (u, v, w, t),
ABC α
0 Dt v(t) = f2 (u, v, w, t), (1.14)
ABC α
0 Dt w(t) = f3 (u, v, w, t).

By applying the fundamental calculus theorem to the components [22], one

obtains
6 Methods of Mathematical Modelling
Z t
1−α α
u(t) − u(0) = f1 (u, v, w, t) + (t − τ )α−1 f1 (u, v, w, τ )dτ
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) 0
Z t
1−α α
v(t) − v(0) = f2 (u, v, w, t) + (t − τ )α−1 f2 (u, v, w, τ )dτ
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) 0
Z t
1−α α
w(t) − w(0) = f3 (u, v, w, t) + (t − τ )α−1 f3 (u, v, w, τ )dτ
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) 0
(1.15)

We require Pa,b , a compact in the form

Pa,b = Ia (t0 ) × Bb (ζ) (1.16)

where
ζ = min{u0 , u0 },
with similar expression for variables v, w, and

Ia (t0 ) = [t0 − a, t0 + a], B0 (ζ) = [ξ − b, τ + b].

Let ( )
S = max sup kf1 k, sup kf2 k, sup kf3 k .
Pa,b Pa,b Pa,b Pa,b

By adopting infinite norm yields

kΦk∞ = sup ||Φ(t)|.

t∈Ia

Next, we create a function, say

Γ : Pa,b → Pa,b

in such a way that

t
1−α
Z
α
Γu(t) = u0 + f1 (u, v, w, t) + f1 (u, v, w, t)(t − τ )α−1 dτ
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) 0
t
1−α
Z
α
Γv(t) = v0 + f2 (u, v, w, t) + f2 (u, v, w, t)(t − τ )α−1 dτ
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) 0
t
1−α
Z
α
Γw(t) = w0 + f3 (u, v, w, t) + f3 (u, v, w, t)(t − τ )α−1 dτ
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) 0
(1.17)

Next, we evaluate the following conditions to show that the fractional

derivative operator is well defined

kΓ1 u(t) − u0 k∞ < b,

kΓ2 v(t) − v0 k∞ < b, (1.18)
kΓ2 w(t) − w0 k∞ < b.
Chaotic Tritrophic Ecosystem 7

So, beginning with species u, we have

1−α α
kΓ1 u(t) − u0 k∞ = f1 (u, v, w, t) +
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α)
Z t
× f1 (u, v, w, t)(t − τ )α−1 dτ
0 ∞
1−α α
≤ kf1 (u, v, w, t)k∞ + kf1 (u, v, w, t)
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α)
Z t
× (t − ξ)dξ
0
(1 − α)M αM
≤ + · aα < b (1.19)
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α)
This means that   α1
(1−α)M
b− AB(α)
a= αM
 .
AB(α)Γ(α)

Also, it is required need to show that functions u(t), v(t) and w(t) hold for
Lipschitz condition. That is

kΓu1 − Γu2 k∞ ≤ M ku1 − u2 k∞ (1.20)

which implies,
t
1−α
Z
α
Γ(u1 ) = f1 (u1 , v, w, t) + f1 (u1 , y, τ )(t − τ )α−1 dτ,
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) 0
t
1−α
Z
α
Γ(u2 ) = f1 (u2 , v, w, t) + f1 (u2 , v, w, τ )(t − τ )α−1 dτ.
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) 0
(1.21)

Consequently,
1−α
kΓu1 − Γu2 k∞ = kf1 (u1 , v, w, t) − f1 (u2 , v, w, t)k∞
AB(α)
Z t
α
+ kf1 (u1 , v, w, t) − f1 (u2 , v, w, t)k∞ (t − τ )dτ
AB(α)Γ(α) 0
≤kf1 (u1 , v, w, t) − f1 (u2 , v, w, t)k∞
aα
 
1−α α
+ ·
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α) α
aα
 
1−α
≤kf1 (u1 , v, w, t) − f1 (u2 , v, w, t)k∞ +
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α)
(1.22)

So, the local source term f1 is Lipschitz continuous with respect to u, if

8 Methods of Mathematical Modelling
aα
 
1−α
kΓu1 − Γu2 k∞ ≤ Kku1 − u2 k∞ +
AB(α) AB(α)Γ(α)
≤ Lku1 − u2 k∞ . (1.23)

This procedure is repeated for reaction kinetics f2 and f3 with respect to

components v and w to obtain the Lipschitz conditions

kΓv1 − Γv2 k∞ ≤Lkv1 − v2 k∞ ,

kΓw1 − Γw2 k∞ ≤Lkw1 − w2 k∞ . (1.24)

Under this condition, the operation is a contraction on a Banach space B

with norm, which shows that Γ has the property that, ∃ a unique function,
say ϑ : Γϑ = ϑ, which is the unique solution of the three-species dynamical
system (1.14).

