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680248
From Concept to Market
THE RUBBER-TIRED self-propelled scraper was first intro-
duced in 1938 (Fig. 1). At the time, it caused a sensation
in the earthmoving industry. All previous scrapers had been
towed by a separate, low-speed tractor. In the history of the
scraper, this new machine marked the "end of childhood"
and established a new trend in earthmoving. It combined
truck speed with scraper versatility and independence. These
high-speed rubber-tired scrapers have been plagued by sev-
ABSTRACT
The Cushion Hitch is a unique application of vibration
absorber theory to a self-propelled tractor-scraper. The
scraper mass is utilized as a damper for suppressing p r e -
dominate bouncing motions of the tractor unit. A more com--
fortable and safer operator ride, with increased productivity,
819
The Cushion Hitch
Tractor-Scraper —
John W. Carter, 0. Dean McWilliams,
and Harvey A. Knell
Caterpillar Tractor Co.
eral inherent problems (Fig. 2) ever since that introduction
30 years ago. First, we recognize the rough ride which has
been "accepted" as an occupational hazard. Another char-
acteristic is the travel speed often being limited by a rough
ride which inhibits productivity, regardless of horsepower
availability. A third problem is the extreme dynamic load-
ing which accelerates structural fatigue. In spite of many
improvements such as power shift transmissions, hydraulic
Fig. 1 - First rubber-tired self-propelled
scraper
results from the Cushion Hitch application. This paper d e -
scribes development of the early prototype design as well as
the final production version. Particular emphasis is given to
both the hydraulic and the structural characteristics of the
system.
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820
actuation, higher horsepower, power steering and "boosted"
controls, 30 years later the tractor driver is still riding a known that man would prefer to bounce at a frequency a p -
"bronco."
It is a common misconception that the disturbing fre-
quency of a bumpy ride is related only to travel speed of
the vehicle. Fig. 3 represents data taken throughout the
speed range of a scraper operating over different terrain con-
ditions at various speeds, both empty and loaded. The pre-
dominant frequency range of disturbance is between 1-1/2
and 2-1/2 cps, which nearly equals the natural frequencies
Fig. 2 - Typical scraper operating conditions
Fig. 3 - Disturbing frequency distribution
J. W. CARTER, ET AL.
of the vehicle pitch and bounce motions. It has long been
proximating 1 -1.5 cps because through the centuries he has
walked and jiggled at about this rate. Through evolution,
his internal organs have learned to accept and actually pre-
fer 1 cps motions.
HUMAN RIDE TOLERANCE
Having recognized this ride problem, let us compare it
with established vibration limits of human tolerance. Fig. 4
shows well-known Meister threshold curve of human reaction
to vibration, first published in 1935, which agrees remarkably
well with many later studies. The most striking aspect of
these data is that tolerance to higher frequencies must be
accomplished by smaller amplitudes. Conversely, our tol-
erance to greater amplitudes is possible only at lesser fre-
quencies. It is common for scrapers to experience prolonged
bounce motions of several inches within the 1-1/2 and 2-1/2
cps range, as shown by the dark zone in Fig. 4. Thus, when
we relate such field operating conditions to well-accepted
criteria of human tolerance, we find that these operators
are often exposed to a "discomfort" environment.
Fig. 4 - "Meister Thresholds" of human tolerance to vibra-
tion
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CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER 821

TIRE EFFECTS 3. Design more damping within soft tires for reduced mo-
tion and frequency. We normally find only about 3^o of
After a study of the above relationships, it seems there critical damping in most earthmover tires. This value can
are three different ways to lessen discomfort. One is to re- be increased by designing shock absorbers inside of these
duce the disturbing frequency while maintaining the same tires, and we have done some work in that direction. Unfor-
amplitudes. Another is to reduce amplitudes while main-
taining the same frequency range. The third solution is to
reduce both frequency and motion. Working only with the
tires for a suspension, we would seem to have several such
routes (Fig. 5) for improving these riding conditions:
1. Resort to softer tires in order to reduce bounce fre-
quency. However, it is a common observation that lower
frequency vibration systems usually experience greater am-
plitudes. Similarly, we have found that softer tires exhibit
a surprising increase in vertical bounce motion which can
actually cause the wheels to leave the ground, with resulting
loss of machine stability when traversing bumpy terrain.
2. Design for stiffer tires so as to reduce bounce ampli-
tude. However, as seen in the "discomfort" curve, these
higher frequency vibration systems quickly reach even greater
disturbance. This is undoubtedly somewhat related to the
rapid increase in acceleration levels which are, in turn, re-
lated to the square of the disturbing frequency. Thus, stiffer
tires are particularly discomforting, even with their inher-
ently smaller bounce amplitudes.

Fig. 5 - Possible tire alterations for better ride. A - softer

tires, B - stiffer tires, and C - damping within tires
Fig. 6 - Dynamic vibration absorber system

Fig. 7 - Vibration absorber size relative

to tractor-scraper
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822 J. W. CARTER, ET AL.

tunately, the heat generated by such damping devices may bowl is insufficient and poorly located to have much effect.
raise tire temperatures to the level of failure. Another large weight which might be converted to a damper
Thus, we have tried softer, stiffer, and damped tires, is the engine itself. We have actually built such a system
all to no avail as a practical solution for the scraper ride incorporating a properly sprung and damped suspension b e -
problem. tween the engine and the vehicle framework, as shown sche-
matically in Fig. 9. The effectiveness of this arrangement
DYNAMIC VIBRATION ABSORBER is evident from comparing the vertical acceleration traces
of tractor motion with those of the standard machine (Fig.
Every textbook on "vibration theory" describes a device 10). Even though these results are encouraging, there is an
known as a "dynamic vibration absorber," shown schemati- obvious problem of machine complexity.
cally in Fig. 6. The right combination of spring and damp-
ing between the second damper mass and the main mass CUSHION HITCH
will suppress vibration of the main system by generating
proper out-of-phase forces. In other words, when our m a - The "Cushion Hitch" is a unique suspension system built
chine moves upward, this damper will simultaneously move into the connecting structure between tractor and scraper,
downward so as to cancel forces. To do an effective job, utilizing existing mass of the scraper and draft frame to act
most vibration absorber systems require that the damper as a tractor vibration absorber (Fig. 11). This arrangement
weigh at least 1/10 of the main body to be damped. In the provides a very favorable and overpowering ratio of damper
case of our empty scraper, this damper could amount to over mass to that of the tractor. It also locates the absorber a c -
4 tons of extra weight (Fig. 7). Obviously, we cannot afford tion directly over the tractor for optimum bounce suppres-
to carry around such a heavy damper at great expense to sion. A 4-bar linkage between tractor and scraper permits
machine performance. the necessary relative motion (Fig. 12). The spring element
Typical scraper design already has a large moveable bowl is achieved with a hydraulic cylinder which supports the
supported by hydraulic cylinders which can easily be con- scraper above the tractor and is connected to accumulators,
verted to hydropneumatic springs (Fig. 8). This arrangement forming a hydropneumatic system. Damping is provided by
would allow the scraper bowl to act as the damper weight. orificing the oil flow between support cylinder and accumu-
Ironically, the scraper ride is worse for the empty machine, lators. The original prototype design of the Cushion Hitch
and we have found that the existing weight of the empty for a tractor-scraper is shown in Fig. 1 3 .

