Downloaded from SAE International by University Of Newcastle, Thursday, August 09, 2018
Downloaded from SAE International by University Of Newcastle, Thursday, August 09, 2018
New Product Development, Rockford Clutch Co., Borg-Warner Corp.
A CLUTCH is a mechanism designed for the interruption
and reestablishment of power transmission between a prime
mover and a load. Different types of clutches are required
for different applications depending on the duty cycle, type
of load to be transmitted, frequency of engagement, and
various other specilized requirements. All clutches could be
catagorized into three general types: mechanical, electric,
and hydraulic-pneumatic. Because of the limited scope of
this paper, only mechanical friction clutches will be dis-
cussed; however, the basic laws of clutch function apply to
all types of clutches.
Mechanical clutches can be subdivided again into two
catagories: positive drive clutches and friction drive clutches.
The positive drive clutch will not slip up to the point of
destruction. Because it does not develop heat during use, a
positive clutch for torque capacity comparable to a friction
clutch is smaller, lighter, and sometimes less costly. In
many instances it is also simpler because it does not require
adjustment for wear. On the negative side, positive drive
clutch can not be engaged at high speeds, shock loads re-
sult from engagement at any speed above zero, and the
clutch is either engaged or disengaged.
CLUTCH ENGAGEMENT
The friction clutches are not without drawbacks. Except
in very specialized composite clutches, they have no positive
drive and some slippage occurs, such that a friction clutch
can not be used as a precision indexing mechanism. The
ABSTRACT
Basic considerations in the design of clutches are dis-
cussed: friction elements during engagement, friction m a -
terial, single or multiplate design, type of cooling, hard-
ware. After a description of the operation of clutch en-
680629
Some Design Considerations
of Heavy Duty Clutches
Romas B. Spokas
friction surfaces experience wear with use and adjustment or
take-up for wear must be incorporated in the clutch m e c h -
anism. Engagement characteristics of the clutch change due
to friction material fade and resulting change of coefficient
of friction. However, if a smooth and controlled engagement
of the power source to the load is required, then a friction
clutch must b e utilized to do the job properly.
To help understand the function of a clutch engagement,
a brief analysis of the engagement phenomena is in order.
In all practical cases, the total load that a clutch is expected
to pick up and carry can be divided into two separate loads:
inertia load and work load. In a hypothetical case, where
all power transmitting hardware would have no mass and
therefore no inertia and there would be only a work load
present with no inertia or friction loads, the engagement
time of a clutch with a slipping torque capacity equal to or
greater than the work torque load would be zero and the
heat generated at the friction surfaces would be zero. Since
this condition does not exist in actuality, it is of no practical
value. The work load must be considered as superimposed
upon the inertia load. Inertia loads vary with the vehicle
and type of duty. When a clutch is engaged under load it
must have sufficient torque capacity to carry the load, plus
the additional amount to accelerate the inertia present in
the load-carrying system at the proper rate to prevent the
clutch plates from deteriorating due to heat.
If a clutch engagement involving pure inertia load be
under consideration, assuming constant input speed, constant
clutch slip torque, and frictionless bearings, then it is found
gagement, each is considered in turn. The author con-
cludes that the heat generated during engagement affects
every factor contributing to clutch torque capacity. This
heat cannot be eliminated, but can be reduced through de-
sign.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University Of Newcastle, Thursday, August 09, 2018
that the amount of heat generated at the friction surfaces
is exactly equal to the final flywheel kinetic energy. This
investigation also reveals that the rate of heat generation
during the clutch engagement is not constant and that heat
is generated at a faster rate at the beginning of engagement
than at the end. In fact, the maximum rate of heat genera-
tion occurs at the first instant of engagement and diminishes
linearly reaching zero at the last instant of engagement.