1.3 Model Equations and Stability Analysis

In this section, we introduce two dynamical examples consisting of three-
species systems with different functional response that are still of current and
recurring interests. Such models will be examined for local stability analysis.

1.3.1 Fractional Food Chain Dynamics with Holling

Type II Functional Response
The dynamics of predator–prey with two species are often common and easily
studied in literature [11, 15, 16, 18–21]. Predators are regarded as top group
of species that feed on the lower class called prey. But the real ecosystem
is not balanced when description is limited to just two-species system. For
instance, snakes feed on mouse. The question is, what does mouse depend on
for existence? Meaning that other factors must be considered in addition to
predator and prey. There is a popular adage in Yoruba language that says,
oká kı̀ı́ je oká, oun tı́ ó ń je okà ni oká ńje, which means a cobra does not
eat grains but eats what eats grain. Hence, we are motivated to formulate a
three-species system and examine the amazing dynamics that may occur.
Let us consider a food chain that consists of grasses, mice and cobras, all
in the same closed habitat. Denote the grass mass by u, number of mice by
v and population of cobras by w. We assume that in the absence of class v,
grass would persist and exhibit a logistic growth. We also let that per rabbit
consumption rate of grass evolves with increasing grass mass, taking the form
of Holling type II functional response R = ρ1 u/(1 + β1 u). The food web
discussed here is mathematically represented by a balanced system of ordinary
differential equations
Chaotic Tritrophic Ecosystem 9
du ρ1 u
= f1 (u, v, w) = u(1 − u) − v,
dt 1 + β1 u
dv ρ1 u ρ2 v
= f2 (u, v, w) = v− w − δ1 v, (1.25)
dt 1 + β1 u 1 + β2 v
dw ρ2 v
= f3 (u, v, w) = w − δ2 w
dt 1 + β2 v

where u, v and w denote dimensionless species densities, and ρi > 0, βi > 0

and δi > 0 for i = 1, 2 are all positive parameters.
In recent developments, it has been shown that modelling of real-world
phenomena with non-integer order derivative is more accurate and reliable
when compared with the classical or integer-order case. Hence, the standard
time derivative in (1.25) is replaced with fractional-order operator in the form
ρ1 u
Dtα u(t) = f1 (u, v, w) = u(1 − u) − v,
1 + β1 u
ρ1 u ρ2 v
Dtα v(t) = f2 (u, v, w) = v− w − δ1 v, (1.26)
1 + β1 u 1 + β2 v
ρ2 v
Dtα w(t) = f3 (u, v, w) = w − δ2 w
1 + β2 v

where Dtα is the fractional derivative operator of order α in the sense of the
Atangana–Baleanu operators which is expected to satisfy 0 < α ≤ 1.
To examine the steady states of dynamics (1.26), we let

Dtα u(t) = 0, Dtα v(t) = 0, Dtα v(t) = 0.

Obviously, the system has five equilibrium points. We are only interested in the
biologically meaningful interior non-trivial state denoted as E = (u∗ , v ∗ , w∗ ),
where
q
β1 − 1 (β1 + 1)2 − ρ4ρ 1 β1 δ2
2 −β2 δ2 δ2
∗
u = + , v∗ = ,
2b 2β1 ρ2 − β2 δ2
(ρ1 − β1 δ1 )u∗ − δ1
w∗ = .
(ρ2 − β2 δ2 )(1 + β1 u∗ )

At point E, the community matrix is given as

ρ1 v ρ1 u
 
1 − (1+β 1 u)
2 − 2u − (1+β 1 u)
0
ρ1 v ρ1 v ρ2 w ρ2 v
B=

(1+β1 u) 2 − (1+β1 u) − (1+β2 v)2 − δ1 − (1+β 1 v)
 (1.27)

ρ2 w ρ2 v
0 (1+β2 v)2 (1+β1 v) − δ 2

The eigenvalues corresponding to the interior point E which show the existence
of the three species are given by

λ3 + µ1 λ2 + µ2 λ + µ3 = 0, (1.28)
10 Methods of Mathematical Modelling

where
w∗ v∗
 
µ1 = 2u∗ + ρ2 −
(1 + β2 v ∗ )2 (1 + β2 v ∗ )
v∗ u∗
 
+ ρ1 − + δ2 + δ1 − 1,
(1 + β1 u∗ )2 (1 + β2 u∗ )
u∗ v ∗ v ∗2

µ2 = ρ1 ρ2 −
(1 + β1 u )(1 + β2 v ) (1 + β1 u )2 (1 + β2 v ∗ )
∗ ∗ ∗

v ∗ w∗

+
(1 + β1 u∗ )2 (1 + β2 v ∗ )2
(2u∗ − 1 + δ2 )w∗ (1 − 2u∗ − 1 + δ1 )v ∗
 
+ ρ2 +
(1 + β2 v ∗ )2 (1 + β2 v ∗ )
(δ1 + δ2 )v ∗ (1 − 2∗ − δ2 )u∗
 
+ ρ1 +
(1 + β1 v ∗ )2 (1 + β1 u∗ )
+ (2u∗ − 1)(δ1 + δ2 ) + δ1 δ2 ,
(2u∗ − 1)δ2 w∗ (−2u∗ + 1)δ1 v ∗
 