Fig. 8 - Scraper bowl utilized as vibra-

tion absorber mass

Fig. 9 - Engine utilized as vibration

absorber mass
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CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER 823

Development of this tractor vibration absorber will be COMPUTER STUDY

divided into the following phases: Computer study, ride-
simulation, prototype system, and improved ride. The 2-axle rubber-tired tractor-scraper can be repre-
sented in simplified form as a body resting on two springs
(Fig. 14). Force and moment equations may be written and
then solved simultaneously to show that this mass-elastic
system has two different natural frequencies. Each of these
CONVENTIONAL MACHINE modes of motion has its own center of oscillation (Fig. 15).
During typical machine operation, these two modes of vibra-
MACHINE WITH VIBRATION tion may occur either separately or in combination. Further-
ABSORBER
more, we must consider both the loaded and the unloaded
machines; thus four different vibratory problems actually
exist.
We generally speak of these oscillatory modes as "pitch"

TIME — » w — I SECOND ■

o
< TRAVERSING SINGLE BUMP

Fig. 10 - Acceleration traces showing engine absorber effec-

tiveness for reducing tractor vibrations

CLASSICAL
SYSTEM

SCRAPER MODEL

m^^Wff77Z77777Z7ff7Z?ff777777Z77Z#Z7777Z?7777ZV?7fi7Z7777?777777>

Fig. 11 - Cushion Hitch vibration absorber suspension analogy Fig. 12 - Cushion Hitch 4-bar linkage arrangement
with classical system

Fig. 13 - Cushion Hitch prototype for 1

tractor-scraper
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824
and "bounce" vibrations. "Pitch" is usually considered to
occur when each end of the vehicle moves up and down in
opposite directions about an oscillation center within the
wheelbase. The term "bounce" is applied to those vehicle
vibrations wherein both ends of the machine are moving
f - X + K j I X - L ^ + Kjtf+l^e) = 0
"f r29 - LJKJ (X- Lj9)- L2K2 (X- L29) = 0
Fig. 14 - Simplified tractor-scraper analogy
MPTY
BOUNCE 1.8 cps
LOADED
BOUNCE 1.5 cps
Fig. 16 - Mathematical representation of
tractor-scraper
J. W. CARTER, ET AL.
in-phase, with an oscillation center outside the wheelbase.
These definitions are most easily shown in relation to the
loaded tractor-scraper (Fig. 15). The empty machine is
a special case for which the pitch center nearly coincides
with the front axle and the bounce center with the rear axle.
In order to study various proposed ride improvements
with the analog computer, we first constructed a mathe-
matical model of the vehicle which contains the necessary
parameter values, such as tire spring rates, damping, mach-
ine inertias, e t c . (Fig. 16). An electrical analogy of this
model is then composed within the analog computer facility
(Fig. 17). This computerized tractor-scraper can be "driven"
over various kinds of road bumps in order to determine and
record ride motion characteristics on oscillograms.
An example of this computer "road" is best illustrated
by referring to Fig. 18. A model of the loaded scraper is
"run" over bumps (within the computer) which are spaced
so as always to pulse the front and rear wheels in-phase,
first upwards and then downwards. This action will excite
the "bounce" mode of motion which was previously discussed
(Fig. 15). By varying the vehicle speed over these bumps,
we create different exciting frequencies. The mass-elastic
system has a "natural frequency" in the vertical bounce
mode which is calculable from the formula f = 1 / 2 TTKK/M.
n
PITCH 2.6 cps
Fig. 15 - Pitch and bounce modes
PITCH 2.0 cps of vehicle resonant vibration
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CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER 825

This natural frequency (f ) is thus related to the total verti-
cal spring rate (K) of all the tires and the entire mass of
this loaded machine (M).
When the computer model of our loaded scraper is ex-
cited at different frequencies in this manner, we obtain a
"resonance diagram" of response amplitude versus exciting
frequency (Fig. 19). In particular, note the large resonant
amplitude which occurs when exciting frequency coincides
with the vehicle natural frequency. Also observe that the
computer model of a scraper with the vibration absorber
has two resonant amplitude peaks in place of an original
single peak for the standard vehicle. By optimizing both
the damping and the spring rate in the Cushion Hitch, we
are able to practically "flatten" the resonance diagram to
a relatively small amplitude as compared with the conven-
tional machine. In practice, this represents a very signifi-
cant ride improvement for any range of disturbing frequen-
cies.
Similar computer studies were performed for the three
other bounce and pitch modes of vibration which may exist
with the real machine. The results (Fig. 20) are encouraging
for all cases except the pitching mode vibration of a loaded
scraper. This limitation was not of initial concern because
we have observed a tendency for only the empty and loaded
scraper bounce modes to predominate during actual earth-
moving operations.
Another computer study involved "driving" the vehicle
over a single bump at various speeds. This situation occurs
frequently in typical scraper operations, is easy to simulate,
and quickly yields much predictable information about the
machine traversing random terrain. An example of the re-
sponse to this input, in the form of a 4 in. square bump, is
shown by Fig. 21 and contrasted with a conventional mach-
ine. In particular, notice the much earlier decay and lower
magnitudes of the oscillatory accelerations for the stabilized
vehicle with Cushion Hitch.
>BOUNCE OF
NON-CUSHION HITCH

WITH
r CUSHION HITCH

0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4

FREQUENCY - CPS
Fig. 19 - Bounce mode resonance diagrams for Cushion Hitch
and non-Cushion Hitch machines

LOADED MACHINE

I'M
I'M
OS PITCH /' l\
^9
Fig. 17 - Analog computer used to study suspension systems ^ / A
«J
^c
OB
\
. , . , .

EMPTY MACHINE

NON-CUSHION HITCH

PITCH
CUSHION
«HITCH

FREQUENCY - CPS
Fig. 18 - Computer model driven over in-phase bumps to Fig. 20 - Predicted suppression of machine pitch and bounce
excite bounce mode of vibration vibrations by virtue of Cushion Hitch
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826 J. W. CARTER, ET AL.

RIDE SIMULATION 4. Only a human rider himself can presently "interpret"

It is widely recognized that such acceleration and ampli-
tude reduction data as shown by our computer study of the
Cushion Hitch does not necessarily predict the true quality
of ride improvement. Without some representative measure-
ment, or ride index, how are we to evaluate improvement?
A review of related activity by numerous authorities during
the last quarter century divulges certain facts:
1. Man has only a very brief "ride memory" between
two conditions which he is attempting to compare.
2. No study has yet evolved a reliable ride comfort "in-
dex."
3. Thus, it is not known for sure what characteristic of
riding motions we need to measure, such as acceleration,
velocity, the value of jerk, or some other.
NON-CUSHION HITCH
a given ride condition with his complex physiological and
psychological machinery.
It seems that we need a human instrument to measure
ride and, indeed, to develop eventually a reliable index,
or rating, of this phenomenon. For this reason, we have de-
signed and built a "Ride Simulator" (Fig. 22) which we con-
sider to be a realistic and dependable method for evaluating
ride improvements and the effects of vibration on the human
being. This machine recreates field riding situations in the
laboratory and, by allowing comparisons in very close se-
quence, it helps to overcome the short memory man has
for a given riding condition. It also permits us to try many
things easily and at low cost. By making tape recordings of
vehicle motions over actual terrain, as depicted in Fig. 23,
we can later play back this information into the simulator
control system so that it will move similarly to the real
machine.