At the friction surfaces, 50% of the heat generated is liberated
in the first 30% of the total engaging time.
Analyzing a clutch engagement involving a combined
work and inertia load, where the clutch slipping torque c a -
pacity is greater than the work load, the torque load must be
satisfied first. The remainder of the torque capacity of the
clutch is available to accelerate the inertia load. The time
of a clutch engagement is therefore dependent upon the
available torque capacity of the clutch to accelerate the
inertia load and the amount of inertia load itself. The total
heat generated during a clutch engagement increases with
the length of the engagement time. Varying of the torque
capacity of the clutch from a lower amount to a higher
amount, as the clutch engagement progresses, results in a
low rate of heat generation but a higher total amount of
heat generated. Because wet clutches or clutches that are
cooled forcibly by some external means are limited more by
the rate of heat generation than the total amount of heat
generated, it is desirable to start the wet clutch engagement
with a low clamping force and increase it to the maximum
force as the clutch engagement progresses, to limit the rate
of heat generation. Dry clutches are not so susceptible to
heat generation rate since they incorporate larger heat sinks
in the mass of their pressure plate and engine flywheels.
They are more limited to the total amount of heat generated
since all the heat must be transferred to the surrounding air
and, therefore, should be engaged in the shortest possible
time.
To summarize these cases:
1. When applying a constant clutch torque, heat is gen-
erated at a faster rate at the beginning of the engagement
than at the end for all practical applications.
2. The total heat generated during a clutch engagement
involving only an inertia load is always constant regardless
of the engagement.
3. Clutch engagements involving combined work and
inertia loads generate more total heat as the engagement
time increases.
4. In a combined work and inertia load engagement,
increasing the clutch torque capacity as the engagement
progresses results in a lower heat generation rate but higher
amount of heat generated.
These four facts are important and should be considered
when selecting a clutch type and service factor for a par-
ticular application. Because the dry clutch conducts the
heat generated during clutch engagement into the mass of
its parts and must radiate all of it into the surrounding air,
its life depends upon the total amount of heat generated.
The wet clutch, due to the circulation of oil or other cooling performance.
media through clutch plates and other parts, has much of
the heat generated during clutch engagement removed by
the cooling media. It is more sensitive to the rate of heat
generation rather than the total heat generated during a
clutch engagement cycle.
During any clutch engagement under dynamic conditions,
the energy input is partly converted into heat and the re-
mainder is converted into useful work
E. = Q + E (1)
1 o
where:
E; = Energy input
Q = Energy liberated at the friction surface
E = Useful work
o
The main concern to the designer is not how efficient the
clutch is since he has by his own choice the capability to
make the clutch as efficient as he wants it to be, provided
that the design will stand the shock loads involved in an
engagement of 100% efficient clutch, which in this case
would be a jaw or positive drive clutch. The main concern
to the designer is the heat energy liberated at the friction
surface and how it affects clutch function.
DESIGN FACTORS
There are certain data common to all friction clutches
that must be known before a clutch design can be started.
Peak torque of the engine, horsepower to be transmitted,
maximum speed of the engine, and the type of intended
clutch duty (service factor) must be known to start a clutch
design. As design work progresses the designer can make a
choice of the coefficient of friction of a tenative friction
material, single or multiplate design, and type of clutch
cooling required. Clutch torque capacity can be calculated i
with the following formula:
T = R • u . N • P (2)
m
where:
T = Torque capacity, lb in.
R = Mean radius, in.
m
u = Coefficient of friction material
N = Number of active friction surfaces
P = Clamping force, lb
Let us analyze each of the factors in the above formula
separately and determine their particular effect on clutch
 Downloaded from SAE International by University Of Newcastle, Thursday, August 09, 2018