µ3 = ρ2 +
(1 + β2 v ∗ )2 (1 + β2 v ∗ )
δ1 δ2 v ∗ (1 − 2u∗ )δ2 u∗
 
+ ρ1 + + 2δ1 δ2 u∗
(1 + β1 u∗ )2 1 + β1 u∗
(2u∗ − 1)u∗ v ∗ δ1 v ∗2

ρ1 ρ2 −
(1 + β1 u )(1 + β2 v ) (1 + β1 u∗ )2 (1 + β2 v ∗ )
∗ ∗

δ2 v ∗ w ∗

+ − δ1 δ2 .
(1 + β1 u∗ )2 (1 + β2 v ∗ )2

So, following a similar argument [13], we obtained the eigenvalues of the earlier
characteristic polynomial as

Λ = 18µ1 µ2 µ3 + µ21 µ22 − 4µ3 µ21 − 4µ32 − 27µ23 .

We conclude that if Λ > 0, the necessary and sufficient condition for the
interior point E to be locally and asymptotically stable is that µ1 > 0, µ3 > 0
and µ1 µ2 − µ3 > 0. But if Λ < 0, with µ1 > 0, µ3 > 0 and µ1 µ2 = µ3 > 0,
then we say that point E is locally asymptotically stable for values of α in
interval (0, 1).
In numerical framework as displayed in the upper row of Figure 1.1, we
simulate with initial condition and parameter values

ρ3 , ρ2 = 0.2, β1 = 3, β2 = 2.5, δ1 = 0.4, δ2 = 0.01,

(u0 , v0 , w0 ) = (0.1, 0.1, 0.1). (1.29)

In the experiment, the dynamic behaviour of system (1.26) is observed for dif-
ferent instances of fractional power α as shown in the figure caption. Chaotic
patterns are obtained regardless of the value of α chosen in the interval (0, 1).
Chaotic Tritrophic Ecosystem 11

FIGURE 1.1
Chaotic phase portraits for fractional multi-species dynamics (1.26) and (1.32)
as shown in rows 1 and 2, respectively, for different α at t = 1,000. Initial
conditions and parameter values are given in (1.29) and (1.38), respectively.

Apart from the distributions reported here, other chaotic and spatiotempo-
ral phenomena are obtainable subject to the choice of initial condition and
parameters.

1.3.2 Multi-Species Ecosystem with a

Beddington–DeAngelis Functional Response
The dynamics of multi-species ecosystem with a Beddington–DeAgelis func-
tional response whose prey, intermediate-predator and top-predator densities
are represented by U , V and W , is governed by the system of differential
equations
dU K(M1 − U )U
= − P1 (U, V )W,
dt M2 − U
dV
= A1 P1 (U, V )W − P2 (V, W )W − D1 V, (1.30)
dt
dW
= A2 P2 (V, W )W − D2 W
dt
with Pi (X, Y ) = Ei X/(Fi Y + Gi X + Hi ), i = 1, 2. The Beddington–
DeAngelis functional response type is denoted by functions P1 (U, V ) and
12 Methods of Mathematical Modelling

P2 (V, W ). The saturation parameters for these responses are given by Ei , Fi

and Gi for i = 1, 2. The maximum rate at which predator consumes prey is
given by ratio Ei /Hi , while Hi /Fi and Hi /Gi (i = 1, 2) are constants of half
saturation. The constants K, Mi , Ei , Fi , Gi , Hi and Di (i = 1, 2) are assumed
positive parameters. M2 stands for limiting resources, Di (i = 1, 2) are the
death rates of predator class V and W , respectively. The intrinsic growth of
prey species is denoted by K, the rate of conversion of prey to either the
intermediate predator or top predator is denoted by A1 and A2 , respectively.
To reduce the number of parameters in system (1.30), we re-scale the model
variables as
U V W K M1
u= ,v = ,w = , t = D1 T, k = , m1 = ,
H1 H1 H D1 H1
M2 E1
m2 = , φ1 = , φ2 = F1 ,
H1 D1
E1 A1 E2
φ3 = G1 , ϕ1 = , ϕ2 = , ϕ3 = F2 , ψ1 = G2 ,
D1 D1
H2 E2 A2 D2
ψ2 = , ψ3 = ,δ =
H1 D2 D1