.CUSHION HITCH

re
o TIME—► K — I SECOND-
i-
o
<
rr TRAVERSING SINGLE BUMP

Fig. 21 - Computer acceleration traces of Cushion Hitch

tractor traversing single bump

Fig. 23 - Tape recording of actual vehicle motions for play-

back into Ride Simulator

Fig. 24 - Mathematical computer model of vehicle controls

Fig. 22 - Ride Simulator the Ride Simulator
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CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER
Fig. 24 illustrates how we can "design" a suspension on
the computer and thus be able to "ride" on a new vehicle
before it is even built. For example, we can compare two
different kinds of tire arrangements in quick succession.
The operator may first be exposed to a typical 2 cps ride
on wide-base tires and then, only about 1/2 minute later,
to the harsher ride on dual tires vibrating at nearly 3-1/2
cps. This changeover from one type of tire to another is
easily accomplished by readjusting certain potentiometers
within the analog computer (Fig. 17). This comparison can
be repeated as many times as necessary for the human opera-
tor to make his choice of best ride. In a similar fashion we
can quickly change important machine parameters, such as
wheelbase, moment of inertia, empty-to-loaded scraper
bowl, or even the location of the operator on the vehicle.
The Ride Simulator is of particular value when we use it for
discerning smaller orders of improvements, such as resulting
from geometry variations in the Cushion Hitch 4-bar con-
necting linkage. The resulting trade-offs in simultaneous
bounce and pitch motions simply cannot be evaluated by
other than a human operator.
PROTOTYPE SYSTEM
The Cushion Hitch has already been shown to have a
spring and damper connection between the tractor and scraper dropneumatic spring was effective in suppressing all but the
(Fig. 25). Proper "tuning" of the spring rate is necessary in pure pitch mode of vibration for the loaded machine. While
order to always generate opposing motions and forces be-
tween these two machine members. Vibration theory shows
that proper spring rate is related to size of the damper mass.
Therefore, the empty and loaded scraper conditions would
ostensibly seem to require different spring rates. For our
631B tractor-scrapers, the optimum "loaded" spring rate
actually works out to be nearly the same as the optimum
"empty" spring rate. This coincidence is caused by the
lesser natural vibration frequency of the loaded machine
because of all the added weight on the tires. The "loaded"
spring rate is required to support approximately twice as
much load as does the same spring rate holding up the empty
scraper.
The somewhat opposing requirements of the hitch spring
made the hydropneumatic system an obvious choice. A dual
CLASSICAL
SYSTEM
SCRAPER MODEL
Fig. 25 - Analogy of tractor-scraper mass-elastic system
827
accumulator arrangement was selected to fit these special
requirements. Fig. 26 illustrates a static condition of this
system for the' empty scraper. One accumulator is initially
precharged to a higher pressure such that its piston is never
unseated during normal operation of the empty machine.
The other accumulator is initially precharged to a pressure
which automatically locates its piston in a correct working
range for empty scraper operations.
Fig. 27 indicates the positions of the two accumulator
pistons after a leveling valve has caused the system to
pump up the loaded scraper sufficiently to "center" the
hitch. The hydraulic pressure required to support the front
of the loaded scraper nearly bottoms one piston and also
locates the other piston in proper mid-range working posi-
tion. During operation of the loaded machine, this second
piston moves up and down so as to accommodate correspond-
ing oil flow in and out of the support cylinder.
LINKAGE CHARACTERISTICS - A principal function of
the 4-bar connecting linkage (Fig. 28) is to permit vertical
motion between the tractor and scraper. Other obvious r e -
quirements include its towing the scraper and the transmis-
sion of steering moments through the hitch assembly. The
initial geometry of this 4-bar system was an exact paral-
lelogram. As previously shown in Fig. 20, that arrangement
in conjunction with an optimumly "tuned" and damped hy-
this particular mode does not often occur in practice, it can
Fig. 26 - Hydropneumatic system for empty scraper
iuV'NVll ■aiMM
Fig. 27 - Hydropneumatic system for loaded scraper
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828
be rather dramatic and uncomfortable when it does occasion-
ally predominate. We realized that the parallelogram link-
age can transmit this pitching couple without causing a ver-
tical reaction on the support cylinder, as illustrated in Fig.
29. The original Cushion Hitch machine was several times
witnessed undergoing violent pitching motions without any
perceptible motion of the linkage.
In order to rectify this pure pitch vibration problem, the
parallelogram arrangement was modified to be of a "trape-
zoidal" form (Fig. 30). With this configuration, it is now
impossible to transmit a couple in the vertical-longitudinal
plane without causing force reactions on the support cylinder.
A computer study of the trapezoidal arrangement (Fig. 31)
shows a definite reduction in vertical motion at the operator
station when the loaded machine is excited in the pure pitch
Fig. 28 - Cushion Hitch 4-bar linkage arrangement
1 APPLIED
FORCES OF
?d—? PITCHING COUPLE
V h
\
3
SUPPORT CYLINDER
FORCE
SINCE F j = F 2 , THERE IS NO RESULTING FORCE F 3
DUE TO APPLIED MOMENT.
Fig. 29 - Force diagram for parallelogram linkage
J. W. CARTER, ETAL.
mode. However, any departure from the exact parallelogram
geometry will introduce a slight pitching action of the trac-
tor when the scraper draft frame oscillates up and down.
Since human riders are known to be particularly sensitive
to these "rocking chair" motions, the production "trape-
zoidal" linkage is of limited angularity just sufficient for
a satisfactory compromise solution. During operation of
a Cushion Hitch scraper, this induced pitching motion is
fortunately not of a noticeable magnitude.
IMPROVED RIDE
It was a prime objective of this program that we signifi-
cantly improve riding conditions on the tractor. Not sur-
prisingly, the accomplishment of this initial goal has auto-
Fig. 30 - Trapezoidal arrangement of 4-bar linkage
PARALLELOGRAM II
TRAPEZOIDAL
0 0.4 0.8 L2 1.6 2.4 2.8
u
FREQUENCY-CPS
Fig. 31 - Effect of trapezoidal linkage on reduction of
loaded scraper pitch vibrations
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CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER 829

matically provided other important benefits such as faster
travel speeds and reduced dynamic loading of the vehicle
structure. The magnitudes of these improvements and their
manner of measurement will be described here and in the
following sections of this paper.
This paper has already dwelt upon the various problems
of measuring ride comfort and the difficulty of "putting a
number" on the actual improvement. Fortunately, the Cush-
ion Hitch provided such an obvious reduction in vibration
of the operator that a rating method was not required. How-
ever, for the purpose of this paper, some evidence of better
riding conditions are presented. It will be presumed that a
vehicle which experiences larger accelerations many more
times than another vehicle will quite probably be less pleas-
ant to ride on.
Fig. 32 shows comparable oscillograms of tractor vertical
accelerations, recorded near the operator station, while both
machines were traversing identical haul roads into the "cut"
area of an actual earthmoving job in Arkansas. A photo-
graphic form of evidence is shown in Fig. 33 for the situa-
tion where a conventional and a Cushion Hitch machine
were both driven over a 6 in. high steel bump at 10 mph.
Small lamps on the tractor and the scraper gooseneck traced
their paths over this bump course to indicate the smaller
notions and fewer cycles of disturbance with the Cushion
Hitch machine.
PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT
VEHICLE DESIGN GOALS - The research prototype Cush-
ion Hitch proved the effectiveness of the tuned dynamic
absorber concept for damping a tractor-scraper, whether
empty or loaded, from force inputs due to haul road ruts,
tire runout, and power train and engine dynamics. The
production vehicle was to match or surpass the ride perform-
ance of the research vehicle plus have the hydraulic Cushion
Hitch controls required for production earthmoving.
Structural configuration and hydraulic control parameters
for the production version were determined with the research
vehicle. Refer to Fig. 13 which is a photograph of the r e -
search vehicle. A "trapezoidal form" linkage provides 10
in. of vertical deflection with very slight rotation of the
tractor with respect to the scraper and also transfers the loads
between the two parts. The 10 in. of relative tractor-scraper
vertical deflection requires a "flexible" steering follow-up
linkage to transfer tractor-scraper angular relationship to
the steering valve mounted on the tractor. The hitch con-
trols required are referred to as leveling and lockdown.

