CE431 - Soil Mechanics Overview-2

CE431 Çinicioğlu
Two-Dimensional Flow
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Two-dimensional flow of water through soil
• The flow of water through soils is described by
Laplace equation. The two dimensional form of the
equation is 2 H 2 H
kx  kz 0
x 2 x 2
H  the total head
kx kz hydraulic conductivities in the x and y directions
Laplace equation expresses the condition that the changes of hydraulic

gradient in one direction are balanced by changes in the other directions.
The assumptions in Laplace equation are :
• Darcy’s law (v=ki=k.DH/L) is valid.
• The soil is homogeneous and saturated
• The soil and water are incompressible.
• No volume change occurs. 401
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Two-dimensional flow of water through soil
• If the soil is isotropic (kx=kz=k), then Laplace
Equation becomes
2 H 2 H
 0
x 2 z 2
• The solution for this differential equation requires the
knowledge of the boundary conditions.
• However, for soils the boundary conditions are generally
complex.
• Therefore it is very difficult to obtain an analytical or
closed form solution.
• Therefore, it is necessary to use approximate solution
methods such as flownet sketching, finite difference,
finite element, or boundary element methods.
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The concept of flow net

• In a region of soil through which water flow is taking
place and where the material is isotropic, flow will
occur at any point in the direction of the maximum
gradient at that point.
• The slope is smooth analogous to isotropic condition.
If it was textured, it would be analogous to anisotropic
condition.
Highest
gradient 403
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Constant
• If, as a result of obtaining the head lines
solution to Laplace equation, a

line can be drawn through the
point such that the head
everywhere along the line is the f
same, the maximum hydraulic
gradient at the point will occur in
a direction normal to the Flow lines
constant head line. Constant

• Therefore the flow will therefore head lines
be at right angles to the
constant head lines.
f
Flow lines
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• A line of constant head representing a solution to

Laplace equation is called an equipotential line.
• A path followed by a particle of water is called a flow
line.
Constant head Equipotential
=
lines lines
Flow lines
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• The velocity of flow (v) is normal to the lines of constant total head
(equipotential lines) and in the direction of the flow lines.
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• A flow line represents the flow path that a particle of water is expected to
take in steady state flow.
• Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal to each other.
• The head loss between two equipotential lines is called a potential drop or
head loss.
• Since the flow lines are normal to equipotential lines, there can be no flow
across flow lines.
• The rate of flow between any two flow lines is constant. The area between
two flow lines is called a flow channel. Therefore the rate of flow is
constant in a flow channel.
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Flownet sketching
• A flownet is a graphical
representation of a flow
field that satisfies Laplace
equation and comprises a
family of flow lines and
equipotential lines.
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Flownet sketching
A flownet must meet the following criteria:
• The boundary conditions must be satisfied.
• Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.
• The area between flow lines and equipotential lines must be
curvilinear squares. A curvilinear square has the property that
an inscribed circle can be drawn to touch each side of the
square.
• The quantity of flow through each flow channel is constant.
• A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
• An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential line.
An infinite number of flow lines and equipotential lines can be
drawn to satisfy Laplace equation. However, only a few are
required to obtain an accurate solution.
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Flownet sketching – Isotropic soils
1. Draw the structure and soil mass to scale.
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2. Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries.
1. The soil-impermeable boundary interfaces are flow lines
because water can flow along these interfaces.
2. The soil-permeable boundary interfaces are equipotential
lines because total head is constant along these surfaces
Soil-permeable boundary
interface – equipotential line line
Soil-impermeable boundary
interface – flow line 411
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3. Sketch a series of flow lines and then sketch an appropriate

number of equipotential lines such that the area between a
pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential lines (cell) is
approximately a curvilinear square. You would have to
adjust the flow lines and equipotential lines to make
curvilinear squares.
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Example 1: Draw the flownet for the flow condition under the dam.
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Solution: Equipotential line
Flow line
Flow lines should intersect the equipotential lines at right angles,

and vice versa.
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Solution (cont.):
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Example 2: Draw the flownet in the backfill behind the retaining

wall. Between the retaining wall and the backfill there is
a vertical drainage blanket.
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Solution:
In the drainage blanket the pressure is atmospheric. Therefore along the blanket the
equipotential lines are spaced at equal intervals (he=ht).
The bottom impermeable layer is also a flow line, therefore the equipotential lines
should connect at right angles to it.
The top permeable layer is an equipotential line, so flow lines should intersect at right
angles.
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Flow rate from a flownet
• The head loss between two consecutive equipotential
lines is constant. Therefore the head loss (Dh) between
each consecutive pair of equipotential lines is
Total head loss across
The number of
DH
equipotential Dh  the flow domain
(head) drops Nd
DH  8m
Nd  18
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• From Darcy’s law, the flow through each flow channel
for an isotropic soil is
Dh b DH b
Dq  Aki   b 1 k  k Dh  k
area L L Nd L
width of
the cell length of
the cell
Since each cell is a square, b/l = 1. Therefore
DH
Dq  k
Nd
This is valid per flow channel
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If the number of flow lines is Nf,, then the total quantity of flow is
Nf
q  N f Dq  k DH
Nd
Nf 9 • The ratio Nf / Nd is called

the shape factor.
• Finer discretization of the
flow net by drawing more
flow and equipotential
lines does not significantly
change the shape factor.
• Both Nf and Nd can be
fractional.
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Example 3: If the hydraulic conductivity of the isotropic homogeneous
soil layer is 5x10-6m/s, determine the quantity of seepage
under the sheet pile wall.
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Solution: 6
k  5 10 m / s
 
Nf 9
q  k DH  5 106 m / s  8m   2 105 m3 / s
Nd 18
The result is m3/s

because of the depth
of the problem into
the plane of drawing
(1m).
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Flownet – Hydraulic gradient
The hydraulic gradient over each square can be found by dividing
the head loss by the length, L, of the cell
Dh
i • L is not constant. Therefore
L hydraulic gradient is not
constant.
• The maximum hydraulic
gradient occurs where L is a
minimum.
Dh
imax 
Lmin
• Usually, Lmin occurs at exit
points or around corners.
• Exit points are critical for
quick condition. 423
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Flownet – Static Liquefaction
Flow at point B is directed upward. Therefore, the vertical effective
stress at that point is
 z   z  i w z
  Gs  1 then    0
if i  ic   z
 w e 1
When i=ic, the structure

will fail as a result of
static liquefaction /
piping.
It is absolutely essential
to ensure that the critical
hydraulic gradient
cannot develop.
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Example 4: If the saturated unit weight of the soil is 19kN/m3
a) check if there is a risk of static liquefaction behind the

sheet pile.
b) What is the maximum depth of upstream water table
that would provide a factor of safety of 1.5 against
quick condition?
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Solution: ic 



19kN / m3  9.8kN / m3
 0.94
 Çinicioğlu
(a) w 9.8kN / m3
DH 8m Dh 0.45m
Dh    0.45m i   0.2
N d 18 L 2.3m
(b)
2.3m
ic 0.94
i   0.63
F .S . 1.5
Dh  iL  0.63 2.3m  1.45m
DH  Dh.Nd  1.45m 18  26.1m
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Flownet – Static Liquefaction
• There are several preventive measures against static
liquefaction, such as increasing the effective stresses
Increasing
at the exit point, thus the effective
stresses at
the exit point
 z   fill   z  i w z
• Increasing the length of the flow path, thus

Increasing the length of
Nd increases therefore Dh decreases. flow path
So, exit hydraulic gradient

decreases.
Dh
 imax
Lmin 427
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Flownet – Pore water pressure
The calculation of the pore water pressure at an arbitrary point such as point A:
• Select a datum, such as the downstream water level.
• Determine the total head at A:
H A  DH   N D  A Dh  8m  16.5  0.45m  0.575m
Number of
equipotential drops • Subtract the elevation head of the point
Head loss per
up to the point (can equipotential line from the total head.
be fractional)
 hp  A  hA   he  A 
 0.575m  (10m)  10.575m
• The porewater pressure is
 
u A   w hp 
A
A
 9.8kN / m3 10.575m 
103.6kPa  u A
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Example 5:
The section through a long cofferdam is shown, hydraulic
conductivity of the soil being 4x10-7m/s.
a. Draw the flownet and determine the quantity of seepage entering
the cofferdam.
b. The saturated unit weight of the soil being 20kN/m3, determine
the factor of safety against boiling at the surface AB.
c. Determine the values of effective vertical stress at C and D.
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Solution: (a)
Nf 5
N d  11
Nf 10
q  kH  4 107 m / s  5.5m   2 106 m3 / s per meter
Nd 11
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Solution (cont.): (b)

Loss in total head between adjacent equipotentials
DH 5.5m
Dh    0.5m
Nd 11
Exit hydraulic gradient The critical hydraulic gradient
Dh 0.5m   20kN / m3  9.8kN / m3
ie    0.71 ic    1.04
Ds 0.7m w 9.8kN / m3
F.S. against boiling
i 1.04
F .S .  c   1.5
ie 0.71
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Solution (cont.): (c) Total, elevation, and pressure heads at C:
 he C  2.5m  ht C  5.5m  8.6  0.5m  1.2m

 hp C   ht C   he C  1.2m   2.5m  3.7m
 
uc  h p  w  3.7m  9.8kN / m3  36kPa
C
 
 C   C  uC  2.5m  20kN / m3  36kPa  14kPa
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Solution (cont.): (c) Total, elevation, and pressure heads at D:
 he D  4.5m  ht D  5.5m  3.7  0.5m  3.65m

 hp D   ht D   he D  3.65m   4.5m  8.15m
 
uD  h p  w  8.15m  9.8kN / m3  80kPa
D
 
   D  uD  3m  9.8kN / m3  7m  20kN / m3  80kPa  89.4kPa
D
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Consolidation
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Compressibility and settlement

• Increment of stresses in materials always produces
strains.
• Therefore, whenever v increases, there will always
be a corresponding settlement.
• In the case of induced stresses, the geotechnical
engineer has to make sure that the magnitude of
settlements are within tolerable limits.
 D
L L-dL

D
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Compressibility and settlement

• The three most common physical processes that
produce settlement in soils:
– Consolidation settlement (dc)
– Secondary compression settlement (ds)
– Distortion settlement (dd)
• The settlement at the ground surface, d, is the sum of
these three components:
d  dc  d s  d d
• Other sources of settlement are:

– Underground mines
– Sinkholes
– tunnels
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Consolidation settlement
(primary consolidation settlement):
• Occurs when a soil is subjected to an increase in vertical
effective stresses, and the individual particles respond by
rearranging into a denser state.
• Causes a decrease in the volume of voids (Vv)
• If the soil is saturated, the reduction in Vv can occur only
if some of the pore water is squeezed out of the soil
• This is usually the most important source of settlement
Expulsion of water
from the voids
′z ′z+D′z
′z ′z+D′z 437
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Secondary compression settlement:
• Occurs due to particle reorientation, creep, and

decomposition of organic materials.
• Does not require the expulsion of water
• Can be significant in highly plastic clays, organic
soils, and sanitary fills
• Negligible in sands and gravels.
• Unlike consolidation settlement, it is not due to
changes in vertical effective stress
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Distortion settlement
• Results from lateral movements of the soil in
response to changes in the vertical effective stress.
• These movements occur when the load is confined to
a small area (i.e., structural foundation, near the
edges of large loaded areas).
Distortion
settlement
Lateral soil movements
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Changes in vertical effective stress

• Settlement analyses are based on changes in
effective stress, not total stress.
• The initial vertical effective stress, z0, at a point in
the soil is the value of z before the event that
causes settlement occurs.
• The final vertical effective stress, zf, is the value
after the event has occurred and the settlement is
complete.
• The method of computing zf depends on the kind of
event that is causing the stresses to increase. The
most common events are:
– Placement of a fill
– Placement of an external load
– Changes in groundwater elevation
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Placement of a fill
• If the length and width of the fill are large compared to the depth of
the point at which we wish to compute the stresses, and the point is
proximate to the central area of the fill, the we compute zf by
simply adding another layer to the soil:
 zf
   zo
   fill H fill
• If the width and length of the fill are less than about twice the depth
to the point at which stresses are to be computed, or this point is
near the edge of the fill, then we need to evaluate the fill as an area
load assuming elastic soil response.
fill Hfill
′z0+D′z=
′z0 ′z0+fill.Hfill
Initial state Final state
Vvi Vvf
Vsi Vsf
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Placement of an external load
• External loads, such as structural foundations, also

produce increases in z:
 zf    z 
   zo
induced
• Induced vertical stresses are computed assuming soil

to be elastic (i.e., area load, point load, etc.).
2
1
′z)induced
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Changes in the groundwater table
• Sometimes groundwater table level changes due to

natural events or construction activities (rainy or dry
seasons, pumping from wells, construction of a dam,
etc.).
• When the groundwater table changes from one
elevation to some lower elevation, the porewater
pressure, u, in the underlying soil decreases and the
vertical effective stress, z, increases.
• For the method of computation, check Example 6 in
the lecture “stresses”.
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Piston and Spring Analogy
P P+DP
Drain holes
u = uh u = uh+ue
t = t0
P+DP
P+DP
u = uh+ue/2 u = uh
t = t1 t = t2 444
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Consolidation process in the field