to obtain a dimensionless model

du k(m1 − u)u φ1 uv
= f1 (u, v, w) = − , u(0) > 0,
dt m2 − u φ2 v + φ3 u + 1
dv ϕ1 uv ϕ2 vw
= f2 (u, v, w) = − − v, v(0) > 0, (1.31)
dt φ2 v + φ3 u + 1 ϕ3 w + ψ1 v + ψ2
dw ψ3 vw
= f3 (u, v, w) = − δw, w(0) > 0
dt ϕ 3 w + φ3 v + ψ 2

where fi (u, v, w) are functions representing the local kinetics, and u, v and w
are functions of time.
Our interest here is to model the tritrophic system (1.31) with non-integer
order derivative in the form
k(m1 − u)u φ1 uv
Dtα u = f1 (u, v, w) = − ,
m2 − u φ2 v + φ3 u + 1
ϕ1 uv ϕ2 vw
Dtα v = f2 (u, v, w) = − − v, (1.32)
φ2 v + φ 3 u + 1 ϕ 3 w + ψ 1 v + ψ 2
ψ3 vw
Dtα w = f3 (u, v, w) = − δw,
ϕ3 w + φ3 v + ψ2

where Dtα denotes fractional derivative of order α ∈ (0, 1]. It should be noted
that we recover the standard derivative whenever α tends to unity.
With Dtα u = 0, Dtα v = 0 and Dtα w = 0, it is not difficult to see that system
(1.32) has four equilibrium points: they are E 0 = (0, 0, 0) which is the total
washout state and E 1 = (m1 , 0, 0) which shows the existence of the prey only.
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 A violation of the terms of the armistice by private
individuals acting on their own initiative, only confers the
right of demanding the punishment of the offenders, and, if
necessary, indemnity for the losses sustained.

{363}

SECTION III.
On Military Authority over Hostile Territory.

ARTICLE XLII.
Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed
under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation
applies only to the territory where such authority is
established, and in a position to assert itself.

ARTICLE XLIII.
The authority of the legitimate power having actually passed
into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all
steps in his power to re-establish and insure, as far as
possible, public order and safety, while respecting, unless
absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country.

ARTICLE XLIV.
Any compulsion of the population of occupied territory to take
part in military operations against its own country is
prohibited.

ARTICLE XLV.
Any pressure on the population of occupied territory to take
the oath to the hostile Power is prohibited.

ARTICLE XLVI.
Family honours and rights, individual lives and private
property, as well as religious convictions and liberty, must
be respected. Private property cannot be confiscated.
ARTICLE XLVII.
Pillage is formally prohibited.

ARTICLE XLVIII.
If, in the territory occupied, the occupant collects the
taxes, dues, and tolls imposed for the benefit of the State,
he shall do it, as far as possible, in accordance with the
rules in existence and the assessment in force, and will in
consequence be bound to defray the expenses of the
administration of the occupied territory on the same scale as
that by which the legitimate Government was bound.

ARTICLE XLIX.
If, besides the taxes mentioned in the preceding Article, the
occupant levies other money taxes in the occupied territory,
this can only be for military necessities or the
administration of such territory.

ARTICLE L.
No general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted
on the population on account of the acts of individuals for
which it cannot be regarded as collectively responsible.

ARTICLE LI.
No tax shall be collected except under a written order and on
the responsibility of a Commander-in-chief. This collection
shall only take place, as far as possible, in accordance with
the rules in existence and the assessment of taxes in force.
For every payment a receipt shall be given to the taxpayer.

ARTICLE LII.
Neither requisitions in kind nor services can be demanded from
communes or inhabitants except for the necessities of the army
of occupation. They must be in proportion to the resources of the
country, and of such a nature as not to involve the population
in the obligation of taking part in military operations
against their country. These requisitions and services shall
only be demanded on the authority of the Commander in the
locality occupied. The contributions in kind shall, as far as
possible, be paid for in ready money; if not, their receipt
shall be acknowledged.

ARTICLE LIII.
An army of occupation can only take possession of the cash,
funds, and property liable to requisition belonging strictly
to the State, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and
supplies, and, generally, all movable property of the State
which may be used for military operations. Railway plant, land
telegraphs, telephones, steamers, and other ships, apart from
cases governed by maritime law, as well as depots of arms and,
generally, all kinds of war material, even though belonging to
Companies or to private persons, are likewise material which
may serve for military operations, but they must be restored
at the conclusion of peace, and indemnities paid for them.

ARTICLE LIV.
The plant of railways coming from neutral States, whether the
property of those States, or of Companies, or of private
persons, shall be sent back to them as soon as possible.

ARTICLE LV.
The occupying State shall only be regarded as administrator
and usufructuary of the public buildings, real property,
forests, and agricultural works belonging to the hostile
State, and situated in the occupied country. It must protect
the capital of these properties, and administer it according
to the rules of usufruct.