CONVENTIONAL

1ElV I P T Y SCRAPER ENTERING CUT A R E A

i-I mr
ft 7* H 'S
![
- ^pi E
S|!
=Bfc
a

¥.. £. ( * *r" -
vTy v I S \l
■ " \

\' \ Fig. 32 - Field measurements of tractor

i t -". - =-. -_^E =
" W- ~-
t. T ""£="-
:

"-- --J1-- ■ ■ = -

vertical accelerations of non-Cushion

=-~:
=.-' ; H I T C H
■■ =

^1 = _-. z '- "*a.

: !_
CUSHI O N Hitch and Cushion Hitch machines

NON-CUSHION HITCH

*=3 COf. 3

i flaw 5?*«wt>isar £& ' - saaM' * ^^""^^^»

CUSHION HITCH

Fig. 33 - Photographic light traces of Cushion

Hitch and non-Cushion Hitch machines travers-
ing single bump at proving ground
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018
830
Leveling control maintains the tractor at a constant height
with respect to the scraper, regardless of the load in the
bowl or the haul road grade. Lockdown control makes the
hitch solid for positive cutting edge control during loading,
unloading and emergency braking. Fig. 34 is a view of the
production Cushion Hitch vehicle with a non-Cushion Hitch
inset, which compares the non-Cushion to the Cushion Hitch.
HYDRAULIC REQUIREMENTS -
Basic Circuit - The basic hydraulic components forming
the Cushion Hitch oil-pneumatic suspension system are the
cylinder and accumulators (Fig. 35). During operation of
an empty scraper, the pressurized hydraulic fluid in the hitch
system is supported by the nitrogen gas in the 400 psi pre-
charged accumulator. The higher 1000 psi precharge of the
second accumulator is sufficient to keep the piston bottomed
while operating with a 700 psi empty carry pressure. The
support cylinder rod end is connected to tank, allowing for
volume changes as the hitch deflects. (See Fig. 36). Opera-
tion of the Cushion Hitch system with a loaded machine
NON-CUSHION
HITCH
Fig. 34 - Production Cushion Hitch vehicle with inset of
non-Cushion Hitch
ACCUMULATORS
TANK
Fig. 35 - Basic hydropneumatic circuit for empty scraper
J. W. CARTER, ET AL.
requires support pressures up to 1700 psi, depending upon
the payload. This greater system pressure further compresses
the nitrogen in the first accumulator and has moved the
piston of the second accumulator to an equilibrium point.
An abrupt force applied to the tractor (Fig. 37) will cause
the cylinder to rise, lowering the cylinder rod and piston in
the cylinder. This action will immediately create pres-
sures greater than 700 psi, causing the accumulator piston
to compress the gas further. Field tests show pressures above
1000 psi are of such short duration that no reaction of the
second accumulator occurs. To improve the natural damp-
ing of vehicle oscillation, a damper orifice is used for sys-
tem tuning (Fig. 38). The orifice restricts the hydraulic
flow rate between the accumulators and the cylinder, r e -
turning the vehicle to a smooth ride in a minimum of time
(Fig. 39).
As the scraper operation changes from empty to loaded
(Figs. 35 and 36) and with varying scraper loads, the volume
of oil in the cylinder-accumulator circuit must change to
maintain the cylinder at the mid-position. This system
change is accomplished by an oil volume adjusting circuit
ACCUMULATORS
TANK
Fig. 36 - Basic hydropneumatic circuit with scraper loaded
PRECHARGE
Fig. 37 - Circuit reaction with an abrupt force applied to
tractor
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CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER 831

(Fig. 40). A vane pump supplies oil to the Cushion Hitch
leveling system. This system must sense the mechanical
position of the hitch cylinder and add or exhaust oil when
the hitch is too low or too high, respectively.
For further control of the hydraulic cylinder (Fig. 41), a
lockdown valve is added to the system. This valve allows
the Cushion Hitch to operate as a non-Cushion Hitch to
maintain a cutting edge free of motion to resist the changing
vertical forces during loading and spreading. This is accom-
PRECHARGE
plished hydraulically by collapsing the cylinder, allowing
the hitch castings to contact, then pressurizing the cylinder
rod end. For convenience of operation and component loca-
tion, the lockdown valve is pilot operated by a selector valve
(Fig. 42).
An existing hydraulic source was used as a supply for the
hitch system. The small section of the steering pump was
chosen, as it can provide the required 6 gpm flow to the
hitch circuit with a minimum of horsepower loss and heat
generation. Flow division is handled by a flow control and
charging valve (Fig. 43). This valve provides the constant
6 gpm to the leveling circuit at all engine speeds and at
any pressure in either the leveling or steering system. The
excess pump discharge is diverted to the steering system.
The remaining circuit components (Fig. 44) consist of
a tank, filter, and gas relief valve. The hydraulic tank is
common to all systems on the scraper. Considerations for

Fig. 38 - Damping orifice for optimum tuning

EFFECT WITH ORIFICE

.
^~
^ J
/ /'
\V
x /' \\
=» '/"~"X\ .-.WITHOUT ORIFICE
* / \ £—.WITH ORIFICE TANK
o
Fig. 41 - Lockdown valve for non-Cushion Hitch operation
E N
z
A. // --'
e \\ \^—' / i '
s
3
TIME
Fig. 39 - Hitch movement after bump versus time