• Buildup of excess pore water pressure as a result of
loading is more complicated in the field than the
piston analogy.
• The buildup of excess pore water pressure depends
on
– Vertical stresses
– Horizontal stresses
– Dilatancy of soil (volume change during shearing)
• However, the problem will be simplified by assuming
the excess pore water pressure, ue, immediately after
loading to be equal to the increment of vertical load,
Dz.
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• The soil in the field is under equilibrium before loading.
• Water pressure is hydrostatic and increases linearly with
depth.
• There are no excess pore water pressures present.
sand
zw
w.zw
clay
sand
Initial state
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• Immediately after loading the pore pressures increase an amount
equal to the additional load (=H).
• However, since the hydraulic conductivities of sand layers are
very high, instantaneous dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure is assumed.
• The excess pore water pressure in the clay layer cannot dissipate
instantaneously because of low hydraulic conductivity.
H  fill
sand ue =0
w.zw
clay ue =.H
w.zw +.H
w.zw sand
ue =0
Immediately after loading 447
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• Dissipation of excess pore water pressure takes place as a result of the
hydraulic gradient created between the unloaded soils (which are under
hydrostatic condition) and loaded soils (which have excess pore water
pressure).
• Excess pore water pressure in the clay layer is equal to the load of external
loading.
• Excess pore water in the clay layer starts to dissipate at the boundaries where
the flow path is the shortest.
• That is why the excess pore water pressures at the permeable boundaries
immediately drop to zero.
H  fill
sand ue =0
w.zw
clay ue =.H
w.zw +.H
w.zw sand
ue =0
Immediately after loading 448
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• As the flow path length increases (towards the midpoint of the clay layer),
the duration for dissipation of excess pore water pressure increases.
• As each increment of water is discharged, the solid particles consolidate
and begin to carry part of the new load, just as the spring is compressed.
• Thus, Dz is gradually transferred from the pore water to the soil solids,
and the vertical effective stress, Dz rises.
H  fill
sand ue =0
w.zw
clay ue
w.zw +.H
w.zw sand
ue =0
Some time after loading 449
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• Eventually, all of the new load is carried by the solids, the pore
water pressure returns to its hydrostatic value, and the flow of pore
water ceases.
• The length of this process, which is called consolidation, depends
on various factors, such as:
– Thickness of the clay layer,
– Hydraulic conductivity of the layer
– Drainage conditions (one-sided or double sided)
– Magnitude of loading
H  fill
sand
zw
w.zw
clay
sand
Sufficiently long time after loading 450
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Example 1: Consider a soil element A at a depth 7.8m. Calculate z0, u0, z0
before and zf, uf, zf immediately after the placement of a proposed
fill that is 5m thick with a unit weight of 19.5kN/m3.
1m =18.7kN/m3
2m Silty sand =19kN/m3
4.8m
clay A
12m
=16.5kN/m3
Solution: Stresses before the placement of the fill:
 z 0  18.7kN / m3 1m  19kN / m3  2m  16.5kN / m3  4.8m  136kPa

u0   w zw  9.8kN / m3  6.8m  67kPa
 z 0   z 0  u0  136kPa  67kPa  69kPa
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Solution (cont.): Stresses and pore water pressure at point A
before the initiation of construction.
z 250
(kPa) 200
150
100
50
0
t
u 200
(kPa)150
1m =18.7kN/m3 100
2m Silty sand =19kN/m3 50
0
4.8m t
clay ′z 200

12m A (kPa)150
100
=16.5kN/m3 50
0
t
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Solution (cont.): Immediately after the placement of the fill, the soil
profile is as below:
5m =19.5kN/m3 fill
1m =18.7kN/m3
4.8m
clay A
12m
=16.5kN/m3
 zf   z 0   fill H fill  136kPa  19.5kN / m3  5m  234kPa

u  uh  ue  uh   fill H fill  67kPa  19.5kN / m3  5m  165kPa
 z   z  u  234kPa  165kPa  69kPa
Immediately after loading, effective stress does not change in the clay layer because
all the additional load is carried by the pore water. 453
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Solution (cont.): Stresses and pore water pressure at point A
during the construction process.
z 250
(kPa) 200
150
100
5m =19.5kN/m 3
fill 50
1m =18.7kN/m3 0
t
u 200
4.8m (kPa)150
clay 100
12m A 50
0
=16.5kN/m 3 t
′z 200
(kPa) 150
100
50
0
t
For the sake of simplicity, stresses and pore water pressures are calculated as if the
construction is completed immediately. In reality, the drainage of pore water should
have started simultaneously with the construction. Therefore pore water pressure should
never be equal to the additional weight of the 5m fill. 454
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Solution (cont.): 5m =19.5kN/m3 fill
1m =18.7kN/m3
4.8m
clay A
12m
=16.5kN/m3
As some of the water drains away, this element consolidated and Dz is
gradually transferred from the pore water to the solids. After a
sufficiently long time, ue=0 and the consolidation is complete. Then:
u  uh  ue  67kPa  0kPa  67kPa
 z   z  u  234kPa  67kPa  167kPa
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Solution (cont.):
z 250
(kPa) 200
150
100
5m =19.5kN/m3 fill 50
0
1m =18.7kN/m3 t
u 200
4.8m (kPa)150
clay 100
12m A 50
0
=16.5kN/m 3 t
′z 200
(kPa)150
100
50
0
t
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CE431 Solution (cont.): Classical Soil Mechanics Approach Çinicioğlu

z 250 z 250
(kPa) 200 (kPa) 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
t t
u 200 u 200
(kPa)150 (kPa)150
100 100
50 50
0 0
t t
′z 200 ′z200
(kPa)150 (kPa)150
100 100
50 50
0 0
t t
Actual behavior in clay Assumed behavior in clay
•The reason for assuming the stress/pwp variation shown on the right is because a
design based on this assumed stress/pwp values remains on the safe side.
•This due to the fact that effective stress (strength) is assumed to remain the same even
though the load (z) increases to the final value.
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Çinicioğlu
Consolidation Test – Oedometer Test
CE431
• To predict consolidation settlement in soil, we need to know its

stress-strain (z-ez) properties.
• This is usually achieved by bringing a soil sample to the laboratory,
subjecting it to a series of loads, and measuring the corresponding
settlements.
• The laboratory testing equipment used for this purpose is called an
oedometer. Dial
gage
P Drainage lines
Porous soil
stones
z
Drainage
lines
y
x
Drainage lines x 458
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Consolidation Test – Oedometer Test

• Since a geotechnical engineer is
interested in the behavior of the soil in
the field, consolidation tests are usually
performed on high-quality undisturbed
samples.
• It is relatively easy to obtain undisturbed
samples in soft to medium clays.
• Unfortunately it is almost impossible to
obtain high-quality undisturbed samples
in uncemented sands.
• Therefore, instead of sampling sands,
empirical correlations or in-situ tests are
used to assess the stress-strain
properties.
• It is also important to preserve the
saturation state of the samples to prevent
structural and behavioral changes.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Oedometer test
• Soil sample which is cylindrical in shape is placed into the ring of the
oedometer.
• The purpose of the ring is to maintain zero horizontal strain, thus
producing one-dimensional consolidation.
• Before the placement of the sample a porous stone is placed at the
bottom of the ring and after the placement of the sample another
porous stone is placed at the top.
• These porous stones are required to provide permeable boundaries.
They are strong enough to carry the applied loads, yet porous enough
Dial
to allow water to pass through freely. gage
P Drainage lines
Porous soil
stones
z
x
Drainage lines 460
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Oedometer test
• The porous stones and the sample are saturated in a water bath in
order to keep the soil saturated, thus simulating worst-case
conditions in the field.
• Drainage lines connect the top and bottom of the sample to the
water table, thus providing hydrostatic conditions.
• As a result, under compression, hydraulic gradient is created
between the boundaries and inside the soil sample. Excess pore
water pressures dissipate under this hydraulic gradient.
• A dial gage or an LVDT is placed above the sample
Dial to measure its
gage
compression as the test progresses.
P Drainage lines
Porous soil
stones
z
x
Drainage lines 461
31
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Oedometer test
To understand the process of one-dimensional consolidation, we will
analyze the changes in an oedometer during a consolidation test:
• In the oedometer setup shown, expelled water is transported by tubes to a
burette.
• A valve is used to control the flow of the expelled water into the burette.
Thus, the lab technician can open and close the valve permitting and
preventing drainage at the top and bottom boundaries.
• Three porewater pressure transducers are mounted in the side wall of the
oedometer ring to measure the excess porewater pressure near the porous
stone at the top (A), at a distance one-quarter the height (B), and at the
midheight of the soil.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Oedometer test
• Assumptions:
– Porewater and soil particles are incompressible
– Initial porewater pressure is zero (hydrostatic pressure is insignificant)
– Volume of expelled water is equal to the volume change of the sample
– Since the ring is rigid, no lateral or circumferential displacements can
occur (er = eq = 0)
– Due to one-dimensional straining, volumetric strain (ep = ez+eqer) is
equal to the vertical strain (ez =Dz/H0).
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Oedometer test
• If a load P is applied instantaneously to the loading platen and the valve
is kept closed, then:
– No excess pore water pressure can drain from the soil
– The change in the volume of the soil is zero (DV=0)
– Since excess pore water pressure cannot drain, no load or stress is
transferred to the soil particles (Dz=0). The pore water carries the
additional total load.
– The initial excess pore water pressure in the soil (Duo) is then equal
to the change in the applied vertical stress:
P
D z  Cross-sectional
A area of the soil
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Oedometer test
• If the valve is opened so that the initial excess
porewater pressure can drain:
– The total volume of soil at time t1 decreases by the amount
of excess porewater that drains from it as indicated by the
change in the volume of water in the burette.
– At the top and bottom boundaries the porewater pressure is
immediately zero since these are the drainage boundaries.
– The decrease of initial excess porewater pressure at the
middle of the soil is the slowest because the drainage path is
the longest.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
•
Oedometer test
Settlement of the soil (Dz) is not linear with time.
• Most of the settlement occurs close to the beginning of consolidation.
• This part, known as primary consolidation, is the drainage of water from the voids.
• Drainage occurs under the hydraulic gradient created as a result of loading.
• As time passes and soil consolidates, the hydraulic gradient decreases.
• Moreover, as the soil gets compresses, void space decreases and thus the hydraulic
conductivity decreases.
• Consequently velocity of seepage decreases and so the rate of consolidation.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Oedometer test
• Primary consolidation (in other words, consolidation) ends when all the excess
porewater pressure is dissipated.
• The later time settlement response is called secondary compression.
• Secondary compression occurs as a result of ongoing creep.
• Creep is the term used to describe the tendency of a solid material to slowly
deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long
term exposure to levels of stress that are below the yield strength or ultimate
strength of the material.
• Therefore creep is a continuous process under the applied loads thus it is
effective also during primary consolidation.
• However creep effects are obvious after the completion of primary consolidation.
Thus this portion of the settlement curve is called secondary compression.
• The rate of settlement from secondary compression is very slow compared with
primary consolidation.
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Drainage path
• The distance of the longest vertical path taken by a particle to exit the soil is
called the length of the drainage path.
• If the soil is allowed to drain on the top and bottom faces (double drainage),
the length of drainage path, Hdr, is H  average thickness
 
av
H Ho  H f 2 H o  initial thickness
H dr  av 
2 2 H f  final thickness
• If only one of the top or bottom boundaries is permeable (single drainage),
then the length of drainage path, Hdr, is
H dr  H av
fill fill
Longest vertical
Longest vertical
boundaries
Drainage
Hdr=H/2 Drainage
paths
clay boundary
path
H clay H Hdr=H
Hdr=H/2
sand rock Impervious

boundary
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Rate of consolidation
• The rate of consolidation for a homogeneous soil

depends on
– The soil’s permeability
– The thickness of the soil layer
– The length of the drainage path
• As the hydraulic conductivity increases, rate of
consolidation increases
• As the thickness of the soil layer and the length of the
drainage path increases, the rate of consolidation
decreases.
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Void ratio and soil thickness during consolidation

• Any volume change of the soil (DV) is equal to the change in void
ratio (De).
• We can calculate the volumetric strain (ep) from the change in
void ratio as DV De
ep  
V 1  eo
• Since for one-dimensional consolidation, ez=ep, we can write a
relationship between settlement and the change in void ratio as
Dz De
Change in ez  
height of H o 1  eo Initial height of the soil
the soil
z+D
z
DVDe Dz
Vv=e0 water Vv=ef water
V = 1+e0 Ho
Vs=1 solids Vs=1 solids
Before loading After loading 470
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Void ratio and soil thickness during consolidation

Dz De rearranging De
 Dz  H o
H o 1  eo 1  eo
If settlement due to primary consolidation is denoted rpc, then
De
r pc  H o
1  eo
Then the void ratio at the end of consolidation is
Dz
e f  eo  De  eo  1  eo 
Ho
z+D
z
DVDe Dz
Vv=e0 water Vv=ef water
V = 1+e0 Ho
Vs=1 solids Vs=1 solids
Before loading After loading