ARTICLE LVI.
The property of the communes, that of religious, charitable,
and educational institutions, and those of arts and science,
even when State property, shall be treated as private
property. All seizure of, and destruction, or intentional
damage done to such institutions, to historical monuments,
works of art or science, is prohibited, and should be made the
subject of proceedings.

SECTION IV.
On the Internment of Belligerents and the Care of the Wounded
in Neutral Countries.

ARTICLE LVII.
A neutral State which receives in its territory troops
belonging to the belligerent armies shall intern them, as far
as possible, at a distance from the theatre of war. It can
keep them in camps, and even confine them in fortresses or
localities assigned for this purpose. It shall decide whether
officers may be left at liberty on giving their parole that
they will not leave the neutral territory without
authorization.

ARTICLE LVIII.
Failing a special Convention, the neutral State shall supply
the interned with the food, clothing, and relief required by
humanity. At the conclusion of peace, the expenses caused by
the internment shall be made good.

ARTICLE LIX.
A neutral State may authorize the passage through its
territory of wounded or sick belonging to the belligerent
armies, on condition that the trains bringing them shall carry
neither combatants nor war material. In such a case, the neutral
State is bound to adopt such measures of safety and control as
may be necessary for the purpose. Wounded and sick brought
under these conditions into neutral territory by one of the
belligerents, and belonging to the hostile party, must be
guarded by the neutral State, so as to insure their not taking
part again in the military operations. The same duty shall
devolve on the neutral State with regard to wounded or sick of
the other army who may be committed to its care.
{364}

ARTICLE LX.
The Geneva Convention applies to sick and wounded interned in
neutral territory. The Convention establishing these
regulations was not signed by the delegates from the United
States, nor by those of Great Britain. The reasons for
abstention on the part of the latter were stated in a
communication from the British War Office, as follows: "Lord
Lansdowne … considers it essential that the revised Articles,
together with the Preamble and final dispositions, should be
submitted to the most careful examination by the high military
authorities and by the legal advisers of Her Majesty's
Government, before he can pronounce a definitive opinion on
the three points raised. Subject to such reserves as may
result from this examination, Lord Lansdowne is of opinion
that the Project of Convention is in general of such a nature
that it may, in principle, be accepted as a basis of
instructions for the guidance of the British army, but he is
unable, until that examination has been completed, to offer an
opinion as to whether it is desirable to enter into an
international engagement. Lord Lansdowne would therefore
suggest, for Lord Salisbury's consideration, that instructions
should be given to Sir Julian Pauncefote to reserve full
liberty for Her Majesty's Government, to accept only such
Articles as, after mature examination by their military and
legal advisers, they may approve of." Probably the delegates
from the United States were similarly instructed by their
government.

Added to the Convention relative to Laws and Customs of War

were three Declarations, separately signed, as follows:

1. "The contracting powers agree to prohibit, for a term of

five years, the launching of projectiles and explosives from
balloons, or by other new methods of a similar nature."
2. "The contracting parties agree to abstain from the use of
bullets which expand or flatten easily in the human body, such
as bullets with a hard envelope which does not entirely cover
the core, or is pierced with incisions."

3. "The contracting parties agree to abstain from the use of

projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of
asphyxiating or deleterious gases."

The first of these Declarations was signed by the delegates

from the United States, but not by those from Great Britain.
The second and third were signed by neither British nor
American representatives. In the discussion that preceded the
adoption of the second Declaration by a majority of the
Conference, Captain Crozier, of the American delegation,
presented the objections to it, on which he and his colleagues
were in agreement with the British representatives. He said
"there was a great difference of opinion as to whether the
bullets of small calibre rifles sufficed to put men 'hors de
combat,' which was admitted on all sides to be the object
which rifle fire was expected to achieve. He considered the
proposition before the Conference to be unsatisfactory, since
it limited the prohibition to details of construction which
only included a single case, and left all others out of
consideration. He would not enter into a recapitulation of all
the advantages of small calibre rifles, since they were
perfectly well known; but he felt sure that certain Powers
might adopt calibres even smaller than those at present in
use, and, in this case, he maintained that they would be
compelled to secure increased shock by some new method of
construction of the projectile. He considered that it would be
perfectly easy to devise such projectiles while keeping within
the terms of the proposed interdiction, and he thought that
the result might be the ultimate adoption of a bullet of an
even less humane character than those aimed at by the
Resolution. He declared that he had nothing to say for or
against the Dum-Dum bullet [see, in this volume, DUM-DUM
 BULLET], of which he knew nothing except what had been stated
during the meetings of the First Commission, but that he was
not disposed to make any condemnation without proofs, and
these proofs had not been forthcoming."