The effective mean radius R is calculated bv the for- If in Eq. 2 force is substituted by the quantity of pressure
3
m times area, then
mula (Fig. 1):

2 (R 3
- R. ) 3
2
o 1 P (R R. ) R TTU (9)
R (3) x m
m 2 2
3(R - R )
o 1
Combining both equations of T and soving for R will give

If uniform pressure is assumed to exist on one friction the above formula.

surface, the differential torque can be expressed by the for- A much simplified formula, R = (R + R.)/2 where
mula m o l
the clutch friction material plate OD to ID ratio is not greater
than 1.75, may be used without introducing significant error.
dT = r u Pda (4) It can be seen from Eq. 2 that an increase in mean ra-
where: dius size would effectively increase the clutch torque.
R
However, if the ratio of R / . is too large, mating plate
Q

r = Radius of differential area, in. surface has a much greater tendency to warp because the
u = Coefficient of friction amount of heat generated at the outermost position of the
P = Normal pressure applied to friction surface, psi plate is then much greater than the heat generated at the
dA = 2 7tr dr (increment of area), sq in. innermost portion of the plate. A too large friction surface
Then: is also undesirable from the point of view of imperfect friction
material and mating surface contact. On the other hand,
dT = 2 7i u Pr dr (5) if R is close to R to increase clutch torque capacity without
m o
increase in size, then the ratio of R /R. could cet too small
0 1
„ / o 2 ,
T = 2 TTU P / r dr (6) and the result is high unit pressure on the friction material
with a high rate of wear of the friction material. Another
problem concerned with size is the increase in mass and the
resulting increase in inertia when the clutch size gets too
large. A much higher grade iron such as malleable or ductile
T = 2TTU P (7) is then required to withstand the effects of centrifugal force
in order to prevent burst of the pressure plate at high speed.
Usually, the R /R. ratio ranges from 1.25 to 1.75.
As was mentioned before, heat in this case causes mating
3 3
T = 2/3TTU P (R - R ) (8) surface warpage and dishing and results in a dimensional
o i
shifting of the effective mean radius. Depending on the
direction of the dishing, the mean radius can shift outward
or inward, resulting in a clutch capacity change. In either
case, dishing then will cause a much higher rate of friction
material wear because of lack of full contact of mating sur-
faces and, in the case of the decrease of mean radius, clutch
capacity may decrease to the point where the full load orig-
inally designed to be carried by the clutch will be too large
and the result will be a failed clutch.

FRICTION MATERIALS

Coefficient of friction factor in Eq. 9 is defined as the

effective coefficient of friction existing between the friction
and the mating surfaces, such as flywheel and pressure plate
of the clutch. In almost all cases, the static and dynamic
coefficients of friction differ, with the static coefficient of
Fig. 1 - Symbolic relationship of radii and area of clutch friction being higher than dynamic. Generally, the dynamic
effective mean radius coefficient of friction of the material is used as the design
factor. As with almost everything in the art of engineering,
choice of friction materials with their particular coefficients
 Downloaded from SAE International by University Of Newcastle, Thursday, August 09, 2018

of friction must be a compromise. Organic woven or molded the high heat tolerance of the friction material the mating
friction materials such as asbestos fiber base type have a surfaces will heat up to the elastic state and get heat checked
coefficient of friction of about 0.25 (dynamic), have a lower and scalloped. Once the friction surfaces become uneven,
sustained temperature tolerance, but give a smooth clutch then again a high rate of wear of the friction material is the
engagement and less wear of the mating surfaces. Sintered result.
metal, ceramic bronze, or other inorganic friction m a t e -
rials have a coefficient of friction between 0.32 and 0.4, CLUTCH HARDWARE
are capable of operating at higher temperature, but give
much more aggressive clutch engagement characteristics. Factor N in Eq. 2 is the number of active friction surfaces
(See Fig. 2.) between the driving and driven members of the clutch. It
The difference between static and dynamic coefficients is quite apparent that an increase in the factor N would di-
of friction in any friction material gives an undesirable chat- rectly increase the clutch torque capacity. However, there
ter condition just prior to lockup of the clutch. Much progress again are penalties imposed when an increase in the number
has been made in recent years by friction material m a n - of clutch plates is contemplated. In case of dry clutches,
ufacturers in the areas of suppressing the gap between static the practical limit on the number of plates is three plates
and dynamic coefficients of friction, tolerance to heat, and or six friction surfaces (Figs. 3 and 4). In wet clutches, the
long wear. Because of the wide variety of friction materials number of plates is much greater, with 10 plates or 20 ac-
available, it is impossible to designate any one material as tive friction surfaces not uncommon.
being superior to all others and the designer can specify his Limiting factors on the number of plates practical in a
choice of a friction material which would be best for any clutch assembly are the amount of pressure plate release
particular job. But he has to keep in mind that again he has available, plate separation, and plate spline drag. If clutch
heat to consider and what amount of heat generated during linkage normally used in a single plate clutch assembly is
each duty cycle of his particular applications would do to used in a three-plate clutch assembly, then the clutch pressure
the friction material. If the friction material is organic, plate release that is available for a single plate is utilized
excessive heat will soften the bonding resins making them for three plates and the distance between driving and driven
bleed out of the friction material compound, changing the discs is proportionally smaller (Fig. 5). This naturally increases
coefficient of friction between the mating surfaces breaking clutch drag in the released position. If a lower ratio linkage
down of the surface and resulting in a very high rate of wear. is used to obtain more release travel, then the release effort
With inorganic friction materials, the danger from heat is proportionally increased. Dry clutches should have a m i n -
is not as much to the friction material itself, but because of imum release running clearance of 0.020 in. for each friction
surface. In wet clutches, where viscous drag of the oil is
also to be considered, running clearance of between 0.005-
0.015 in. (depending on oil used and clutch plate size) is r e -
quired. Spline friction of the plates with mating shaft or
drum also increases clutch drag in the released position and
reduces the effective clamping force of the clutch in the
engaged position. In wet clutches, because of the lubricat-
ing capability of the cooling media, the spline drag is not