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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Stress-strain behavior during consolidation
• In the e-′z graph, section AB is not linear because the stiffness of

the soil increases as the consolidation proceeds (void ratio
decreases).
• Accordingly, there isn’t a one-to-one relationship between stresses
and settlements.
• Segment AB is called the virgin consolidation line or normal
consolidation line (NCL).
• In a semi-logarithmic plot of e-′z, NCL is approximately a straight
line.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• If at any point on the NCL, the sample is unloaded (′z is
decreased), the soil swells by absorbing water from the perimeter.
This part is the retrieval of the elastic part of deformation.
• During swelling void ratio increases. But this increase is much less
than the decrease in void ratio for the same stress increment on the
NCL.
• The reason of this difference is that swelling is an elastic process.
However deformations along the NCL includes both elastic and
plastic deformations. Therefore soil is an elastoplastic material.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• Unloading (concave) and reloading (convex) paths are different.
However diffence of the average slopes is insignificant.
• Therefore unloading reloading paths will be represented by an
average slope BC which will be referred to as an unloading-
reloading line (url) or recompression line.
• Once the past maximum vertical stress, ′zc, is exceeded, the
slope of the path followed by the soil, DE is the same as that of
the initial loading path AB.
• Additionally, slopes of any urls will be similar to each other.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• The slopes on the consolidation plot reflect the compressibility of the soil:
– Steep slopes mean a given increase in ′z will cause a large strain (or a large
change in void ratio). Such soils are called highly compressible.
– Shallow slopes indicate the same increase in ′z will produce less strain. Such
soils are slightly compressible.
• The stress-strain (in other words, the load-settlement) behavior during
consolidation can be expressed mathematically through the slopes of the
curves on the e-′z plot.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• There are two different definitions of the slope of the NCL:
– Coefficient of compression or compression index, Cc.
– Modulus of volume compressibility, mv.
Coefficient of compression, Cc
e2  e1 De
Cc  
 z 2  z 2
log log
 z 1  z 1
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote two arbitrarily

selected points on the ncl.
Cc does not have units.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• There are two different definitions of the slope of the NCL:
– Coefficient of compression or compression index, Cc.
– Modulus of volume compressibility, mv.
Modulus of volume compressibility, mv
e z 2  e z 1 De z
mv    
 z 2   z 1  z 2   z 1
De 1

1  eo D z

selected points on the ncl.
Unit of mv is stress-1, such as m2/kN.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• Similarly, the slope of the url can be defined in two ways, using:
– Recompression index, Cr.
– Modulus of volume recompressibility, mvr.
Recompression index, Cr
e e Der
Cr  2 1 
 z 2  z 2
log log
 z 1  z 1

selected points on the url.
Cr does not have units.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• Similarly, the slope of the url can be defined in two ways, using:
– Recompression index, Cr.
– Modulus of volume recompressibility, mvr.
Modulus of volume recompressibility, mvr

e z 2  e z 1 De zr
mvr   
 z 2   z 1  z 2   z 1
selected points on the url.
Unit of mvr is stress-1, such as m2/kN.
1 1 De z
mvr   

Ec D z D z
De z
Constrained effective Young’s modulus

(since the soil is confined laterally in the oedometer)
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Loading history
• The stiffness of a soil depends on its loading history.
• If the soil is at a stress state which is less than its past maximum vertical
effective stress than the stress state is located on an unloading-reloading
line.
• On unloading-reloading lines, the deformations are elastic and the load-
deformation response is stiff.
• Once the past maximum vertical effective stress is reached, then the soil
becomes normally consolidated.
• If the stress state is located on the normal consolidation line, then the
deformations are both elastic and plastic and the soil is highly compressible.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Loading history
• Past maximum vertical effective stress is called the preconsolidation
stress/pressure.
• Preconsolidation stress defines the limit of purely elastic behavior.
• If the loading imposed by a structure does not exceed the preconsolidation
pressure, then the settlement of the structure would be small.
• If the preconsolidation pressure is exceeded, then significant permenant
settlements would occur.
• For stresses greater than the preconsolidation stress the soil would behave
like an elastoplastic material.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
• Soils whose current vertical effective stress (overburden effective stress),
′zo, is less than its past maximum vertical effective stress (preconsolidation
stress), ′zc, are called overconsolidated soils.
• Stress states of overconsolidated soils lie on unloading-reloading lines.
• The degree of overconsolidation is called overconsolidation ratio (OCR).
• Overconsolidation ratio is used to identify the structure of the soil.
• If OCR=1, the soil is normally consolidated.
• Stress states of normally consolidated soils lie on normal consolidation
lines.
Preconsolidation
pressure

 zc
OCR 

 zo
Overburden effective
stress
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Consolidation soil states
• Unloading of a soil or reloading it cannot bring it to soil
states right of the normal consolidation line.
• States at the right of the normal consolidation line are
impossible states.
• Possible soil states only occur on or to the left of the
normal consolidation line.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 2: An excavation, that is 8m deep, is made in a normally consolidated

clay. If the excavation is assumed to be completed instantaneously,
calculate the OCR of a soil layer that is 12m below the original
ground surface
a) immediately after excavation
b) Long time after the completion of the excavation.
The groundwater table is at 10m and sat=20kN/m3 and dry=16kN/m3.
Solution:
10m 8m 12m dry =16kN/m3
sat =20kN/m3
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
10m 8m 12m dry =16kN/m3
Solution (cont.):
sat =20kN/m3
(a) Immediately after the excavation

Due to its low hydraulic conductivity, effective stresses does not
change in the clay layer. So the overburden effective stress and
preconsolidation pressure are equal:
 zo
   zc
  16kN / m3 10m  (20kN / m3  9.8kN / m3 )  2m  180.4kPa
Thus

 zc 180.4kPa So the soil is still normally
OCR   1

 zo 180.4kPa consolidated.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.): 10m 8m 12m dry =16kN/m3
sat =20kN/m3
(b) Long time after the completion of the excavation

The consolidation (swelling) process has been completed and the
effective stresses are adjusted to their new values. Thus
 zo
  16kN / m3  2m  (20kN / m3  9.8kN / m3 )  2m  52.4kPa
Preconsolidation pressure did not change, ′zc=180.4kPa
Thus
 zc
 180.4kPa
OCR    3.4 So the soil is

 zo 52.4kPa overconsolidated.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Effects of soil sampling to stress-strain behavior
• The current vertical effective stress, ′zo, (or
overburden effective stress) on soil sample in
the field is (considering the water table at the
ground surface)
   sat   w  z   z
 zo
and the current void ratio can be found from
 Gs  e 
 sat    w
 1 e 
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
• To obtain a sample, a borehole

is opened and the soil above the
point is removed.
• Thus, the act of removing the soil
and extracting the sample
reduces the total stress to zero.
Consequently, the sample swells
and the stress path follows the
url AB as the effective stress
reaches zero (void ratio
increases).
• At this point if we were to reload
the soil sample, the reloading
path followed during reloading
depends on the OCR.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
• If OCR=1 (normally consolidated soil), the path followed during
reloading would be BCD.
• The average slope of ABC is Cr.
• Once ′zo=′zc (preconsolidation pressure) is exceeded, the soil
will follow the normal consolidation line, CD, of slope Cc.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
• If OCR>1
(overconsolidated soil), the
path followed during
reloading would be BEF
because we have to reload
the beyond its
preconsolidation pressure,
′zc, before it behaves like a
normally consolidated soil.
• The average slope of ABE
is Cr.
• Once ′zc (preconsolidation
pressure) is exceeded, the
soil will follow the normal
consolidation line, EF, of
slope Cc.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
• Therefore, in order to know the stress-strain behavior, we have to know

the preconsolidation stress, ′zc, and the current in-situ stress, ′zo.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Primary consolidation settlement
Normally Consolidated Soils
• If the vertical stress on a normally consolidated soil increases
due to a construction activity, then the final vertical effective
stress at the point can be calculated as
Final vertical  fin   zo

  D z Increase in stress due to
effective stress construction activity
Initial vertical
e effective stress
 
No
eo
Since De  Cc log  fin  zo

rm
al
co
De
ns
oli
The primary consolidation settlement is

da
tio
De  fin
n
Ho
efin
r pc  H o 
lin
Cc log
e
Cc 1  eo 1  eo 
 zo
This equation is valid for normally

′zo ′fin log′z consolidated soils.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Overconsolidated Soils
• If the soil is overconsolidated, we have to consider two
cases depending on the magnitude of Dz:
• If ′fin=′zo+Dz <′zc
• If ′fin=′zo+Dz >′zc
If ′fin=′zo+Dz <′zc, then consolidation occurs along a single url which can be
computed as
Ho  fin
r pc  Cr log
1  eo 
 zo
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Overconsolidated Soils
• If the soil is overconsolidated, we have to consider two
cases depending on the magnitude of Dz:
• If ′fin=′zo+Dz <′zc
• If ′fin=′zo+Dz >′zc
If ′fin=′zo+Dz >′zc, we have to consider two components of settlement – one

along the url and the other along the ncl. This is achieved by using the equation
Ho  
 zc  fin 
r pc   Cr log  Cc log 
1  eo  
 zo  
 zc
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• Primary consolidation settlement can also be calculated using
modulus of volume compressibility, mv.
• However, unlike Cc, which is constant, mv varies with stress levels
• Therefore, it is necessary to compute an average value of mv over
the stress range ′zo to ′fin.
• The primary consolidation settlement using mv is
r pc  Ho mv D z
De z Dz 1
mv  
 z 2   z 1 H o D z
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Thick soil layers
• The increase in vertical stress due to an area load decreases with depth.
• Therefore, the primary consolidation settlement of the upper portion of the
soil layer can be expected to be more than the lower portion.
• Accordingly, for better accuracy, when dealing with thick layers (Ho>2m)
– Soil layer should be divided into sublayers (# dependent on Ho)
– Stress increase should be computed for each sublayer seperately
– Settlement for each sublayer should be calculated
– Settlement of each sublayer should be added up to find the total primary
consolidation settlement.
1
′z)induced
sublayer 1 1
2 sublayer 2
2 ′z)induced
sublayer 3
sublayer 4
sublayer 5
sublayer 6
sublayer 7
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 3: A 4m thick fill is to be made on the soil profile shown below. The
final unit weight of the fill will be 20.2kN/m3. Consolidation tests
were performed at points A and B, with the following results:
Sample Cc Cr eo ′zc (kPa)
A 0.59 0.19 1.90 75
B 0.37 0.14 1.21 95
Additionally, the silty sand layer is normally consolidated with Cc/(1+eo)=0.013.
Determine the ultimate consolidation settlement due to the weight of this fill.
3.0m =14.0kN/m3 Silty sand

(SM)
2.1m =17.5kN/m3
4.2m Soft clay

6.0m CL
A =13.5kN/m3
2.0m Medium clay

3.1m
B =15.0kN/m3 CH
Glacial till
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution: =14.0kN/m3 Silty sand
3.0m
Initial conditions: (SM)
2.1m =17.5kN/m3
At point A:
    H  u 14  3  17.5  2.1  13.5  4.2  9.8  6.3  74kPa
 zo 4.2m Soft clay
6.0m CL
 zc
  75kPa   zo
 A =13.5kN/m3
Therefore the soil is normally consolidated 3.1m

2.0m Medium clay
B =15.0kN/m3 CH
At point B: Glacial till
    H  u 14  3  17.5  2.1  13.5  6  15  2  9.8 10.1  91kPa

 zo
 zc
  95kPa   zo

Therefore the soil is normally consolidated
Proposed fill:
 zf   zo
   fill H fill   zo
  20.2kN / m3  4m   zo
  81kPa
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.):
Using the equation below for each layer 3.0m =14.0kN/m3 Silty sand
Ho  fin (SM)
r pc  Cc log 2.1m =17.5kN/m3
1  eo 
 zo
At midpoint of layer
4.2m Soft clay
Layer H (m) ′zo ′zf Cc/(1+eo) rpc (m) 6.0m CL
1 3 21 102 0.013 0.03 A =13.5kN/m3
2 2.1 50 131 0.013 0.01
3 3 64 145 0.2 0.21 2.0m Medium clay
3.1m
4 3 75 156 0.2 0.19 B =15.0kN/m3 CH
5 3.1 88 169 0.17 0.15 Glacial till
 r pc ult   r pc  0.59m
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Overconsolidation margin
• The ′zc (preconsolidation pressure) values from the laboratory
only represent the preconsolidation stress at the sample depth.
• However, we sometimes need to compute ′zc at other depths.
• To do so, we compute the overconsolidation margin, ′m, using
′zo at the sample depth and the following equation:
 m   zc
   zo

ice
∞
z
′zc=ice+′soil.z OCR=1 ′zo=′soil.z OCR=′zc/′zo
During the ice age now 500
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Calculating preconsolidation pressure using
overconsolidation margin
• Obtain the overconsolidation margin using the preconsolidation pressure obtained
from the sample (′zc) and the calculated vertical effective stress at the sample
depth (′zo):
 m   zc
 1   zo
1
• For the depth where it is desired to calculate the preconsolidation pressure,

calculate the vertical effective stress (′zo) using the overconsolidation margin which
should be approximately constant throughout the stratum with common geologic
origins:
 zc
 2   zo
 2 m 
ice
∞
z
2 Point of interest
1 sample
′zc=ice+′soil.z OCR=1 ′zo=′soil.z OCR=′zc/′zo