As for the third Declaration, it was opposed by Captain Mahan,

who spoke for the Americans, because "he considered the use of
asphyxiating shell far less inhuman and cruel than the
employment of submarine boats, and as the employment of
submarine boats had not been interdicted by the Conference
(though specially mentioned with that object in the Mouravieff
Circular), he felt constrained to maintain his vote in favour of
the use of asphyxiating shell on the original ground that the
United States' Government was averse to placing any
restriction on the inventive genius of its citizens in
inventing and providing new weapons of war."

PEACE CONFERENCE:
Convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the
principles of the Geneva Convention of August 22, 1864.

ARTICLE I.
Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
assigned by States specially and solely for the purpose of
assisting the wounded, sick, or shipwrecked, and the names of
which shall have been communicated to the belligerent Powers
at the commencement or during the course of hostilities, and
in any case before they are employed, shall be respected and
cannot be captured while hostilities last. These ships,
moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war as regards
their stay in a neutral port.

ARTICLE II.
Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of
private individuals or officially recognized relief Societies,
shall likewise be respected and exempt from capture, provided
the belligerent Power to whom they belong has given them an
 official commission and has notified their names to the
Hostile Power at the commencement of or during hostilities,
and in any case before they are employed. These ships should
be furnished with a certificate from the competent
authorities, declaring that they had been under their control
while fitting out and on final departure.

ARTICLE III.
Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of
private individuals or officially recognized Societies of
neutral countries, shall be respected and exempt from capture,
if the neutral Power to whom they belong has given them an
official commission and notified their names to the
belligerent Powers at the commencement of or during
hostilities, and in any case before they are employed.

ARTICLE IV.
The ships mentioned in Articles I, II, and III shall afford
relief and assistance to the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked of
the belligerents independently of their nationality. The
Governments engage not to use these ships for any military
purpose. These ships must not in any way hamper the movements
of the combatants. During and after an engagement they will
act at their own risk and peril. The belligerents will have
the right to control and visit them; they can refuse to help
them, order them off, make them take a certain course, and put
a Commissioner on board; they can even detain them, if important
circumstances require it. As far as possible the belligerents
shall inscribe in the sailing papers of the hospital-ships the
orders they give them.

{365}

ARTICLE V.
The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being
painted white outside with a horizontal band of green about a
metre and a half in breadth. The ships mentioned in Articles
II and III shall be distinguished by being painted white
outside with a horizontal band of red about a metre and a half
in breadth. The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also
small craft which may be used for hospital work, shall be
distinguished by similar painting. All hospital-ships shall
make themselves known by hoisting, together with their
national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided by the
Geneva Convention.

ARTICLE VI.
Neutral merchantmen, yachts, or vessels, having, or taking on
board, sick, wounded, or shipwrecked of the belligerents,
cannot be captured for so doing, but they are liable to
capture for any violation of neutrality they may have
committed.

ARTICLE VII.
The religious, medical, or hospital staff of any captured ship
is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of
war. On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and
surgical instruments which are their own private property.
This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while
necessary, and can afterwards leave when the
Commander-in-chief considers it possible. The belligerents
must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into their hands
the enjoyment of their salaries intact.

ARTICLE VIII.
Sailors and soldiers who are taken on board when sick or
wounded, to whatever nation they belong, shall be protected
and looked after by the captors.

ARTICLE IX.
The shipwrecked, wounded, or sick of one of the belligerents
who fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war.
The captor must decide, according to circumstances, if it is
best to keep them or send them to a port of his own country,
to a neutral port, or even to a hostile port. In the last
case, prisoners thus repatriated cannot serve as long as the
war lasts.

ARTICLE X.
The shipwrecked, wounded, or sick, who are landed at a neutral
port with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing
a contrary arrangement between the neutral State and the
belligerents, be guarded by the neutral State, so that they
cannot again take part in the military operations. The
expenses of entertainment and internment shall be borne by the
State to which the shipwrecked, wounded, or sick belong.

ARTICLE XI.
The rules contained in the above Articles are binding only on
the Contracting Powers, in case of war between two or more of
them. The said rules shall cease to be binding from the time
when, in a war between the Contracting Powers, one of the
belligerents is joined by a non-Contracting Power.

ARTICLE XII.
The present Convention shall be ratified as soon as possible.
The ratifications shall be deposited at The Hague. On the
receipt of each ratification a "procès-verbal" shall be drawn
up, a copy of which, duly certified, shall be sent through the
diplomatic channel to all the Contracting Powers.

ARTICLE XIII.
The non-Signatory Powers who accepted the Geneva Convention of
the 22d August, 1864, are allowed to adhere to the present
Convention. For this purpose they must make their adhesion
known to the Contracting Powers by means of a written
notification addressed to the Netherland Government, and by it
communicated to all the other Contracting Powers.