ACCUMULATORS

TANK
TANK Fig. 42 - Selector valve for remote operation of lockdown
Fig. 40 - Oil volume adjusting circuit valve
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018
832
the tank design involve the initial oil volume, initial air
volume, and change in oil volume of the various systems
including the Cushion Hitch. Since the hydraulic system is
of the "sealed" type, a gas relief valve is located on the
tank for protection against rupture should an accumulator
seal become damaged, allowing nitrogen to escape into the
oil system. A single element, nominal 10 micron, high
pressure filter assures a clean oil supply to the Cushion Hitch
circuit.
Leveling Valve - Fig. 45 illustrates the cross-section
detail of the Cushion Hitch leveling valve introduced into
the circuit in Fig. 40. The input linkage consists of a spring
cartridge with the link connected to the mechanical linkage
of the Cushion Hitch. The yoke end connects by means of
a rocker arm to the signal stem. Movement of the signal
stem is damped to eliminate continuous oil volume correc-
tions as the hitch oscillates. This damped action allows the
signal stem to follow minor changes in hitch position, while
TANK
Fig. 43 - Flow control and charging valve
D A I R RELIEF
TANK
Fig. 44 - Complete diagram of Cushion Hitch components
J. W. CARTER, ET AL.
the spring cartridge absorbs major inputs and high rates of
hitch deflection.
A hitch position correction signal sensed by the signal
stem pilot operates the leveling stem. As shown, the stems
are in a "level" position, thus the leveling stem has blocked
the oil in the cylinder-accumulator circuit and bypasses the
supply oil to tank.
The remaining function in this valve is the lockdown
stem. This section was shown in Fig. 41 as a separate lock-
down valve. Since this valve requires many common con-
nections with the leveling section, all functions were d e -
signed into a common package. As shown in Fig. 45, the
lockdown stem is in the cushion ride position with the a c -
cumulator connected to the cylinder head supporting the
load. The cylinder rod end in this position is vented to
tank.
The leveling valve is mounted on the right side of the
hitch. A view of this hardware is shown in Fig. 46.
Leveling Valve Operation - The ideal way to illustrate
the action of the leveling valve is to describe the adjust-
ments required to compensate for changes of hitch load as
the machine travels over various terrian. As the machine
ACCUM
CYL HEAD E N D * C Y L ROD END
PILOW
ICiF
U 2
TANK SUPPLY
Fig. 45 - Cross section detail of Cushion Hitch leveling
valve - "level" position
Fig. 46 - Leveling valve hardware
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018
CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER
starts downhill, the cylinder pressure required to support the
load is greater. This forces oil from the cylinder head into
the accumulators, compressing the nitrogen until equilibrium
is reached. The support cylinder is now somewhat below
the mid-position, which is sensed by the input linkage and
signal stem of the leveling valve. Movement of the signal
stem pilot operates the leveling stem to the "raise" position
which directs the supply oil to the cylinder-accumulator
circuit (Fig. 47). As oil flow returns the support cylinder to
the mid-position, the leveling valve is returned to the "level"
position (previously shown in Fig. 45).
The next sequence begins as the machine reaches level
ground again. The cylinder pressure required to support the
load is reduced. The nitrogen in the accumulators expands
and forces oil to the support cylinder. This raises the cyl-
inder above mid-position and a reverse of the previous opera-
tion takes place.
Venting the pilot pressure on the lockdown stem by shift-
ing the selector stem connects the cylinder head end oil to
the tank and the accumulators to the cylinder rod end (Fig.
ACCUM
CYL HEAD E N D * C Y L ROD END
PILOT*
TANK SUPPLY
Fig. 47 - Cushion Hitch valve - "raise" position
ACCUM
CYLHEAD END * CYL ROD END
PILOT*
LOCKDOWN t IF
LEVELING I
U IT-
TANK SUPPLY
Fig. 48 - Cushion Hitch valve - "lockdown" position
833
48). This flow path for the cylinder head oil is restricted
so the hitch, when loaded, will not hit the. stop sharply and
the rod end flow is retarded to eliminate additive pressures.
As the hitch casting members contact and the rod end pres-
sure equalizes with accumulator potential, the hitch is made
rigid so as to provide positive cutting edge control.
With the cylinder collapsed in lockdown, the leveling
valve senses a "raise" correction and the supply oil is added
to the cylinder-accumulator circuit. This oil assures a posi-
tive lockdown and builds up accumulator potential energy,
in preparation for a rapid hitch displacement to center with
a loaded bowl when cushion ride is selected. To limit the
accumulator pressure during charging when in lockdown, an
accumulator charging valve is used to interrupt the supply
flow and bypass it into the steering circuit.
Charging Valve - Fig. 49 illustrates the cross-section
detail of the charging valve. The oil supply, as mentioned
previously, is provided by the small section of the steering
PILOT
PUMP
Fig. 49 - Detail of charging valve - "cut-in"
PILOT
PUMP
DRAIN
(S^Br—"—4innnwwl*MTTTTi i 11 11
a=
STEERING
SELECTOR
VALVE
SUPPLY
Fig. 50 - Detail of charging valve - "cutout"
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018
834
pump. In the cut-in position, the flow control passes 6 gpm
to the charging stem, through the check valve and to the
leveling valve. The pump flow in excess of 6 gpm passes to
the steering valve to be used for steering. A pilot line is
connected to the accumulator circuit to sense the accumu-
lator-cylinder circuit oil pressure. The increased pressure
of 2400 psi during lockdown shifts the pilot piston of the
charging valve against the spring cartridge (Fig. 50). This
action occurs at the upper charge limit which pilot shifts
the charging stem, bypassing the controlled flow oil to the
steering system. As leakage in the system allows accu-
mulator pressure to drop to the 2100 psi cut-in point, the
spring cartridge overcomes the pilot pressure, allowing the
pilot valve to shift back. This action vents the pilot pres-
sure on the charging stem, allowing it to shift to direct flow
again to the accumulators.
A relief valve is also built into the charging valve (Fig.
49) to protect the Cushion Hitch components should the
normal operation of the valve be interrupted. The pilot
valve is shimmed for the desired relief pressure. When this
pressure occurs, the oil behind the flow control stem is
vented, pilot operating the flow control as a dump spool
which bypasses the pump flow to the steering circuit (Fig.
51). The valve as shown is mounted under the floorboard.
Selector Valve - Control of the pilot pressure to the lock-
out stem is handled by the operator's selector valve. The
detailed valve shown in Fig. 52 is in the cushion ride posi-
tion, providing pilot pressure to position the lockdown stem.
Shifting the detented selector stem vents this pilot pressure,
allowing the lockdown stem to shift, placing the hitch in
lockdown. In case of an interruption of hydraulic pilot pres-
sure by some other cause, the machine will revert to lock-
down operation for control of the cutting edge, should an
emergency exist.
Control Safety - The manually operated selector valve
has an automatic lockout as a safety feature. When pump
pressure is present, a large piston on the end of the selector
stem forces the retainer to compress the spring, allowing
for normal operation of the selector stem. If the engine
Fig. 51 - View of charging valve mounted under floor board
J. W. CARTER, ET AL.
is shut down with the selector stem in cushion ride, the stem
is pulled into lockdown position by the spring and retainer
as the oil escapes from behind the piston (Fig. 53). This
action keeps the lockdown valve from shifting and raising
the hitch as the accumulator pressure is built up when the
engine is restarted.
Another safety function that occurs in the selector valve
when the engine is shut down bleeds the oil from the accu-
mulator-cylinder circuit to tank (Fig. 53). This bleed down
valve allows a mechanic to work on the system without fear
of encountering trapped pressure. The bleed down period
takes about 3 minutes, depending on the oil volume in the
accumulators. This maintains some system potential should
the machine be shut down and then immediately restarted.
After the bleed down period is completed, the accumulator
pistons will be bottomed and the cylinder in the collapsed
position. The accumulators are constructed with a safety
discharge so they cannot be disassembled when charged with
nitrogen.
The selector valve is located at the operator station within
easy reach by the right hand (Fig. 54). Lockdown is in ef-
fect with the handle down, which allows for rapid shifting
from cushion ride should an emergency occur.
LOCKDOWN PILOT
TANK PUMP
Fig. 52 - Cushion Hitch selector valve - cushion ride
LOCKDOWN PILOT
Fig. 53 - Cushion Hitch selector valve - dead engine
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CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER 835

Control Schematic - A complete schematic is shown in
Fig. 55, giving the hydraulic connection relation between
all valves and components. Although the Cushion Hitch
circuit is combined with the small section of the steering
pump, the steering circuit is not shown beyond the discharge
port of the charging valve.
Steering - The steering valve has not been altered due
to any circuit effect caused by the addition of the Cushion
Hitch. The pump flow, however, has been adjusted to allow
for normal steering flow while the 6 gpm is being supplied
to the leveling circuit. A new steering follow-up concept
is required for Cushion Hitch operation, due to the relative
vertical motion between the hitch castings. Since a mechan-
ical follow -up link cannot be economically designed to
tolerate this continual change and give a true feedback sig-
nal, a hydraulic link is required. This feedback is performed
by two hydraulic cylinders connected by small lines (Fig.
56). The signal cylinder senses the angular change of the
tractor with respect to the scraper at the pivot point, and
this signal is sent to the slave cylinder connected to the
feedback link of the steering sector.
In case of mechanical or hydraulic failure of the fol-
low -up system, the steering system converts to nonfollow -up
steer. The flow restrictor orifices and the piston brake at the
slave cylinder restrict movement should a hose fail. Relief
valves at the signal cylinder vent any pressure above 500
psi during initial and operational synchronization. The
check valves at the salve cylinder replenish any oil that has
been vented. This oil is provided by a low pressure restrictor
valve in the steering oil return line. Fig. 57 shows the signal
cylinder mounted on the left side of the hitch so as to give
a linear output for angular changes.