During the ice age now 501
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 4: An 8.5m deep compacted fill is to be placed over the soil profile
shown. Consolidation tests on samples from points A and B produced
the following results:
Sample A Sample B
Cc 0.25 0.2
Cr 0.08 0.06
eo 0.66 0.45
′zc 101kPa 510kPa
Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement due to the weight of this fill.
fill
8.5m
sat=20.3kN/m3
2m sat=18.3kN/m3
4m
7m sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay
10m
18m Very stiff clay
B sat=19.5kN/m3
Bedrock 502
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution: 8.5m
fill
sat=20.3kN/m3
2m sat=18.3kN/m3
4m
 zf   zo
   fill H fill  7m sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay
  zf   zo
  20.3kN / m3  8.5m 
  zf   zo
  172.6kPa
10m
18m Very stiff clay
B sat=19.5kN/m3
At sample A:
Bedrock
 zo
  18.3kN / m3  2m  19kN / m3  2m  9.8kN / m3  2m  55kPa
 zf   zo
  172.6kPa  55kPa  172.6kPa  227.6kPa
 zo
  55kPa   zc
  101kPa   zf
  227.6kPa
use
Ho  
 zc  zf 
r pc   Cr log  Cc log 
1  eo  
 zo  
 zc
503
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.): fill
8.5m
sat=20.3kN/m3
2m sat=18.3kN/m3
4m
 zf   zo
   fill H fill  7m sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay
  zf   zo
  20.3kN / m3  8.5m 
  zf   zo
  172.6kPa
10m
18m Very stiff clay
B sat=19.5kN/m3
At sample B:
Bedrock
 zo
  18.3kN / m  2m  19kN / m  7m  19.5kN / m 10m  9.8kN / m3 17m  198kPa
3 3 3
 zf   zo
  198kPa  198kPa  172.6kPa  370.6kPa
 zo
  198kPa   zf
  370.6kPa   zc
  510kPa
use
Ho  zf
r pc  Cr log
1  eo 
 zo
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.): fill
8.5m
sat=20.3kN/m3
 m   zc
   zo
  101kPa  55kPa  46kPa 2m 1 sat=18.3kN/m3
2 4m
7m sat=19kN/m3 A Stiff silty clay
3
Then preconsolidation pressure at other 4
levels are calculated as 10m
5
 zc
   zo
  46kPa 18m 6 Very stiff clay
B sat=19.5kN/m3
7
At the midpoint of layer Bedrock
Layer H (m) ′zo ′zc ′zf rpc (mm)

1 2 18.3 64.3 190.9 195
Clearly the upper layer
2 3 50.4 96.4 223 205 settles more since it
3 4 82.6 128.6 255.2 216 reaches the normal
4 4 120.4 - 293 64 consolidation line where
5 4 159.2 - 331.8 53
the stiffness reduces
significantly.
6 5 202.8 - 375.4 55
7 5 251.4 - 424 47
(rpc)ult = 836 505
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 5:
Proposed fill
3m
A 3m deep compacted fill is to =19.2kN/m3
be placed over the soil profile
shown. A consolidation test on 1.5m =18.5kN/m3
a sample from point A produced Fine to medium sand
the following results:
2m =19.5kN/m3
Sample A
Cc 0.4
Cr 0.08 4m
eo 1.1
′zc 70kPa Soft clay
A
10m =16kN/m3
This sample is representative
of the entire clay stratum.
Compute the ultimate
consolidation settlement due to
the weight of this fill. (For
sand, Cc/(1+eo) = 0.008).
Dense sand and gravel
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution: Proposed fill
3m
=19.2kN/m3
Initial conditions:
1.5m =18.5kN/m3
At point A: Fine to medium sand
2m =19.5kN/m3
 zo
  18.5 1.5  19.5  2  16  4  9.8  6  72kPa
 zc
  70kPa   zo

4m
Soft clay
Therefore the soil is normally consolidated. Since the 10m
A
=16kN/m3
sample is representative of the entire layer, then the entire
stratum is normally consolidated.
Proposed fill: Dense sand and gravel
 zf   zo
  19.2kN / m  3m   zo
3
  57.6kPa
Cc 0.40
For the clay layer =   0.19
1  eo 1  eo
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.): Proposed fill
3m
=19.2kN/m3
At the midpoint of layer
1.5m 1 =18.5kN/m3
Fine to medium sand
Layer H (m) ′zo ′zf rpc (mm) 2m 2 =19.5kN/m3
1 1.5 13.9 71.5 9

3
4m
2 2 37.4 95 6
3 3 56.4 114 175 4 A Soft clay
10m =16kN/m3
4 3 75 132.6 141
5 4 96.7 154.3 155 5
(rpc)ult = 486
The same analysis is used above and below the groundwater table, and both are based
on saturated Cc/(1+eo) values. This is conservative because the soils above the
groundwater table are probably less compressible.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 6: After the settlement due to the fill described in Example 5 is
completed, a 20m diameter, 10m tall cylindrical steel water tank is to
be built. The bottom of the tank will be at the top of the fill, and it
will have an empty mass of 300,000kg. Ultimately, the water inside
will be 9.5m deep. Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement
beneath the center of this tank due to the weight of the tank and its
contents. Assume the fill is overconsolidated with Cr=(1+eo) = 0.002.
(for sake of simplicity the thicknesses of the soil layers will be taken
as the initial thicknesses in Example 5.)
20m
Water tank 10m
3m =19.2kN/m3 Proposed fill

1.5m 1 =18.5kN/m3
2m 2 =19.5kN/m 3 Fine to medium sand
3 4m
10m 4 A Soft clay
=16kN/m3
5
Dense sand and gravel 509
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution:
• The settlement due to the fill is now complete.
• Therefore the values of zf from the solution of Example 5 are now the initial
stresses,  zo.
• We will compute zf values using Dz from the elasticity theory, using the
approximate method for circular loaded areas (Poulos and Davis, 1974):
  
1.50 
   
   
 z  q 1   
1

  2 
  B   Stress increases at
  1   2 z   
  different depths will be
   f   
20m different since the weight
is distributed over a larger
Water tank 10m area as depth increases.
3m Proposed fill
1.5m
2m Fine to medium sand
10m Soft clay
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.): 1kN
Wtank  Mg  300, 000kg  9.8m / s 2   2900kN
1000 N
 B2 H   2029.5m
Wwater  Vtank   w  w   9.8kN / m3  29200kN
4 4
The weight of the water is much greater than that of the empty tank, so it is
reasonable for us to assume the bearing pressure q is constant across the bottom of
the tank:
W 2900kN  29200kN
q   102kPa
A   202 / 4
20m
Water tank 10m
3m =19.2kN/m3 Proposed fill

1.5m 1 =18.5kN/m3
2m 2 =19.5kN/m3 Fine to medium sand
3 4m
10m 4 A Soft clay
=16kN/m3
5
511
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.):
Using the approximate method and ignoring the layering, we can compute the
stress increases, Dz, at different depths:
   
1.50
   
   
( z )induced  102kPa  1    
1
  2 
  20m   
  1   2 z   
   f   
20m
Water tank 10m
3m
1.5m zf Proposed fill
2m Fine to medium sand
10m Soft clay
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.):
At midpoint of layer
Layer H (m) zo zf (z)induced zf Cc/(1+eo) Cr/(1+eo) (rpc)ult (mm)

1 3 28.8 1.5 101.7 130.5 - 0.002 4
2 1.5 71.5 3.7 97.7 169.2 0.008 - 4
3 2 95 5.5 90.6 185.6 0.008 - 5
4 3 114 8 77.1 191.1 0.19 - 128
5 3 132.6 11 60.7 193.3 0.19 - 93
6 4 154.3 14.5 45.1 199.4 0.19 - 85
(rpc)ult = 319
If the tank was built immediately after the fill was placed, then zo would be the
same as in Example 5, and everything else would remain unchanged. Such a
solution illustrates the use of superposition of stresses.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Rate of Consolidation
• Unlike other material that civil engineers deal with, for soils deformation
response to loading is not always instantaneous.
• This is especially true for saturated clays. Many years or decades may be
necessary for the full settlement to complete under the imposed loading.
• Therefore geotechnical engineers often need to evaluate both the
magnitude and the rate of consolidation.
• Karl Terzaghi’s (the father of soil mechanics) most significant contribution
to geotechnical engineering was his theory of consolidation (one-
dimensional consolidation theory) which he developed in Istanbul (Robert
College) between 1919 and 1923.
• Although other had studied the problem, it was Terzaghi’s work that
properly identified and quantified the underlying physical processes.
• During this time he identified the principle of effective stress.
• Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer, was inspired by the thermodynamic
processes to come up with the one-dimensional consolidation theory.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Rate of Consolidation / 1D Consolidation
Theory
• It is important to recognize that the theory of consolidation is not
simply an emprical description of settlement data obtained in the field.
• It is a rational method based on a physical model of the consolidation
process.
• This is an important distinction, because it illustrates the difference
between organized empricism and the development of more
fundamental understandings of soil behavior.
• The various soil parameters needed to implement the theory of
consolidation are normally obtained from a site characterization
program, including laboratory consolidation tests.
• Therefore the parameters obtained contain errors which may result in
deviations of the solution from the field behavior.
• However the validity of the theory has been confirmed, and it is the
basis for nearly all time-settlement computations.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory

• To keep the computational process from becoming too
complex, the assumptions for the derivation of the theory for the
time rate of settlement are:
– The soil is saturated, isotropic, and homogeneous.
– Darcy’s law is valid.
– Flow only occurs vertically.
– The strains are small.
• Moreover, we will rely on the following observations that are
linked to the previous assumptions:
– The change in volume of the soil (DV) is equal to the change in volume of
porewater expelled (DVw), which is equal to the change in the volume of
the voids (DVv).
– Since the area of the soil is constant (the soil is laterally constrained),
the change in volume is directly proportional to the change in height.
– At any depth, the change in vertical effective stress is equal to the
change in excess porewater pressure at that depth. That is ∂z=∂u.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• We will consider a soil element of thickness dz and cross-sectional area
dA = dxdy.
• Since the flow is vertical, the inflow of water is
qv dA
and the outflow over the elemental thickness dz is
 qv   qv / z  dz  dA
The change in flow is then
(qv   qv / z  dz )dA  qv dA   qv / z  dzdA
The rate of change in volume of water expelled, which is

equal to the rate of change of volume of the soil, must equal
the change in flow. That is,
V qv
 dzdA
t z
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
V e
Recall that the volumetric strain is ep  
V 1  eo
e
Rearranging for V=dzdA, we get V  dzdA
1  eo
De z De 1 e
Remembering mv     m  
 z 2   z 1 1  eo D  1  eo v
e
Therefore V  dzdA  mv dzdA  mvudzdA
1  eo
Inserting this equation into
qv u
We get  mv V qv
z t  dzdA
t z
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
h
Darcy’s law for one-dimensional flow is qv  Ak z i  Ak z
z
qv  2h
Partial differentiation of this equation with respect to z is  kz
z z 2
The pore water pressure is u  h w
 2h 1  2u
Twice partial differentiation of this equation with respect to z yields 
z 2  w z 2
qv  2h qv k z  2u

By substituting into  kz we get
z  w z 2
z z 2
Equating qv  u m to
qv k z  2u

v
z t z  w z 2
u k  2u
we get  z
t mv w z 2
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
u k  2u kz u  2u
 z for  Cv  Cv
t mv w z 2 mv w t z 2
General equation for one-dimensional consolidation
• Cv is called the coefficient of consolidation.

• The units for Cv length2/time (i.e. m2/year).
• This equation describes the spatial variation of excess porewater pressure ( Du)
with time (t) and depth (z).
• This equation is sometimes called “Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation
equation” because Terzaghi (1925) developed it.
• In the derivation, it has been assumed that kz and mv are constants. This is not
the case since kz decreases as e decreases and mv is not linearly related to z.
Therefore, in reality, Cv is not constant.
• In practice Cv is assumed to be constant throughout the depth of the soil and
with time and this assumption is reasonable for small stress changes.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution of consolidation equation
• In order to obtain the solution for the spatial variation of excess

porewater pressure with time and depth, initial distribution of excess
porewater pressures at the boundaries should be specified.
• Various distributions of porewater pressure are possible. Two of
these are:
– Uniform distribution of initial excess porewater pressure with depth
– Triangular distribution of initial excess porewater pressure with depth
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• The boundary conditions for a uniform distribution of initial excess
porewater pressure in which double drainage occurs are
– When t = 0, Du = Duo = Dz.
– At the top boundary, z = 0, Du = 0.
– At the bottom boundary, z = 2Hdr, Du = 0 where Hdr is the length of the
drainage path.
u  2u
 Cv
t z 2
A solution for the governing consolidation equation which satisfies these boundary
conditions is obtained using the Fourier series:
  Mz 
Du  z, t   
2Duo
m 0 M
sin  
 exp  M Tv
 H dr 
2

where M=(/2)(2m+1) and m is a positive integer with values from 0 to ∞ and
Cvt
Tv  2 where Tv is known as the time factor; it is a dimensionless term.
H dr
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
A plot of the solution for the governing consolidation equation
  Mz 
Du  z, t   
2Duo
m 0 M
sin  
 exp  M Tv
 H dr 
2

gives the variation of excess porewater pressure with depth at different times.
For example, below a plot for an arbitrarily selected isochrone at any time t (or
time factor Tv) is shown:
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution
u
of consolidation equation
u0 • At time t = 0 (Tv = 0) the initial excess
porewater pressure (Duo) is equal to the
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
2.0
applied vertical stress throughout the soil
05 layer.
1.5 0.

1
0.
Tv • As soon as drainage occurs, the initial excess

0.
0.3
0.6
0.5
z/H 1.0 0.4
0.7
0.9
porewater pressure will immediately drop to
0.8
zero at the permeable boundaries.
0.5
• The maximum excess porewater pressure
0 occurs at the center since the drainage path
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 there is the longest.

Uz 
uo
• At time t >0, the total applied vertical stress increment Dz at a depth z is equal to the
sum of vertical effective stress increment, D′z, and excess porewater pressure, Duz.
• At time t→∞, the excess porewater pressure decreases to zero ( Duz=0) and the vertical
effective stress increment becomes equal to the vertical total stress increment
(D′z=Dz).
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

  Mz 
D z
Uz 
Duo
Du
 1 z  1 
Duo
2
m 0 M
sin   exp  M Tv
 H dr 
2
 
• The amount of consolidation completed at a particular time and
depth is defined as
• Uz is called the degree of consolidation or consolidation ratio.