ARTICLE XIV.
In the event of one of the High Contracting Parties denouncing
 the present Convention, such denunciation shall not take
effect until a year after the notification made in writing to
the Netherland Government, and forthwith communicated by it to
all the other Contracting Powers. This denunciation shall only
affect the notifying Power.

In faith of which the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed

the present Convention and affixed their seals thereto.

[Signed by the representatives of Belgium, Denmark, Spain,

Mexico, France, Greece, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Persia,
Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Siam, Sweden and Norway, and
Bulgaria]

----------PEACE CONFERENCE: End--------

PEARY'S EXPLORATIONS.

See (in this volume)

POLAR EXPLORATION, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898—.

PEKING: A. D. 1900.
The siege of the Foreign Legations and their rescue.
Occupation of the city by the allied forces.
Looting and outrage.
March through the "Forbidden City."

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JUNE-AUGUST);
and (AUGUST 4-16, and 15-28).

PEKING: A. D. 1900-1901.
Seizure of grounds for a fortified Legation Quarter.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1900-1901 (NOVEMBER-FEBRUARY).
PEKING SYNDICATE, Chinese concessions to the.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).

PELAGIC SEAL KILLING, The question of.

See (in this volume)

BERING SEA QUESTIONS.

PELEW ISLANDS:
Sale by Spain to Germany.

See (in this volume)

CAROLINE AND MARIANNE ISLANDS.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1897.
Great strike of coal miners.
Conflict at Lattimer.

See (in this volume)

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES: A. D. 1897.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1900.
Strike of anthracite coal miners.

See (in this volume)

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES: A. D. 1900.

PENNSYLVANIA, University of:

Expeditions to explore the ruins of Nippur.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA:
AMERICAN EXPLORATION.

PENNY POSTAGE, British Imperial.

 See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (DECEMBER).

PENSIONS, Old-Age.

See references (in this volume) under

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

PEONES.

See (in this volume)

PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898-1899 (AUGUST-JULY).

PEOPLE'S PARTY, The.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER);
and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

{366}

PERRY'S EXPEDITION TO JAPAN,

Proposed monument to commemorate.

See (in this volume)

JAPAN: A. D. 1901.

PERSIA: A.D. 1896.

Assassination of the Shah.

The Shah of Persia, Nâsr-ed-din, was shot, on the 1st day of

May, when entering the mosque of Shah Abdul Azim, by one Mirza
Mahomed Reza, said to be of the Babi sect. Nâsr-ed-din had
reigned since 1848. He was succeeded by his son,
Muzaffar-ed-din, who was forty-three years old at his
 accession.

PERSIA: A. D. 1897-1899.
Recent exploration of the ruins of Susa.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: PERSIA.

PERSIA: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

See (in this volume)

PEACE CONFERENCE.

PERSIA: A. D. 1900.
Russian railway projects.

See (in this volume)

RUSSIA IN ASIA: A. D. 1900.

PERSIAN GULF, Railways to the.

See (in this volume)

TURKEY: A. D. 1899 (NOVEMBER);
and RUSSIA IN ASIA: A. D. 1900.

PERU: A. D. 1894-1899.
Overthrow of an unconstitutional government.
Legitimate authority restored.

The death of President Bermudez, in March, 1894, brought about

a revolutionary movement in the interest of ex-President
Caceres. Constitutionally, the First Vice-President, Dr. del
Solar, would have succeeded the deceased President, until a
new election was held; but the Second Vice-President, who was
a partisan of Caceres, and who had the army with him, seized
control of the government. In May, Caceres was proclaimed
 Provisional President, and in August it was claimed for him
that he had been elected by Congress; but the election was not
recognized by his opponents. A formidable rebellion was
organized, under the lead of ex-President Pierola, who had
been in exile and now returned. Civil war raged for nearly a
year, Pierola gaining steadily. In February, 1895, his forces
reached the capital and laid siege to it. On the 17th of March
they entered the city, and there was desperate fighting in the
streets of Lima for three days, nearly 2,000 of the
combatants being killed and more than 1,500 wounded. Chiefly
through the efforts of the Papal delegate, the bloody conflict
was finally stopped and terms of peace arranged. A provisional
government, made up from both parties, was formed, under which
a peaceable election was held in the following July. Pierola
was then elected President. Caceres and his partisans
attempted a rising the next year (1896), but it had no
success. In the northern department of Loreto, on the border
of Ecuador, an abortive movement for independence was set on
foot by an ambitious official, who gave the government
considerable trouble, but accomplished nothing more. In 1899,
President Pierola was succeeded by Eduardo L. de Romana,
elected in May. A rebellion attempted that year by one General
Durand was promptly suppressed.

PERU: A. D. 1894.-1900.
The dispute with Chile concerning Tacna and Arica.

See (in this volume)

CHILE: A. D. 1884-1900.

PESCADORES ISLANDS:
Cession by China to Japan.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895.