TO STEERING
VALVE
/ 500 PSI
CHECK VALVES IELIEF
TANK VALVES
40 PSI MAKE UP OIL
RECEIVING SIGNAL
CYLINDER CYLINDER
Fig. 54 - Selector valve at operator station Fig. 56 - Steering follow-up schematic

CUSHION
HITCH
CfL HDER

r n

DRAIN LEVELIHC VALVE CR0HP

ACCUM
ILEEI ORIFICE t > ) I

SELECTOR
VALVE l>
SHPPl!

UCCUM PRES
l*SEHSIHC LIRE
ACCHMHLIT0R
STEERIHC RARCIHC VALVE CROUP
CIRCIIT "
tORIIH %

FILTER POMP RESERVOIR

ACCOMHIATOR SHPPLY
Fig. 55 - Complete schematic of control circuit
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018
836
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS - A Cushion Hitch struc-
ture with adequate life is a must for production. A function-
ally sound but unreliable Cushion Hitch vehicle would have
little value to the owner. With a configuration largely de-
termined by vehicle steering requirements, the tractor -
scraper hitch transmits large and frequent loads between the
tractor and scraper. Historically, tractor-scraper hitch struc-
tures were susceptible to fatigue damage.
The Cushion Hitch structure which allows the large trac-
tor-to-scraper displacement matches established life standards
of the non-Cushion Hitch. Life standards are defined as a
given number of test cycles on the full-size laboratory and
the ditch course accelerated fatigue tests without any failure
which requires weld repair. The tests are considered equal
in severity and are related to field test hours. They are des-
cribed later in the paper in detail. For Cushion Hitch struc-
tures to meet life standards, design stress levels for steel
castings were based on experience with similar applications.
It required careful seeking for a structure which would pro-
vide the shortest, most efficient load path between the trac-
tor and scraper to obtain these stress levels.
Fig. 57 - Follow-up cylinder mounted on lift side of hitch
Fig. 58 - Loads imposed on the hitch by rimpull, vertical
loading, steering, and oscillation stops
J. W. CARTER, ETAL.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN -
LOADS - The loads which the hitch carries between the
tractor and scraper are shown on Fig. 58. Rimpull loading
is shown on illustration A, vertical loading is shown on illus-
tration B, steering and "steering effect" are depicted by illus-
tration C, and illustration D shows the effect of full oscilla-
tion of the tractor with respect to the scraper. Rimpull loads,
which are applied at the tire-ground line due to vehicle ac-
celeration, motivation, or braking and also vertical loads
which result from vehicle mass, both apply couples about an
axis parallel to the tractor axle. Rimpull forces produce the
largest force range on the hitch. Vertical loading does not
reverse and varies with payload and the dynamic effect due
to terrain. The most efficient structure for rimpull and ver-
tical loads would be I-beams on the centerline of the vehicle
connected by links with a rectangular cross-section. Fig.
59A shows such an I-beam hitch assembly.
Steering and "steer effect" apply a couple about an axis
parallel to the articulation pivot of the tractor-scraper.
"Steering effect" is structural loading which results when
only one wheel hits a rut. The most efficient "trapezoidal
form" linkage to carry this type of loading would be large,
tubular, and cylindrically shaped front and rear structures
connected by wide links with a round tubular web. Fig. 59B
depicts such a configuration.
Steering, rimpull, and vertical loadings are frequent
enough for fatigue concern. The fourth type of loading due
to stop contact at maximum oscillation is infrequent, but a
high load requirement. To carry the last-mentioned load
most efficiently, it would require wide box sections for the
Fig. 59 - Structural configuration designed for specific loads
carried by the hitch
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018
CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER
front and rear members connected with wide links which
have large round tubular webs.
Structural Configuration - By balancing the size of the
couples and utilizing the space available for hitch compo-
nents, a compromise structure was designed. Fig. 60 is an
exploded view of the Cushion Hitch assembly. The front
casting is composed of box sections, except for the load cyl-
inder slot. The rear casting with steering pivots also has a
box section body with box section arms which straddle the
front casting, providing space to allow load cylinder removal
without disconnecting the tractor from the scraper. The
links are "short" with an oval section torsion web, and they
straddle the front casting. The hitch configuration provides
a short load path for the forces which are transmitted be-
tween the tractor and scraper, and it still encloses enough
area to be an efficient torque carrying structure.
The front and rear hitch structures were designed as steel
castings to minimize stress concentrations and also to get
section variation to match strength requirements. The cast-
ings are connected through heat treated alloy pins with
heat treated links. The links are equipped with shim adjust-
able, hardened bronze bearings. Hardened steel pressed-in
bushings protect the bores of the large castings. The rotat-
ing bearings in the link are greased and are sealed to the
outside of the assembly. Fig. 61 is a section through the
hitch-to-link pivot which shows bearing details.
The wider-than-long link assembly is made by flash-butt
welding two forgings at the relatively low stressed torsion
web center. Fig. 62 shows the weld configuration. Flash-
butt welding allowed ideal forging direction and shape plus
a smaller, cheaper, forging. Heat treatment is after weld-
ing.
LINK
CYLINDER
REAR
CASTING
FRONT CASTING
Fig. 60 - Exploded view of the production Cushion Hitch
837
Life - It was decided in the production design stage that
the scraper-tractor components including the hitch were to
have the same strength as the non-Cushion Hitch. Initial
stress work with the research vehicle indicated the frequency
of stress cycle occurrence would be greatly decreased, but
increased speed would require similar strength for structures
sensitive to vertical loading, such as draft arms. The load
resulting from the initial load input with the Cushion Hitch
at the higher speeds is approximately equal to the input at
the lower speeds possible with the non-Cushion Hitch. Since
the frequency of stress cycles is reduced, and the stress in
the structures due to the initial input force at the higher
speed has approximately the same magnitude, scraper and
tractor components with the Cushion Hitch will have a longer
life. Hydraulic control components were designed to match
vehicle structural life.
SAFETY DESIGN - The Cushion Hitch is an entirely new
concept which protects the operator's body from many shocks
and prevents the bouncing of the vehicle from increasing
until complete control is lost. These factors were goals at
the start of the program to dampen the bounce of an earth-
mover and would certainly make a safer vehicle. Additional
variables were apparent as the Cushion Hitch configuration
was developed, which warranted a careful look during pro-
duction design from the safety angle to protect operators
and service personnel. Hydraulic control safety items such
as accumulator bleeddown at engine shutdown, lockdown
Fig. 61 - Cross section of casting to link pivot
FLASH BUTT
WELD
Fig. 62 - Cushion Hitch link flash-butt weld configuration
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018