• At t =0, Uz=0
• At t →∞, Uz=1
• A geotechnical engineer is often concerned with the average degree of
consolidation, U, of a whole layer at a particular time rather than the
consolidation at a particular depth.

 M 2 exp  M 2Tv 
2
U  1
m 0
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

The variation of the average degree of consolidation

U  1 
m 0 M
2
2 
exp  M 2Tv 
with time factor Tv for a uniform and a triangular distribution of excess porewater
pressure:
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Equations relating Tv to U, , are obtained by curve fitting to the figure. These are,
for double drainage
2
 U 
Tv    for U  60%
4  100 
Tv  1.781  0.933log 100  U  for U  60%
The time factors corresponding to 50% and 90% consolidation are often used in
interpreting consolidation test results. These are Tv =0.848 for 90% and Tv =0.197
for 50% consolidation.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 7: A 10m depth of sand overlies an 8m layer of clay, below which is a
further depth of sand. For the clay, mv=0.83m2/MN and Cv=4.4m2/year.
The water table is at surface level but is to be lowered permenantly by
4m, the initial lowering taking place over a period of 40 weeks.
Calculate
a) the final settlement due to consolidation of the clay and
b) the settlement 2 years after the start of lowering.
Initial gwt
4m
Final gwt
10m sand
clay
8m mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year
sand
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CE431 Initial gwt Çinicioğlu

4m
Solution: Final gwt
10m sand
clay
8m mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year
sand
The change in the vertical effective stress due to the lowering of the groundwater table
D z  4m   w  4  9.8kN / m3  39.2kPa
Then, the final consolidation settlement is found as
r pc  mv D z H  0.83m2 / MN  39.2kPa  8m  260mm
The lowering of the groundwater table takes 40 weeks. Therefore the time for
consolidation should be corrected. Thus
1  40 
t  2     1.615 years
2  52 
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Solution (cont.): 8m
t  1.615 years and under double drainage d   4m
2
Cvt 4.4 1.615
then Tv    0.444
d2 42
From the curve
Initial gwt
4m
Final gwt
10m sand
clay
8m mv=0.83m2/MN
Cv=4.4m2/year
sand
or from the equations

2
 U 
0.444     U  0.75 for U  60% Incorrect
4  100 
0.444  1.781  0.933log 100  U   U  0.73 for U  60% Correct
U  0.73
Settlement after 2 years  U  r pc  0.73  260mm  190mm
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Example 8: A layer of saturated clay is 10m thick, the lower boundary being
impermeable; an embankment is to be constructed above the clay.
The coefficient of consolidation for the clay is Cv=9.6m2/year.
Determine the time required for 90% consolidation of the clay layer.
Solution:
U  0.90  Tv  0.848
or use Tv  1.781  0.933log 100  90  =0.848 for U  60%
Tv d 2 0.848 102
Therefore t   8.8 years
Cv 9.6
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Example 9: A 12m thick saturated clay stratum with double drainage is to be
subjected to a Dz of 75kPa. The coefficient of consolidation in this
soil is 3.5x10-3m2/day. Using the plot of the solution of the governing
consolidation equation, compute the excess porewater pressure at a
point 2.7m above the bottom of this stratum 10 years after the
placement of the load.
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Solution:
Due to double drainage condition
H 12m zdr 2.7m
H dr    6m   0.45
2 2 H dr 6m
Cvt 3.5 103 m2 day  10 yr   365day year  
Tv    0.3549
2
H dr  6m  2
From the figure
ue D z  0.34
Thus
ue
ue  D z  0.34  75kPa 
D z
ue  25.5kPa
533
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Example 10: For a normally consolidated clay specimen drained on both sides,
the following are given:
‫׳‬o=150kN/m2, e=eo=1.1
‫׳‬o+ D‫=׳‬300kN/m2, e=0.9
Thickness of clay specimen = 25mm
Time for 50% consolidation = 2min.
a. Determine the hydraulic conductivity (in minutes) of the clay for
the loading range.
b. How long (in days) will it take for a 1.8m clay layer in the field
(drained on one side) to reach 60% consolidation?
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution: k
cv   k  cv mv w
a. mv w
Desired To be
parameter calculated
De 1
The coefficient of compressibility (mv) is mv 
1  eo D 
1.1  0.9
De  1.1  0.9  0.2 D   300 150  150kPa eo  eav  1
2
De 1 0.2 1 For U  50%  Tv  0.197
mv    6.35 104 m2 kN
1  eo D  1  1150
2
cvt Tv H dr
Tv  2
 cv  
H dr t
2
 25 
0.197   
  2 1000  
2
cv  1.53  105 m 2 min
  
k  cv mv w  1.53 105 6.35 104  9.81  95.3 109 m min
535
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Solution:
b. 2
cvt60 T60 H dr
T60  2
 t60 
H dr cv
For U  60%  Tv  0.287

2
 25 
2 0.287   
T60 H dr  2 1000 
t60    60565min  42days
cv 1.53 105
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Secondary compression settlement

On the e-logt plot, primary consolidation is assumed to end at the intersection
of the two straight parts of the curve.
The secondary compression index is C  

 et  e p   De ; t  tp
log  t t p  log  t t p 
t p , e p   coordinate at the intersection of the tangents to the primary consolidation and secondary compression parts
 t , et   coordinate at any point on the secondary compression curve 537
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Secondary compression settlement
The secondary compression settlement is

Ho  t 
r sc  C log  
1  e p   tp 
 
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Coefficient of Consolidation
• Terzaghi theory lumps all of the soil parameters (other than
drainage distance) into on parameter, the coefficient of
consolidation, cv.
• Since cv is dependent on k, cv is very small in clays and very
large in sands.
• We need to have some means of measuring cv before we
can perform time-settlement analyses.
• One method of doing so might be to assess each of the
parameters in cv=k/(mvw) and calculate cv. However this
rarely done because it requires conducting more than one
test.
• Instead, engineers usually measure the rate of consolidation
in a laboratory consolidation test and back-calculate cv by
performing a time-settlement analysis in reverse.
• Because Hdr in the lab is very small, the rate of consolidation
is much faster than that in the field, but cv should, in theory,
be equal to the field value. 539
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Determination of the coefficient of consolidation
• There are two popular methods that can be used to calculate
Cv:
– Square root of time fitting method proposed by Taylor (1948)
– Log time method proposed by Casagrande and Fadum (1940)
• Both these methods use oedometer data and measure Cv
graphically. Both these methods are explained in any Soil
Mechanics textbook.
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• One of the special curve-fitting methods to obtain cv from laboratory
data is the square root of time fitting method developed by Taylor
(1948).
• This method is as follows using the results of an oedometer test:
1. Plot the displacement gauge reading versus square root of times.
541
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2. The initial portion of the curve should be fairly straight. If there
is no data point for t=0 extrapolate it back to t1/2=0. This locates
point O.
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3. Draw the best straight line through the initial part of the curve
intersecting the ordinate (displacement reading) at O and the
abscissa (time1/2) at A.
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4. Note the time at point A; let us say it is tA
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5. Locate a point B, 1.15 t A , on the abscissa.
545
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6. Join OB.
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7. The intersection of the line OB with the curve, point C, gives
the displacement gauge reading and the time for 90%
consolidation (t90). You should note that the value read off the
abscissa is t
90
cvt
Now from Tv  2
H dr
knowing that U  90%, Tv  0.848,
we obtain
2
0.848H dr
cv 
t90
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• Casagrande presented another commonly used method of
finding cv from laboratory test data. As explained previously, it
is called the logarithm of time fitting method.
• This method plots the data on a settlement vs. log time
diagram and locates the point where U=100%.
• The procedure then locates U=50% and the corresponding
time, t50.
• Most geotechnical engineers prefer the square root of time
method because it permits the next load to be placed as soon
t90 has been reached, whereas the logarithm of time method
requires the load be left on long enough to identify t100.
• Since consolidation tests are very long anyway, this difference
can have a significant impact on the cost of performing the
test.
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Determination of the preconsolidation pressure
Using the method proposed by Casagrande (1936), preconsolidation pressure can
be obtained from a e-log′z graph. The procedure is as follows:
1. Identify the point of maximum curvature, point D, on the initial part of the
curve.
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2. Draw a horizontal line through D and then draw a tangent to the curve at D.
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3. Bisect the angle formed by the tangent and the horizontal line at D.
551
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4. Extend backward the straight portion of the curve (ncl) BA to intersect the
bisector line at F. The abscissa of F is the preconsolidation pressure, ′zc.
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Relationship between laboratory and field

consolidation
• If two layers of the same clay have the same degree of

consolidation, then their time factors and coefficients of
consolidation are the same. Hence
Ct Cvt field
Tv  v lab   Tv
lab 2
H dr lab   field
2
H dr field
and, by simplification
t field  H dr2  field


tlab  H dr2 lab
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Example 11: In an oedometer test a specimen of saturated clay 19mm thick reaches
50% consolidation in 20min.
a) How long would it take a layer of this clay 5m thick to reach the
same degree of consolidation under the same stress and drainage
conditions?
b) How long would it take the layer to reach 30% consolidation?
H2
Solution: Using t field  dr   field
2 tlab  H dr lab
5000mm
 H dr  field   2500mm
2
Due to double drainage conditions
19mm
 H dr lab   9.5mm
2
  field  2500mm2
2
H dr
20 min
Thus t field  tlab    2.63 years
 H dr lab
2
19.5mm  2
 60 min 24 hr  365days 
It takes 2.63 years for the layer in the field to reach 50% consolidation.
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Solution (cont.):
The time for the layer in the field to reach 30% consolidation.
 Cvt
Since Tv  U 2 (for U  60%) and Tv  2
4 H dr
Cvt1

Tv1  H dr 2 U2
t1 4 1
Then   
Tv2 Cvt2 t2  U 2
2
 H dr  2 4
0.302
So t0.30  t0.50  2.63 years  0.36  0.95 years
0.502
555
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Example 12: The data shown in the table below were obtained from a laboratory
consolidation test on a normally consolidated clay.i The sample was
62mm in diameter, 25mm tall and was tested under a double
drainage condition. Compute cv.
time
hour minute second dial reading (mm)
0 1 1 7.21
0 3 16 7.74
0 8 35 8.4
0 16 39 9.01
0 30 15 9.6
0 59 17 10.11
1 54 29 10.35
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CE431 time Çinicioğlu

0.5
hour minute second time (min) sqrt[time] (min ) dial reading (mm)
Solution: 0 1 1 1.02 1.01 7.21
0 3 16 3.27 1.81 7.74
0 8 35 8.58 2.93 8.4
0 16 39 16.65 4.08 9.01
0 30 15 30.25 5.50 9.6
0 59 17 59.28 7.70 10.11
1 54 29 54.48 7.38 10.35
557
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.):
t90  5.7  t90  32 min  0.022day
cvt90 cv  0.022day 
T90  2
 0.848  2
 6 103 m2 day
H dr  25 
 
 2 1000 
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Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement
• When highly compressible layers are present and large consolidation settlemtns are
expected after loading, precompression of the soil may be used to minimize
postconstruction settlement.
• In many instances, sand drains and prefabricated vertical drains are used in the
field to accelerate consolidation settlement in soft, normally consolidated clay layers
and to achieve precompression before the construction of a desired foundation.
• Sand drains are constructed by drilling holes through the clay layer(s) in the field at
regular intervals. The holes then are backfilled with sand.
• After backfilling the drill holes with sand, a surcharge is applied at the ground
surface.
• This surcharge will increase the pwp in clay, which will dissipate by drainage –both
vertically and radially to the drains- which accelerates the settlement of the clay
layer.
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Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement
• Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs), which also are referred to as wick or
strip drains, originally were developed as a substitute for the commonly
used sand drain.
• These drains are manufactured from synthetic polymers.
• PVDs normally are manufactured with a corrugated or channeled synthetic
core enclosed by a geotextile filter.
• Installation rates reported in the literature are on the order of 0.1 to 0.3m/s,
excluding equipment mobilization and setup time.
• The main advantage of PVDs over sand drains is that they do not require
drilling and, thus, installation is much faster.
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Shear Strength of Soils
561
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Strength
• Many geotechnical engineering problems require an assessment
of shear strength, including:
Earth slopes
Structural foundations
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Strength
• Many geotechnical engineering problems require an assessment of
shear strength, including:
Retaining walls
Tunnel linings Highway pavements
563
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Shear Strength of Soils