PHILADELPHIA: A. D. 1897.
Opening of the Commercial Museum.

A Commercial Museum which has acquired great importance was

opened in Philadelphia on the 2d of June, 1897. "In both aim
and results the institution is unique. Other countries, also,
have their commercial museums, which are doing excellent work.
Their scope, however, is much more limited; the Museum of
Philadelphia differing from them in that it is an active, not
merely a passive, aid to the prospective exporter. The foreign
museums, situated in London, Bremen, Hamburg, Stuttgart,
Vienna, Havre, Brussels, and various other commercial centres,
do not extend active aid, but content themselves with more or
less complete displays of samples of domestic and foreign
competitive goods sold in export markets. The theory of their
organization is, that the manufacturer, contemplating a
foreign business campaign, will be enabled to pursue it
intelligently through the study of these samples. The
initiative is left to the exporter himself, who must discover
what opportunities exist for him abroad; and it is also left
to him to take advantage of his opportunities in the way that
may seem best to him. The display of manufactured samples is
only a small part of the work of the Philadelphia Museum. This
institution shows not only what goods are sold in foreign
markets, but also where those markets are, what commercial
conditions obtain in connection with them, what particular
kinds of goods they demand, how these markets may be best
competed for, and where the raw material may be most
profitably purchased. It furnishes information, furthermore,
as to business connections as well as the credit ratings of
the agents or firms recommended. To secure specific
information it is not necessary to visit the institution
itself; for reports of trade opportunities abroad are
distributed by the Museum to its members; and these reports
are provided with photographs of many of the articles which,
at that particular time, are in demand, in certain parts of
the world. Under these circumstances, the exporter is
practically provided with a staff of expert, foreign
 representatives, without any expense to himself beyond the
merely nominal fee for membership. While its activities are
dependent to a certain extent upon the income derived from
subscribers, the Museum is not a money-making institution.
Indeed, its income from this source does not cover half the
expenditures. It is enabled to carry on its work only by
reason of the generous, annual appropriation provided for it
by the City Councils of Philadelphia. But a very large income
is required to maintain a staff of 150 employees in
Philadelphia, as well as 500 regular and several thousand
occasional correspondents scattered throughout the world. The
only advantage which the city itself derives from the Museum
is that resulting indirectly from the presence of foreign
buyers attracted to Philadelphia by the Museum's work."

W. P. Wilson,
The Philadelphia Commercial Museum
(Forum, September, 1899).

PHILADELPHIA: A. D. 1899.
National Export Exposition and International
Commercial Congress.

See (in this volume)

INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL CONGRESS.

{367}

----------PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: Start--------

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS:
Number, area, shore line, and population.

"In regard to the number and areas of the islands in the

archipelago there must necessarily be a certain inaccuracy,
because the group has never been properly surveyed, and the
only method of determining the number and areas is by counting
 and measuring on the charts. The following figures are
probably the best ever compiled. They are drawn from
enumeration and mensuration on maps recently obtained by the
United States commissioners to the Philippines and which are
without doubt the most complete and the most thorough ever
made. The following is quoted from the introduction to these
maps, which are being published by the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey. All the islands or groups having an area of over
20 square miles have been measured, and the areas are here
given in square miles and square kilometers. Many different
statements have been made in regard to the number of the
islands composing the archipelago. The cause for this must be
attributed to the scale of the charts on which the count was
made and the difficulty of distinguishing between rocks and
formations of sufficient area to dignify them by the name of
islands. Thus on a small-scale Spanish chart of the entire
group 948 islands were counted; on various large-scale charts
of the same area there were found 1,725. The principal
islands, with the extent of shore line of some of them and
their area, are given on the following lists. The areas were
carefully measured, but are subject to the inaccuracy of the
length of general shore line.

Name. Square Miles. Square

kilometers.

Babuyan 36
93
Bagata, or Quinalasag 27
70
Balabae 38
98
Basilan 350
907
Batan 21
54
Bantayan 26
67
Bohol 1,430
3,727
Bucas 41
106
Burias 153
422
Busuanga 328
850
Calayan 37
96
Calamian 117
303
Camiguin (Babnyanes group) 54
140
Camiguin 71
184
Catandunanes 680
1,761
Cebu 1,742
4,512
Dalupiri 20
53
Dinagat 259
671
Dumaran 95
246
Fuga 21
54
Guimaras 176
456
 Leite (Leyte) 2,713
7,027
Linapacan 40
104
Luzon 47,238
122,346
Mactan 20
52
Malhou (Homonkon) 35
91
Marindugna 287
743
Masbate 1.200
3,341
Mindanao 36,237
93,854
Mindoro 3,972
10,987
Negros 4,854
12,571
Olutanga 71
184
Panaon 57
148
Panay 4,708
12,194
Panglao 24
62
Pangutaran 32
85
Polillo 231
598
Samal 105