838 J. W. CARTER, ET AL.

control availability for emergency braking, and safe startup weight since every additional pound of material in the v e -
procedure were discussed earlier in the paper. The scraper hicle is a pound less of payload. The short load path design
and Cushion Hitch control lines and the leveling valve were and thorough structural evaluation, which is discussed later
located on the right side of the vehicle (opposite operator) in the paper, minimized weight increase over a non-Cushion
so the hitch would serve as a shield if a failure occurred. Hitch. Initial low cost affects productivity and is always a
Fig. 63 is a view of the right side of the hitch assembly goal during design.
which shows the location of lines and valves and also the Cost was kept at a minimum by keeping the design sim-
gaurd over the leveling valve. ple, which is also compatible with the shortest load path
Visibility to the operator's right and rear had to approach structure. Materials and machining requirements familiar
the non-Cushion machine for safe operation on congested to manufacturing were used. Heat treated links, pins, and
jobs. The short links and narrow hitch structure design mini- plain heat treated bronze bearings minimized component
mized loss of visibility in these directions. size and weight.
SERVICEABILITY DESIGN - Serviceability is an important EVALUATION GUIDELINES - The Cushion Hitch required
production design criteria which affects design acceptance. functional and reliability evaluation. Will it function to
The vehicle as a whole and the hitch were both considered. dampen road shocks and make the associated gains in pro -
Exchangeability of tractor components, such as the torque
convenor and pumps, and the accessibility of dipsticks and
lubrication points could be adversely affected by adding the
larger hitch assembly with the added control lines. In addi-
tion to the extra lines in the hitch area, the lines needed to
be longer to accept the hitch deflection.
Hitch castings were shaped to maintain serviceability of
the torque convertor transmission and pumps. Dipsticks were
raised to eliminate the need for service personnel getting
into an awkward position to check them, and remote fittings
were used for hard-to-get-to lubrication points.
Hitch bearings are adjustable for thrust without disconnect-
ing the tractor from the scraper. The hitch assembly is d e -
signed so the load cylinder can be removed by disconnecting
the cylinder and lifting it out the side of the hitch assembly.
The serviceability of the tractor components, hitch bearings,
and load cylinder were additional factors which lead to the
narrow casting, short link design configuration. Fig. 64 - Tuning test of the Cushion Hitch vehicle at the
PRODUCTIVITY DESIGN - Haul units are sensitive to proving ground

SCRAPER CONTROL LINES

■' CUSHION HITCH LINES
r.—•«, ' ■"' D E L I N G VALVE GUARD
■if $w "; *^3 "^''i^WWSBBl
fi*.-- ,-^F¥ {\ ... — '■ W '-■■"

Fig. 63 - View of the right side of Cush-

ion Hitch tractor which shows the hydrau-
lic lines and leveling valve guard
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018

CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER 839

ductivity and safety and still retain the earthmoving versa- Next, came the accelerated fatigue tests in the labora-
tility and safety of a non-Cushion earthmover? Do the hitch, tory and at the Arizona Proving Ground for reliability. The
hitch controls, and vehicle structure match life standards? lab test is a full-scale component test bed where rimpull,
Function is best checked at the proving ground and in the vertical, and steering loads are applied to the hitch in a
field. It would be possible to check structural reliability at cycle which simulates field loading. Component life on this
the proving ground and in the field by operating several years cycle can be related historically to field life in service meter
on an earthmoving cycle. A combination of accelerated hours. Fig. 65 shows the bed plate with the hitch installed
fatigue tests in the laboratory and on the ditch course pro- where the load cycle is applied to the frame. The compo-
duced the answer in a fraction of the time required on earth-
moving cycles. Also, another advantage is that the life of
the Cushion Hitch structure on the standard controlled tests
is compared with the non-Cushion Hitch structure which have
been evaluated on the same tests. The experience with the
non-Cushion Hitch structure, which has been customer tested
for years and thousands of hours, then relates to the Cushion
Hitch structure.
FUNCTIONAL EVALUATION - Tests of ride and bump
damping characteristics at the proving ground assured that
the cushioning effeciency of the production vehicle matched
the research machine. Fig. 64 shows the tuning arrangement
for the Cushion Hitch at the proving ground. Controls were
evaluated for operator convenience and safety, both at the
proving ground and in the field, by engineered tests and op-
erator judgment. The vehicle was moved from job to job
to gain the experience of a wider range of field conditions.
RELIABILITY EVALUATION -
Proving Ground and Laboratory Life Measurement - How
was the production design Cushion Hitch vehicle checked for
life standards? The process started at the proving ground.
Stress magnitudes under both normal and extreme operating
conditions were checked at the proving ground with brittle
lacquer stress coat to determine high stress areas and with
strain gages to measure magnitude. After the initial shake-
down for high stresses, which gave an early indication of
weak spots, the vehicle was put on an earthmoving cycle to
check for overall operating characteristics, safety, bearing
wear, and component serviceability. Fig. 66 - Cushion Hitch link web torsion test specimen

Fig. 65 - Accelerated fatigue test bed

plate facility
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018
840
nents are stress coated and then strain gaged at the areas of
high stress as determined by the stress coat. The test engi-
neer and designer then know the stress at a location produced
by a known load. In the lab, stress coating and strain gages
are applied and read under controlled conditions which elim-
inate the problems caused by mobility and weather at the
proving ground and in the field. Also, the life answer is de-
termined in a short time, since the lab test can be operated
on a 24 hr basis.
A separate fatigue test was run on the forged flash-butt
welded link webs. The weld process with a large cross sec-
tion was new to Caterpillar, so life scatter and fatigue life
of the weld versus parent metal were needed in a shorter
time than the full-scale test would produce. The fully re-
versed torsion cycle applied to the specimen was based on
the stress determined by the stress coat and strain gage read-
ings from the full-scale lab test. Fig. 66 shows the specimens
for the torsion test.
The Arizona Proving Ground ditch course provided the
second accelerated fatigue test. It not only tested the hitch
but the entire vehicle. The course was created by cutting a
series of straight (perpendicular to direction of travel) and a
series of diagonal (45 deg to direction of travel) wheelbase
spaced ditches in caliche soil.
By traversing the straight ditch course at the speed which
put the vehicle in resonance, the vehicle was loaded dynam-
ically both vertically (bounce) and horizontally (forward and
reverse rimpull). Refer to Fig. 67 for ditch course loading.
Vertical loading was accomplished when the tires dropped
into the ditch and reacted to accelerate the vehicle upward.
VERTICAL
REVERSE RP
FORWARD RP
Fig. 67 - Illustration of loads applied to the Cushion Hitch
by the accelerated fatigue test ditch course
J. W. CARTER, ET AL.
Horizontal forces applied to the wheels when they first
hit the forward portion of the ditch duplicated the effects of
braking. The forward rimpull loading effect of accelerating
and forward motivation were duplicated when the drive
wheels crawled out of the bump.
Traversing the diagonal ditch course applied a dynamic
steering load. When the right tractor wheel and the left
scraper wheel hit a diagonal ditch simultaneously, the effect
is the same as when a tractor or scraper wheel hits a rut in
the haul road or fill, which twists the vehicle about the king-
bolt. Thus, the three loadings of steering, vertical, and rim-
pull were applied by the ditch course. A comparison of the
magnitude of the forces felt on the hitch of the ditch course
and at the Tech Center test are shown on Fig. 68.
Although the input loads cannot be controlled nor the
loads measured as precisely as in the lab, the ditch course
had advantages over the lab test. It tested the whole vehicle
structure plus hydraulic cylinders, control lines, and vehicle
safety. Since the ditch course was in the Arizona desert, the
hydraulic control circuit was endurance tested in high am-
bient temperatures under extreme working conditions.
The Cushion Hitch, with the tractor-scraper on the reson-
ant speed designed course, would dampen the bounce before
the tractor tires would drop into the next bump and reinforce
the vehicle vibration or bounce. This stabilizing effect dem-
onstrated that the Cushion Hitch was a safer vehicle than the
non-Cushion machine. Some unexplained loss-of-control
accidents with tractor-scrapers may be prevented by use of
the Cushion Hitch.
Field Life Measurement - The next step, in the reliability
check, was to take the Cushion Hitch to a customer's job to
get an indication of its life by measuring load magnitude
and frequency of load occurrence on an earthmoving cycle
both with cushion ride and lockdown. These data could be
related historically to similar measurements made previously
on non-Cushion Hitch machines. Life of the Cushion Hitch
vehicle could then be forecast and compared with the life
of the non-Cushion Hitch. The Cushion Hitch was instru-
mented on several contractor sites to get a cross section of
jobs and uses. The three basic loads measured were: ver-
tical, measured at the bowl cylinder yokes; rimpull, meas-
ILAB DITCH
RIMPULL VERTICAL STEER
Fig. 68 - Comparison of stress range applied on the hitch by
the ditch course and laboratory accelerated fatigue tests
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018