• The shear strength of common engineering materials (steel,
concrete, etc.) is controlled by their internal (molecular) strength.
• However, since soil is a particulate material, shear failure occurs
when the stresses between particles are such that they slide or
roll past each other.
• Therefore, soil shear strength primarily depends on interactions
between the particles, not on their internal strength.
• These interactions are divided into two categories:
– Frictional strength
– Cohesive strength
t
t 564
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Frictional strength
• Frictional strength is similar to classical sliding friction from basic
physics.
• However, instead of using the coefficient of friction, m,
geotechnical engineers prefer to describe frictional strength
using the effective friction angle, f′, where
f   tan 1 m
• Additionally, geotechnical engineers work in terms of stress instead of
force, so the shear strength, tf, due to friction is
Effective stress acting

t f   n tan f  Effective friction angle
on the shear plane

′n
t
N
t
mN
′n
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Frictional strength
t f   n tan f 
• As shown by the equation, strength is expressed in terms of

effective stresses since only the solid particles contribute to
frictional strength and effective stress describes the normal stress
carried by solid particles (water cannot sustain shear).
• Sometimes soils are referred to as f =0 as an analytical tool
(shown later), however, in reality all soils have frictional strength.
• The value of f′ depends on both the frictional properties of the
individual particles and the interlocking between particles. These
are affected by many factor, such as
– Mineralogy
– Shape
– Gradation
– Void ratio
– Organic material
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Cohesive strength
• Some soils have shear strength even when the effective stress is zero.
This strength is called cohesive strength.
• Cohesive strength is described using the variable c′, the effective
cohesion.
• If a soil has both frictional and cohesive strength, then shear strength is
given as t f  c    tan f 
• There are two types of cohesive strength:
– True cohesion is the shear strength that is truly the result of bonding between
the soil particles. These bonds include the following
• Cementation
• Electrostatic or electromagnetic attractions
• Adhesion (a type of cold welding as a result of overconsolidation)
– Apparent cohesion appears to be caused by bonding between the soil
particles, but is really frictional strength in disguise. Sources are
• Negative pore water pressure that have not been considered in the stress
analysis
• Negative excess pore water pressures due to dilation
• Apparent mechanical forces due to particle interlocking
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Definition of failure in soils

• For engineering materials such as steel, failure is defined as either the point
where the stress-strain curve becomes plastic and nonlinear (yield strength),
or when rupture occurs (ultimate strength).
• However, in soils the stress-strain curve is nonlinear and plastic from the
very beginning, and there is no rupture point in the classical sense.
Therefore, we must use other means of defining shear strength.
Soils have two types of stress-strain curves
t t
tf tpeak
tresidual
Shear strain,  Shear strain, 

Ductile soil Brittle soil
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Definition of failure in soils
• Ductile soils have well-defined peak strength that can be used as the design
shear strength.
• Brittle soils have two strengths:
– Peak strength is the highest point on the curve
– Residual strength (or ultimate strength) occurs at high values of shear strain
(should be preferred in design)
• Moreover, many different stress-strain responses from the same soil sample
depending on the testing method, complicating the definition of design
strength.
• Geotechnical engineers attempt to overcome this problem by using test
conditions that simulate the field conditions or by using standardized test
conditions and calibrating the results according to the field.
t t
tf tpeak
tresidual

Ductile soil Brittle soil 569
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

• Projecting the Coulomb type strength variables (c′ and
f′) on the Mohr plane, it is possible to quantitatively
compare the field conditions to failure states.
This may be done using
Effective stress analyses Total stress analyses
t f  c    tan f  t f  c   tan f
• Uses effective stress variable • Uses total stress variables that are
obtained using total stresses
• Better results
• Applicable when the magnitude of • Demands laboratory tests
the pore water pressure is known • Necessary when the magnitude of
pore water pressure is not known
• Results need to be viewed with
more skepticism
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Effective stress analyses

• Since only solids can sustain shear in soils, it is reasonable to
evaluate strength problems using effective stress, ′.
• If we perform a series of laboratory strength tests, each at a
different value of ′, then the results will be as shown.
Data points obtained from the test
Best fit curve
Idealized linear function
tf tf
f′
f′
c′
′ ′
Sand and gravels Clay
Since the slightly nonlinear plots obtained from clays are practically
inconvenient. Therefore for the stress ranges of interest, they are
taken as idealized linear functions.
571
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• The line in the figure is known as the Mohr-Coulomb
Failure Criterion and is expressed by using
t f  c    tan f 
Slope of the line is the

effective friction angle
tf
f′
t intercept of the
line is the
effective cohesion
c′
′
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• Shear strength is defined as the shear
stress at shear failure. tf
pe
f′
• Soil stress states (,t ) that plot below lo
the Mohr-Coulomb line will not fail in e nve
ilu re
shear, while those that plot on or Fa
above the line will fail.
• Mohr-Coulomb line is called the failure
envelope because it encloses the c′
stresses that will not fail. ′
• When the stress state is such that the Point of shear e
Mohr circle formed touches the failure f
t failure ilur
Fa lope
ve f ′
envelope, that means the soil fails en
under that stress state.
• The ratio of the shear strength on a
specific plane to the shear stress on
that plane is defined as the factor of c′
safety t f ′3 ′1 ′
F .S . 
t 573
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Example 1: Direct shear tests have been conducted on a soil sample obtained
from the field. The results are as follows:
 (kPa) t (kPa)
25 20
50 30
100 55
Using this data, check if soil at point A fails or not (assume principal stresses act
vertically and horizontally).
=15kN/m3
2.5m
3.5m
A sat=19kN/m3
Ko=0.6
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Solution: Plotting the data on a t graph, the failure envelope can be obtained.
Direct shear test - calculated results
60
50
Shear stress (kPa)
40
30
20
36kPa – 8kPa = 28kPa
10
c = 8kPa 60kPa
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Normal stress (kPa)
 28 
f   tan 1    28
 60 
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CE431 =15kN/m3
Çinicioğlu
2.5m
3.5m
Solution (cont.):
A sat=19kN/m3
c′=8kPa
f′=25°
Ko=0.6

 z  1  2.5m 15kN / m3  1m  19kN / m3  9.8kN / m3  46.7kPa 
 x   2  K0   z  0.6  46.7kPa  28kPa
Direct shear test - calculated results
60
50
Shear stress (kPa)
40 Since the Mohr circle

30
is not touching the
failure envelope, the
20
soil is not failing.
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Normal stress (kPa)
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 2: The effective stress at a certain plane in a soil is 120kPa, the
effective cohesion is 10kPa, and the effective friction angle is 31°. A
foundation to be built nearby will induce a shear stress of 50kPa on
this plane. Compute the factor of safety against shear failure.
Solution:
t f  c    tan f   10  120  tan 31  82kPa
tf 82kPa
F .S .    1.6
t 50kPa
577
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Example 3: Compute the shear strength on a horizontal plane at point C in
Example 5 of two-dimensional flow chapter. According to the flow net
analysis, the groundwater flow in the soil at point C will be upward.
sat=20kN/m3, c′=0 and f′=34. If Ko is 0.6, then calculate the F.S.
against shear failure for the plane on which the maximum shear stress
acts.
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Solution:
N f  5 and Nd  11
DH 5.5m
Dh    0.5m
Nd 11
 he C  2.5m  ht C  5.5m  8.6  0.5m  1.2m
 hp C   ht C   he C  1.2m   2.5m  3.7m
uc   h p   w  3.7m  9.8kN / m3  36kPa
C
 
 z   z  uC  2.5m  20kN / m3  36kPa  14kPa
C C
t f  c   z tan f   0kPa  14kPa  tan 34  9.5kPa

C
579
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Solution (cont.):
Since the flow at point C is vertical, then we can take the vertical and horizontal
directions as the principal directions. Then
 z  1 and  x   z  Ko  14kPa  0.6  8.4kPa   3
C C C C C
1   3 14  8.4
t max  C C
  2.8kPa
C
2 2
If the normal stress acting on the plane of maximum shear stress, then
1   3 14  8.4
 A    11.2kPa
2 2
Shear strength on this plane is
t f   A tan f   11.2  tan 34  7.5kPa

Then F.S. on this plane is
t f 7.5kPa
F .S .    2.7
t 2.8kPa
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CE431 ′A Çinicioğlu

′B
Solution (cont.):
tmax  tBA tmax  tAB
This can also be solved graphically
tmax ′1
′A tmax ′B
′3 ′3
qz ′1
t
10
(′A, tf)
5
(′A, tmax)
f′=34
2qz
3′ 1′
5 10 15 ′
(′B, tmax)
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Total stress analyses
• When the excess pore water pressures are not measured and cannot
be predicted, geotechnical engineers may evaluate problems based on
total stresses instead of effective stresses.
• This approach involves expressing the lab data in terms of total
stresses, such that
t f  c   tan f Total friction angle
Shear strength Total cohesion Total stress acting
on the shear surface
• The total stress analysis method assumes the excess pore water pressures
developed in the lab are the same as those in the field, and thus implicitly
incorporated into c and f.
• This assumption introduces some error in the analysis, but it becomes an unfortunate
necessity when the excess pore water pressures cannot be predicted.
• Total stress analysis demands the laboratory tests be conducted in a way that
simulates the field conditions as closely as possible.
• Soil strength depends on effective stresses, so total stress analysis is less desirable
and its results should be used with skepticism.
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Shear strength of saturated sands and gravels

• Little or no excess pore water pressure occurs in clean sands
and gravels under static loading conditions due to their high
hydraulic conductivities.
• Therefore, the pore water pressure is equal to the hydrostatic
pore water pressure and shear strength analyses may be
based on effective stresses.
• If no cementing agents or clay is present, saturated sands and
gravels should have c′ =0.
• Effective friction angle, f′, is determined by conducting field or
laboratory tests.
• If cementing agents or clay is present, then c′ will be greater
than zero.
• However, to remain on the conservative side, generally this
additional strength is ignored. The reason is that the cementing
agents may be water soluble or it may be a consequence of
apparent cohesion.
583
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Changes in the stress state and F.S.
during construction activity in sand
t
• In most geotechnical design problems, the z
shear and normal stresses change
simultaneously, so ′ and F.S. at the
beginning of loading is different from that t
at the end. u
• For sands, this relationship is not
complicated because of the high hydraulic
conductivity. t
P
• In sands, the pore water pressure remains ′z
virtually constant because of the rapid
drainage, so the vertical effective stress,
′z increases at the same rate as z.
Moreover, t and tf increases concurrently
t
• tf
A
during construction. Thus F.S. is greater at
the end of construction.
• So, for soils with high hydraulic
t
conductivity, changes in the soil occur t
during construction.
• The opposite condition occurs when the
soil is unloaded. In this case stresses
decrease with during construction. t
F.S.
• As a result, for design purposes in sand,
we can use post-construction ′
t 584
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Liquefaction
• In sands, excess pore water pressure (generated as a
result of construction activity) drains instantaneously
when compared to the pace of the construction.
• However, especially in case of earthquake loading, the
rate of loading is sometimes so rapid that even
cohesionless soils cannot drain quickly enough.
• This is especially problematic in loose, saturated sands
because they tend to compress when loaded, which
normally would force some water out of the voids.
• However, because the loading occurs so quickly, the
water cannot easily drain away and positive excess
pore water pressures develop instead.
• As a result, both the effective stress and the strength
decrease.
• Sometimes, the effective stress drops to zero, which
means the soil loses all its shear strength and thus
behaves as a dense liquid.
• We call this phenomenon soil liquefaction.
• Geotechnical engineers should be aware of liquefaction Du Du
potential since it may lead to catastrophic Du Du
consequences. Du Du Du Du
585
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Shear strength of saturated clays and silts
• Shear strength assessments in clays and silts are

more difficult than those in sands and gravels
becasue:
– Clay particles undergo more significant changes
during shear
– The low hydraulic conductivity impedes the flow of
water into and out of the voids, so significant
excess pore water pressures often develop in the
soil
– Moreover, saturated clays and silts are generally
weaker than sands and gravels, and thus are
more likely to cause problems.
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Drained and Undrained Conditions

• When the excess pore water pressures dissipate
instantaneosly as a result of high hydraulic
conductivity (relative to the construction rate), then
this is a drained condition.
• Sands and gravels are generally under drained
condition during construction activity. So any
increment of load results in an increment in both total
stresses and effective stresses.
• Pore water pressure does not change during drained
loading.
• The previous discussion on the shear strength of
sands and gravels assumed drained condition.
587
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• When the excess pore water pressures dissipate in a
very long time as a result of low hydraulic
conductivity (relative to the construction rate), then
this is an undrained condition.
• During construction activity, clay and silt soils are
generally under undrained conditions. So load
increments are carried by the pore water increasing
the pore water pressure.
• Thus effective stresses reach their final value after a
long time (depending on the drainage length and
hydraulic conductivity).
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Changes in stresses and F.S. during loading of a saturated clay
Drained condition Undrained condition
(very slow loading) (normal rate of loading)
P P
t t
z z
t t
u u
P
t t
′z ′z
Clay A
t t
tf tf
t t
t t
t t
F.S. F.S.
t t 589
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CE431
Changes in stresses and F.S. during unloading of a saturated clay Çinicioğlu
Drained condition Undrained condition
(very slow unloading) (normal rate of unloading)
P P
t t
z z
t t
u u
t t
′z ′z
Clay A
t t
tf tf
t t
t t
t t
F.S. F.S.
t t 590
CE431 Çinicioğlu

• When performing shear strength analyses, it is
important to properly assess the drainage conditions
that will occur in the field because this assessment
determines how we will degine the shear strength.
There are three possibilities:
i. Drained conditions
ii. Undrained conditions with positive excess pore water
pressures
iii. Undrained conditions with negative excess pore water
pressures
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Shear strength – Drained conditions

• Simplest case since there are no excess pore water
N N
pressures as shown previously.
Tf
soil
• Method of evaluation: Ti soil
– Obtain c′ and f′ by testing

– Calculate ′ using hydrostatic pore water pressures (using
post-construction conditions)
– Using Mohr-Coulomb equation, calculate tf. t f  c    tan f 
• Drained method can be used to evaluate long-term
stability since the pore pressures would have been
completely dissipated.
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Shear strength – Drained conditions