CUSHION HITCH TRACTOR-SCRAPER 841

ured at the draft arm pins; and steering, measured at the
steering cylinders. Strain gaged steering and bowl lift rods
and calibrated draft arm pins served as transducers. Fig. 69
shows the instrumented vehicle.
Previously, load measurement capability was limited by
the amount of data which could be recorded with portable,
bulky instrumentation on the vehicle and the amount of data
which could be manually analyzed. The Cushion Hitch data
were recorded with a tape recorder so a number of complete
earthmoving cycles could be stored. The results were r e -
duced with the computer which eliminated the time and cost
burden of manually reducing the data.
Fig. 70 shows typical load versus time' traces of the three
basic loads on the vehicle which occurred during an earth-
moving cycle. Note the greatly reduced vertical dynamic
loading, the decreased rimpull loading, and the similar steer-
ing loading of the Cushion versus non-Cushion vehicle. There
should be no expected reduction in steering loads on the v e -
hicle due to the Cushion Hitch. This is supported by the
trace.
Fig. 71 compares the frequency of occurrence of vertical
load ranges per earthmoving cycle with Cushion and non-
Cushion operation. This bar chart comparison indicates
longer structural life for the vehicle with the Cushion Hitch.
Increased life magnitude with the hitch can be better de-
1. CUSHION HITCH DISP
2. BOWL LIFT ROD FORCE
3. DRAFT ARM PIN FORCE
4. STEERING ROD FORCE
TH CUSH
i^ea==ii^^^*^|p«^^^?E^s2;

TAPE RECORDER

Fig. 70 - Comparative force traces of non-Cushion Hitch

and Cushion Hitch as function of time recorded in field

I CUSHION HITCH

NON-CUSHION HITCH

D
ML
1 2 3 4
BOWL LIFT FORCE RANGE, LEVELS n
_□_

Fig. 71 - Comparison of sums of vertical load occurrences

Fig. 69 - Instrumented vehicle in field imposed on non-Cushion and Cushion Hitch vehicle in field
 Downloaded from SAE International by Imperial College London, Tuesday, August 21, 2018

842 J. W. CARTER, ET AL.

fined by using Corten-Dolan's relationship for calculating showed the Cushion Hitch vehicle, loaded or empty, con-
fatigue damage to structures. The structural damage caused sistently averaged higher speeds than the non-Cushion. A
by each vertical load applied at the bowl lift cylinders dur- variable left out of all studies is operator fatigue, which in-
ing complete earthmoving cycles (using the Corten-Dolan creases as his number of hours at the controls increases.
relationship) were evaluated and added with a digital com- The Cushion Hitch vehicle was equipped with the same
puter. power train as the comparable size 3-axle tractor-scraper.
The calculated damage due to vertical loading with the It was placed with a fleet of 3-axle machines, and a pro-
non-Cushion Hitch was 4.3 times as great as with the Cush- ductivity study was made. The Cushion Hitch 2-axle vehicle
ion Hitch for the earthmoving cycle depicted on the traces showed a slight decrease in cycle t i m e . The 3-axle vehicle
of Fig. 70. The same data are presented as a histogram on has been used historically on jobs with excellent tractive con-
the bar graph of Fig. 71, which shows the frequency of occur- ditions and long hauls where the higher top speed and better
rence of vertical loading for the same earthmoving cycle. ride shows a cycle time advantage over 2-axle scrapers. In
The 4.3 times the life value for components affected by ver- addition to showing a cycle time decrease over the 3-axle
tical loads was typical for the customer earthmover cycles vehicle, the Cushion Hitch retains the inherent advantage
evaluated. Some tractor-scraper vehicle components signif- of traction and maneuverability of the single-axle tractor.
icantly affected by vertical loading are wheel housing In summary, on most jobs the Cushion Hitch will show a
axles, push frames, bowl spreader, bowl lift cylinders, draft productivity gain. An earthmover will be used on different
arms, and the draft tube-to-gooseneck connection. These types of jobs during its life and statistics will show a signifi-
areas, historically, have been susceptible to fatigue damage. cant productivity gain for the vehicle equipped with the
Note that these values of increased life were at the increased Cushion Hitch.
speeds associated with the Cushion Hitch. SAFETY EVALUATION - During design every attempt was
PRODUCTIVITY EVALUATION - The justification of any made to eliminate safety hazards, but there always are new
earthmover is its productivity. How does the Cushion Hitch considerations as the vehicle is put into service. For example,
affect productivity? It is easier to list the Cushion Hitch what happens when a hitch control hose or leveling valve
factors which will add or subtract from the productivity of fails while traversing a rough fill ? Will the tractor slam
the tractor-scraper than to put a figure on the net gain. This wildly up and down and the vehicle go out of control? This
is a result of the job versatility of the tractor-scraper. First, was tried at the proving ground without any dire effects. As
the negative and positive factors will be listed, and then a a similar example, what happens if the operator forgets and
timed productivity study of the hitch working with a non- leaves the selector lever in lockdown position and the v e -
Cushion fleet of 2-axlescrapers and a fleet of 3-axle scrapers hicle goes into bounce resonance? This was also tried, and
will be presented. he can reach the lever in ample time. The hitch responds
1. Factors against: quickly to dampen the lope. Considering machine stability,
(a) Added weight. how will the Cushion Hitch deflection of 10 in. change the
(b) Added cost. forward and back tractor tip angle? It was measured at the
(c) Hitch maintenance requirements. proving ground tilt table and determined that the tractor
2. Factors for: back tip angle remained the same, but the forward tip angle
(a) Faster cycle time. increased 2 deg. This increase is in the safe direction.
(b) Less operator fatigue. Hitch deflection of 5 in. to the collapsed position will
(c) Less haul road maintenance. produce about 2.5 in. of drop at the cutting edge. Operators
(d) Less downtime for structural repairs. are required to maintain the bowl about 2.5 in. higher than
(e) Vehicle life increased. with non-Cushion Hitch. This has been no problem for the
(f) More versatile earthmover. operators at the proving ground or in the field. Every effort
Production was measured on customer jobs with a number has been made to check the Cushion Hitch vehicle for safety.
of "yardsticks." The Cushion Hitch showed from no signifi-
cant change to a 24% decrease in cycle time when compared SUMMARY
to similar non-Cushion scrapers, depending on job conditions.
The only productivity variable omitted in cycle time is load The Cushion Hitch provides a remarkably improved opera-
size, which was assumed to be the same for similar models tor ride with better haul road safety. Owners will observe a
timed during the study. Where there is high rolling resistance significant increase in machine productivity, operator ef-
and speed is limited by horsepower, the Cushion Hitch showed ficiency, and a subsequently reduced cost per yard. It is c a p -
no significant gain, as expected. Since the haul road part able of assuring near maximum use of vehicle power on jobs
of the cycle is where the cushion accrues most of the speed that formerly caused severe speed restriction due to rough
advantage, the cycle with the very short haul demonstrates ride. The Cushion Hitch vehicle is a well tested, reliable
little advantage for the Cushion Hitch. Speed trap results earthmover.