• Clays and silts that are normally consolidated and
uncemented have c′ = 0.
• Sands are almost always cohesionless (if
uncemented).
• Since overconsolidation produces true cohesion,
failure envelope of overconsolidated silts and clays lie
above the normally consolidated failure envelope.
• The two plots join when the effective stress equals the
preconsolidation
t stress, ′zc.
dated
onsoli
nsolid ated ally c
N o rm
Overco
′zc ′ 593
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Shear strength – Undrained conditions – (+) uex

• If the new and rapid construction causes an increase in normal
stress, then the excess pore water pressures will be positive
(construction of dams, footings, embankments, etc.).
• As discussed previously, when a structural foundation is being
built on a saturated clay or silt, the excess pore water pressures
build up during construction, then slowly dissipate.
• As a result, the lowest F.S. occurs immediately after
construction. At this point, shear strength is at its initial low
value but the full shear stresses (that have increased as a
result of loading) are already present.
• It is necessary to make sure that this F.S. is adequate, so the
end-of-construction shear strength should be evaluated.
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• Under undrained conditions, it is difficult to predict the magnitude of the

excess pore water pressures, especially those that are due to shearing.
• Accordingly, we cannot compute the value of ′. Therefore, it is necessary to
resort to total stress analysis and compute shear strength using
t f  c   tan f
• If the soil is saturated and the loading is completely undrained, then f =0
(even though f′ >0) because newly applied loads are carried entirely by the
pore water and do not change ′.
• As a result of f =0 condition, second term of strength equation drops and it
is no longer necessary to calculate . This is called f =0 analysis.
• The shear strength in f =0 analysis is called the undrained shear
strength, su. This is a misnomer. Undrained shear strength is the
su  c Total cohesion strength of the soil under its preloading condition.
The strength does not change during undrained
loading since the structure does not change during
undrained loading. 595
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• su is a function of void ratio and OCR. In other words,
undrained strength is a function of the soil’s density
(stresses) and structure (stress history).
• During undrained loading ′ does not change, so the
stresses just before loading becomes the undrained
shear strength.
• su generally increases with depth because the lower
portions of a strata are consolidated to smaller void
ratios.
• The near surface soils may have higher strengths if
they had once dried out (dessiccated) and formed a
crust
• The natural non-uniformaties in a soil strata may also
produce variations in su.
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Shear strength – Undrained conditions – (-) uex
• When the construction causes the normal stress in a saturated clay or silt to
decrease, negative excess pore water pressures develop (i.e. excavation).
• This negative pore water pressure gradually dissipates. But during the
dissipation ′ decreases, and accordingly the soil swells increasing the void
ratio.
      uhydrostatic  uex        uhydrostatic  uex just after unloading
      uhydrostatic        uhydrostatic long time after unloading
• Consequently, greater void ratio means lower strength.
• For the case of undrained loading with positive pore water pressures,
lowest F.S. occurs immediately after construction. This is a desirable
characteristic because F.S. increases in the lifetime of the structure.
• However, for the case of undrained unloading (negative pore water
pressures), F.S. decreases with time, which is potentially much more
dangerous.
• Since the lowest F.S. occurs after the excess pore water pressures
dissipated, this condition needs to be evaluated using an effective stress
analysis with the post-construction effective stresses (long-term stability). 597
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Example 4:
A new building is to be built that will be underlain by a saturated clay. Undisturbed
samples have been obtained from this site and are ready to be tested. Should the
laboratory test program focus on producing values of c′ and f′, or su?
Example 5:
A steep excavation has been made in a saturated clay without the benefit of a slope
stability analysis. It was completed one week ago, and thus far has not shown any
signs of instability. Several people working on this project believe this is an adequate
demonstration of its stability, and feel it is safe. Do you agree?
Example 6:
A 5m thick fill has recently been placed over a clayey wetlands to support a new
highway. The groundwater table is at ornear the natural ground surface. Soon after the
fill was completed, but before the paving began, a small landslide occured in the fill
and the underlying soils. The slope failed, so its F.S. was, by definition, equal to 1.0.
Unfortunately, a sudden budget crisis stopped all work on the project and nothing was
done for ten years. Then, a new source of funding permitted construction to resume. Is
the F.S. still equal to 1.0? Will remedial construction definitely be necessary to
increase the factor of safety? What should be done to evaluate this situation?
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Example 7: An embankment is constructed on the soil profile shown. At the end
of the construction shear stress acting at point A is 20kPa. Calculate
i. Short-term
ii. Long –term
factor of safeties against sliding at point A. (Consider the potential
sliding surface to be horizontal at point A.)
embankment=17kN/m3
3m 1m
A
clay=20kN/m3 su = 35kPa
f′ =20
c′ = 30kPa
599
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CE431 embankment=17kN/m3 Çinicioğlu
Solution:
3m 1m
A
clay=20kN/m3 su = 35kPa
f′ =20
c′ = 30kPa
Short-term F.S. means immediately after the completion of construction work. At
that time, positive excess pore water pressure does not have sufficient time to
dissipate. That means the problem is undrained loading problem. The F.S.
immediately after the construction is then
t f su 35kPa
Short-term F .S.     1.75
t t 20kPa
Long-term F.S. corresponds to the drained condition since there is sufficient time
for the excess pore water pressure to dissipate. Then the long-term F.S. is
 z  3m 17kN / m3  1m   20  9.8 kN / m3  61.2kPa
t f  c   z tan f   30kPa  61.2kPa  tan 20  52kPa
t f 52kPa
Long-term F .S .    2.6
t 20kPa
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Example 8: An excavation is made in the soil profile shown. At the end of the
excavation, shear stress acting at point A is 30kPa. Calculate
i. Short-term
ii. Long –term
factor of safeties against sliding at point A. (Consider the potential
sliding surface to be horizontal at point A.)
clay=16kN/m3
1m
2m su = 50kPa
A
f′ =20
clay=20kN/m 3 c′ = 30kPa
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CE431 clay=16kN/m3 Çinicioğlu
Solution:
1m
2m su = 50kPa
A
f′ =20
clay=20kN/m3 c′ = 30kPa
Short-term F.S. means immediately after the completion of excavation. At that time,
negative excess pore water pressure does not have sufficient time to dissipate. That
means the problem is undrained unloading problem. The F.S. immediately after the
construction is then
t f su 50kPa
Short-term F .S .     1.7
t t 30kPa
Long-term F.S. corresponds to the drained condition since there is sufficient time
for the excess pore water pressure to dissipate. Then the long-term F.S. is
 z  1m 16kN / m3  2m   20  9.8 kN / m3  36.4kPa
t f  c   z tan f   30kPa  36.4kPa  tan 20  43kPa
t f 43kPa
Long-term F .S .    1.4
t 30kPa
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Sensitivity
• Some clays lose their strength when disturbed or remolded, even
though their moisture content does not change.
• If this strength loss is very large, then these clays are called highly
sensitive.
• This behavior occurs due to the destruction of the delicate structure
of clays. The sensitivities of some extra quick clays may even be
greater than 100.
• The degree of sensitivity is defined as
su
St  undisturbed
su
disturbed
classification St
low sensitivity 2-4
medium sensitivity 4-8
high sensitivity 8-16
quick >16
603
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Residual strength
• Most normally consolidated clays are slightly ductile with residual strengths
slightly less than the peak strength.
• Overconsolidated clays nearly always have a brittle stress-strain curve, with
the residual strength significantly less than the peak strength.
• This is due to the strain softening behavior which is largely due to particle
reorientation and a breakdown of soil fabric. Moreover, this is a result of
dilatant behavior.
• In sensitive clays, the residual strength can be much less than the peak
strength.
t t
tf tpeak
tresidual

Ductile soil Brittle soil 604
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Residual strength
t
f′
• Brittle soils have two strengths
– Peak strength (c′ and f′) f′r
– Residual strength (c′r and f′r) c′
c′r
′
• When designing, geotechnical engineers should be
aware of the residual strength and preferably (and
conservatively) should design using the residual as the
design strength.
• Otherwise, during the lifetime of the structure soil
strength can drop to the residual value decreasing the
F.S.
• This is especially important in slope stability and
landslide analysis problems.
605
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Fissured clays
• Many stiff clays contain small cracks known as fissures.
• The strength along these fissures is less than that of the intact
soil.
• As a result, shear failures are more probable to occur in the
vicinity of the fissured areas.
• Geotechnical engineers should be careful when evaluating lab
test results since soil samples may have been obtained from
the unfissured part of the soil layer. As a result, measured
strength values may be greater than they actually are.
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Creep
• Sandy and gravelly soils can sustain shear stresses
very close to their shear strength for long periods.
• However, clayey soils exhibit slow shear movements
when the shear stress is close to its shear strength.
• These continuous slow movements are called creep.
• Creep behavior is especially troublesome in slope
stability problems.
• This is one of the reasons why clayey soils require
higher factors of safety.
607
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Intermediate soils
• Soils are not always clays, silts, or sands. Generally

soils are a mixture of these different types of soils.
• When the stability problems of this type of saturated
intermediate soils are evaluated, it is best to stay on
the conservative side.
• In other words, if the loading condition is neither
drained nor undrained, but some value in between,
then it is best to use the strength value that provides
the lowest possible factor of safety.
• Moreover, it is always a well-based guideline to
consider soils that have more than 12% clay content
as clays.
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Shear strength of unsaturated soils

• The strength of unsaturated soils (S < 100%) is generally
greater than saturated soils due to negative pore water
pressures. The negative pore water pressures increase the
effective stresses thus increasing the shear strength.
• However, this additional strength is easily lost if the soil
becomes wetted.
• Therefore, geotechnical engineers base designs on the
assumption that unsaturated soils could become wetted in the
future.
• Accordingly, unsaturated soil samples are usually soaked in
water before testing in the laboratory. This is intended to
remove the apparent cohesion.
• Moreover, the position of the groundwater table is taken at the
highest elevation possible (may be much higher than its present
location) and above the groundwater table pore water pressure
is assumed to be zero.
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Tests to determine shear strength

• There are several testing methods that are used either to
determine the shear strength directly or to obtain the shear
strength parameters. Some of these tests are
– Laboratory tests
• Direct shear test
• Unconfined compression test
• Triaxial test
• Simple shear test
• True triaxial test
• Ring shear test
– In-situ tests
• Vane shear test
• Standard penetration test (SPT)
• Cone penetrometer test
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Direct shear test

• Direct shear test is useful when a soil mass is likely to fail along a
thin zone under plane strain conditions.
• Soil is placed in the box, and one half of the box is moved relative
to the other half.
• Failure is thereby constrained along a thin zone of soil.
N N
Tf
soil
Ti soil
611
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Direct shear test

• Measured magnitudes during a direct shear test are
– The horizontal displacement, Dx
– The vertical displacement, Dz
– The vertical load, Pz
– The horizontal load, Px.
• Usually, three or more tests are carried out on a soil sample using
three different constant vertical forces.
• Using the loaded area of the soil sample, shear load Px is used to
calculate the shear stress acting on the shear plane, t. Dividing the
normal load, Pz, with the shear area, normal stress ′ is calculated.
Pz1 < Pz2 < Pz3
P P t
t x   z tpeak-3 Pz
A A 3
tresidual-3
tpeak-2 Pz2
tresidual-2
tpeak-1 Pz1
tresidual-1
Dx
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Direct shear test
Pz1 < Pz2 < Pz3 Pz1 < Pz2 < Pz3
t t
tpeak-3 Pz tf-3 Pz3
3
tresidual-3
tpeak-2 Pz2 tf-2
Pz2
tresidual-2
tpeak-1 Pz1 tf-1 Pz1
tresidual-1
Dx Dx
Dense sands or overconsolidated Loose sands or normally
clays (also cemented soils) consolidated clays
t
• Using t and ′ values obtained from at least
three direct shear tests, Mohr-Coulomb failure f′
envelope can be plotted.
f′r
• Depending on the used values, the Moh-
c′
Coulomb failure envelopes either for the peak c′r
strengths or the residual strengths could be ′
plotted. 613
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Direct shear test
• Direct shear box cannot prevent drainage. Therefore, direct shear
test should not be used for an accurate determination of undrained
shear strength, su.
• The direct shear has the advantage of being simple and
inexpensive.
• The direct shear has the disadvantage of forcing the shear to occur
along a specific plane instead of allowing the soil to fail through the
weakest zone.
• Direct shear test can also be used as an interface strength test
between soil and another material (such as concrete, steel, etc.).
614
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 9: Three direct shear tests have been conducted on a sandy soil. The
vertical forces were 100N, 200N, and 300N. The displacement-
horizontal force date are given below. Calculate the peak and the
residual strength variables. (Assume that the interface area as
constant during the tests.)
100N vertical force 200N vertical force 200N vertical force

Displacement (mm) Horizontal force (N) Displacement (mm) Horizontal force (N) Displacement (mm) Horizontal force (N)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 30 0.1 44 0.1 50
0.2 59 0.2 87 0.2 95
0.3 76 0.3 136 0.3 147
0.4 87 0.4 162 0.4 222
0.5 80 0.5 175 0.5 262
0.6 69 0.6 160 0.6 222
0.7 63 0.7 147 0.7 200
0.8 60 0.8 132 0.8 185
0.9 60 0.9 127 0.9 181
1 122 1 180
1.1 120 1.1 180
1.2 120
615
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Solution: Using the data, all three tests are plotted below:
Direct shear test results
300
100N vertical force
250 200N vertical force
300N vertical force
Horizontal force (N)
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
displacement (mm)
horizontal
vertical (N) peak (N) residual (N)
The peak and residual strength values are 100 87 60
obtained from these graphs. 200 175 120
300 262 180
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Solution (cont.):
300
Horizontal peak force = 0.875(Vertical force)
250
Vertical force (N)
200
horizontal
vertical (N) peak (N) residual (N) 150
100 87 60
200 175 120 100
300 262 180
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Since there is no area residual values
correction, the force
200
values could be directly 180 Horizontal residual force = 0.6(Vertical force)
used. Clearly, there is no 160
Vertical force (N)
140
cohesion and the friction
120
angles can be obtained 100
from these graphs. 80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
617
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Solution (cont.):
300
Horizontal peak force = 0.875(Vertical force)
250
Vertical force (N)

200
150
100
50 f peak  tan 1 0.875  41

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
residual values
200
180 Horizontal residual force = 0.6(Vertical force)
160
Vertical force (N)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
fresidual
  tan 1 0.6  31
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
618
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Unconfined compression test (UC Test)

• The unconfined compression test (UC test) uses a
cylindrical soil sample with no lateral confinement.
• An axial load is gradually applied to the soil until it fails.
• The load is applied rapidly producing undrained
conditions.
P
P
Shear
planes
P P
619
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• As the word ‘unconfined’ implies no lateral confinement, so 3 =
0. Therefore the left side of the Mohr’s circle is always at the
origin.
t
su
f 
• The unconfined compressive strength, qu, is obtained as
Pf Normal load at failure
qu 
Af Cross-sectional area at failure
Initial cross-sectional area (d2/4)
Ao
Af  Axial strain at failure
1 e f
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• The soil fails in shear along diagonal planes.
– If the soil is soft, it fails on multiple diagonal planes and bulges.
– If the soil is stiff, it is likely to fail on a single distinct diagonal plane.
• If we assume that the failure occurs along the planes of maximum shear
stress, then from the Mohr circle, the failure planes are inclined at 45° from
the horizontal.
• As a result, shear strength is one half of unconfined compressive strength
(as indicated by the Mohr circle).
• Unconfined compression test is inexpensive and simple.
• However, 3 in the field is actually greater than zero, so the test tends to
underestimate su. P
q Pf
su  u 
t 2 2 Af P
su
Af P
At 45 , d p  2d then Ap  2 A f
Ap
f  P
621
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Example 10: An unconfined compression test has been performed on a 30mm
diameter, 75mm long sample of clay. The axial load and axial strain
at failure were 120N and 8.1%, respectively. Compute the
undrained shear strength.
Solution:
  0.030mm 
2
Ao   7.07 104 m2
4
Ao 7.07 104
Af    7.69 104 m2
1 e f 1  0.081
Pf 120 N
su    78kPa
2 Af

2 7.69 104 m2 
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Triaxial compression test
• The triaxial compression test is
similar to the unconfined
compression test except the
sample is surrounded by a
waterproof membrane and
installed in a pressure chamber
known as a cell.
Fluid
pressure
3
xP
y
x
Fluid
pressure
Soil 3
sample
x
P 623
112
CE431 Çinicioğlu
• The chamber is filled with
water that is pressurized to
produce a specified value
of 3.
• A vertical load, P, is slowly
applied through a rod
extending through the top
of the cell.
Fluid
pressure
3
xP
y
x
Fluid
pressure
Soil 3
sample
x
P
624
CE431 Çinicioğlu
• The vertical load, P, divided by the P = d.A

sample cross-sectional area, A, is called
3
the deviator stress, d, which is obtained
as P
d 
A Soil 3
• The vertical stress in the sample, which is 3 sample
also the major principal stress, is the sum Cross-
of the cell pressure and the deviator stress sectional
area, A
1   3   d Pore pressure /
volume change
measurment
• Triaxial cells also include transducers that measure the pore

water pressure inside the soil sample while it is being tested.
As a result the principal effective stresses are calculated as
1  1  u
 3   3  u
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• There are three common triaxial
test procedures. These are
– Unconsolidated Undrained – UU test
– Consolidated Drained – CD test
– Consolidated Undrained – CU test
• As indicated by their names, these
tests differ based on the imposed
conditions, such as drainage and
state of consolidation.
626
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Triaxial compression test – UU Test

P = d.A
• Unconsolidated Undrained test (UU
3
test) is also known as Q or Quick test. Membrane
prevents
• As indicated by the name, in UU test perimeter
the sample is neither consolidated Soil 3
drainage
(structure is not changed) nor drainage 3 sample
is permitted (undrained conditions Cross-
sectional
prevail, pore pressure builds up). area, A Pore pressure may be
measured
• The difference of UU test from a UC
Drainage / volume
test is that sample is confined in a change never permitted
membrane (assuring undrained As a result, there is
conditions) and cell (all-around) no consolidation
pressure is applied (similar to the field
conditions).
627
114
CE431 Çinicioğlu

• UU test is a two stage test. First the isotropic compression (not
consolidation since water cannot drain), then the shearing phase
(undrained shearing since water cannot drain).
• During the isotropic compression phase
D1  D 3 Du  0
• After compression, sample is sheared by

increasing the axial stress without allowing
drainage. During this stage
D1  0 and D 3  0
628
CE431 Çinicioğlu

• If two samples of the same soil with same initial void ratio and same stress
history are tested under UU conditions at different cell pressures ( 3),
obtained Mohr circles would have the same size.
• However, the circles would be translated horizontally by the difference in the
magnitude of the cell pressures.
• Pore pressure is generally not measured so only the total stresses are
known.
• The undrained shear strength, su, is measured.
• UU test, like UC test, is quick and inexpensive compared to CD and CU
tests.
• Better than UC test since UU test, as a result of 3, simulates field conditions
better.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 11: In a series of unconsolidated-undrained (UU) triaxial tests on
specimens of a fully saturated clay the following results were
obtained at failure. Determine the values of the shear strength
parameters c, f, c, and f.
All-round pressure (3) (kN/m2) 200 400 600

Deviator stress (1-3) (kN/m2) 222 218 220
Solution: Since this is a UU test where the drainage is not permitted and pore
water pressure is not measured, it is not possible to obtain effective
strength parameters c and f.
Using the available data, major principal stresses acting on the sample are
obtained to draw the Mohr circles:
3 1-3 1
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
200 222 422

400 218 618
600 220 820
630
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.):
The Mohr circles and failure envelope are drawn
t
kN/m2
200
150
Failure envelope
100
50
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 

kN/m2
As a result, from the Mohr diagram, c = 110kPa and f = 0 (which is expected

since the conditions are relevant to f = 0 analysis).
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Triaxial compression test – CD Test

• The second procedure is the Consolidated Drained (CD) test. This test is
also known as a S or slow test.
• In CD procedure the sample is allowed to consolidate under the action of all-
round pressure (3).
• Then, during the shearing phase, the sample is loaded slowly and drainage
is permitted to create drained conditions.
• Usually three tests with different all-round/consolidation pressures are
conducted. Then the Mohr circles are drawn to obtain c and f values.
• CD tests may take several days if the permeability of the soil is low.
t
kN/m2
200 f′
150 env elope
e
Failur
100
c′
50
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 ′

kN/m2
632
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Triaxial compression test – CD Test

• The stresses on the soil sample for the two stages of a CD test
are as follows:
– Isotropic consolidation phase
D1  D 3  D1  D 3  0 Du  0
– Shearing phase
D1  D1  0 D 3  D 3  0 Du  0
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 12: A series of CD tests was carried out on specimens of a sand
prepared at the same porosity and the following results were
obtained at failure. Determine the value of the angle of shearing
resistance, f.
All-round pressure (3) (kN/m2) 100 200 400 800

Deviator stress (1-3) (kN/m2) 452 908 1810 3624
Solution: Using the available data, major principal stresses acting on the sample
are obtained to draw the Mohr circles:
3 1-3 1
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
100 452 552

200 908 1108
400 1810 2210
800 3624 4424
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.):
The Mohr circles and failure envelope are drawn
t
kN/m2 f′ =44°
2000
o pe
1500
vel
en
1000 re
ilu
500 Fa
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 ′

kN/m2
635
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Triaxial compression test – CU Test
• The third procedure is the Consolidated Undrained (CU) test. This
test is also known as a R or rapid test.
• The sample is consolidated as in the case of the CD test but then it
is loaded much more rapidly.
• Undrained conditions prevail, but the machine is able to measure
the excess pore water pressures, thus allowing the engineer to
compute effective stresses.
• The effective stress Mohr circles are then plotted, and c and f are
determined as before.
• CU tests also produce values of c and f
t
kN/m2
200 f′
elop e
150
Failu re env
100
c′
50
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 ′

kN/m2 636
CE431 Çinicioğlu

• The stresses on the soil sample for the two stages of a CU test
are as follows:
– Isotropic consolidation phase
D1  D 3  D1  D 3  0 Du  0
– Shearing phase
D1  0 D 3  0 D1  D1  Du D 3  Du
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CE431 Çinicioğlu

• Using CU test data, two sets of Mohr circles can be drawn. One
represents the total stress condition and the other, effective stress
condition.
• For each test, Mohr circle representing the total stresses has the
same size as Mohr circle of effective stresses. But they are
separated horizontally by the excess pore water pressure.
• Each Mohr circle of total stress is associated with a particular value
of su because each test has a different void ratio.
638
CE431 Çinicioğlu

• su can be calculated by either drawing a horizontal line from the top of the
Mohr circle or by calculating it as
 1   3  f
su 
2
• The CU test is the most popular triaxial test because you can obtain not only su but
fres and fpeak and most of the can be completed within a few minutes after
consolidation.
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CE431 Çinicioğlu
Example 13: The results in the table were obtained at failure in a series of CU
triaxial tests, with pore water pressure measurement, on specimens
of a fully saturated clay. Determine the values of the shear strength
parameters c and f. If a specimen of the same soil were
consolidated under an all-round pressure of 250kN/m2 and the
principal stress difference applied with the all-round pressure
changed to 350kN/m2, what would be the expected value of
principal stress difference at failure?
3 1-3 u
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
150 103 82
300 202 169
450 305 252
600 410 331
640
CE431 3 1-3 u Çinicioğlu

Solution: (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
150 103 82
300 202 169
450 305 252
600 410 331
From the table, we can calculate the effective principal stresses:
3 1-3 1 u 3 1

(kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
150 103 253 82 68 171

300 202 502 169 131 333
450 305 755 252 198 503
600 410 1010 331 269 679
641
121
CE431 Çinicioğlu
3 1-3 1 u 3 1
Solution (cont.): (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
150 103 253 82 68 171

300 202 502 169 131 333
450 305 755 252 198 503
600 410 1010 331 269 679
Using the data, Mohr circles are drawn and the necessary strength parameters
are obtained:
t
kN/m2
400
300
f′ = 26°
200 pe
elo
e env
ilur
Fa
100
c′ = 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 ′
kN/m2
642
CE431 Çinicioğlu
Solution (cont.):
t
kN/m2
400
300
f′ = 26°
200 e
lop
e n ve
i l u re
Fa
100
c′ = 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 ′
kN/m2
The principal stress difference at failure depends only on the value of all-round
pressure under which consolidation took place (250kPa). Hence, by proportion,
the expected value is (1 – 3)f =103*250/150 = 202*250/300 = 170kPa.
643
122

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CE431 Çinicioğlu

Laplace equation expresses the condition that the changes of hydraulic

The concept of flow net

solution to Laplace equation, a

constant head line. Constant

The concept of flow net

• A line of constant head representing a solution to

The concept of flow net

The concept of flow net

Flownet sketching – Isotropic soils

1. Draw the structure and soil mass to scale.

Flownet sketching – Isotropic soils

Flownet sketching – Isotropic soils

3. Sketch a series of flow lines and then sketch an appropriate

Flow lines should intersect the equipotential lines at right angles,

Example 2: Draw the flownet in the backfill behind the retaining

Flow rate from a flownet

Since each cell is a square, b/l = 1. Therefore

This is valid per flow channel

Flow rate from a flownet

Nf 9 • The ratio Nf / Nd is called

The result is m3/s

When i=ic, the structure

a) check if there is a risk of static liquefaction behind the

DH  Dh.Nd  1.45m 18  26.1m

• Increasing the length of the flow path, thus

So, exit hydraulic gradient

Solution (cont.): (b)

F.S. against boiling

Solution (cont.): (c) Total, elevation, and pressure heads at C:

 he C  2.5m  ht C  5.5m  8.6  0.5m  1.2m

Solution (cont.): (c) Total, elevation, and pressure heads at D:

 he D  4.5m  ht D  5.5m  3.7  0.5m  3.65m

Compressibility and settlement

Compressibility and settlement

• Other sources of settlement are:

′z ′z+D′z 437

Secondary compression settlement:

• Occurs due to particle reorientation, creep, and

Lateral soil movements

Changes in vertical effective stress

Placement of an external load

• External loads, such as structural foundations, also

• Induced vertical stresses are computed assuming soil

Changes in the groundwater table

• Sometimes groundwater table level changes due to

Consolidation process in the field

Consolidation process in the field

Consolidation process in the field

Solution: Stresses before the placement of the fill:

 z 0  18.7kN / m3 1m  19kN / m3  2m  16.5kN / m3  4.8m  136kPa

clay ′z 200

 zf   z 0   fill H fill  136kPa  19.5kN / m3  5m  234kPa

u  uh  ue  67kPa  0kPa  67kPa

 z   z  u  234kPa  67kPa  167kPa

CE431 Solution (cont.): Classical Soil Mechanics Approach Çinicioğlu

• To predict consolidation settlement in soil, we need to know its

Consolidation Test – Oedometer Test

sand rock Impervious