Fig. 2 - Typical friction materials used in heavy duty

clutches: (A) bronze/ceramic button, (b) bronze/ceramic
whole ring, (C) iron/ceramic whole ring, (D) organic whole
i p-
r n Fig. 3 - Typical over-center two-plate dry clutch
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as severe and more plates can be used. In dry clutches, cen- actual pressure plate release travel may be expected (Fig. 6
tering devices to locate the plates in a pre-established posi- and Table 1).
tion when the clutch is released are recommended. Again, Center plates must be made with sufficient mass to be
the mechanisms would get too elaborate and impractical able to absorb and dissipate the heat generated on its friction
when the clutch plate number exceeds two or three. surfaces. Too many times, in a two-plate clutch, the center
Clutch hardware deflection must be considered when
clutch linkage ratio and pressure plate release are designed
in the clutch. A 5-10% difference between theoretical and

Fig. 6 - Clutch evaluation by measurement of pressure plate

release, release effort, back plate deflection, and internal
friction at different release lever settings

Table 1 - Values of Fi g. 6 in Plotted Form

Pressure Clutch
Travel at Plate Release Back
End of Release Force Plate
Levers Down Return Down Return Deflection

Fig. 4 - Cross section and nomenclature of over-center 0.050 0.005 0.005 254 204 0.002
clutch shown in Fig. 3 0.100 0.016 0.014 398 366 0.006
0.150 0.027 0.025 412 376 0.006
0.200 0.038 0.037 420 384 0.006
0.250 0.049 0.048 428 392 0.007
0.300 0.060 0.059 438 400 0.007
0.350 0.071 0.070 446 412 0.007
0.400 0.083 0.083 454 422 0.007
0.450 0.095 0.095 464 436 0.007
0.500 0.107 474 0.007
0.550
0.600

Force down 1620

Force up 1616
0.050 1544
Force at
0.100 1473
wear
0.150 1406
increments
0.200 1338
Fig. 5 - Multiplate wet clutch, 6 in. dia
 Downloaded from SAE International by University Of Newcastle, Thursday, August 09, 2018
plate is made equal to or smaller in mass than the pressure
plate of the clutch, completely neglecting the fact that the
center plate will have to absorb twice as much heat as the
pressure plate.
In mechanical clutches, the clamping force is obtained
in one of two ways. The clutch has a complement of springs
which load the pressure plate, or there is some type of over-
center linkage arrangement, which when the clutch is being
engaged, loads the pressure plate by the actual deflection
of clutch hardware. It should be noted that the other basic
types of friction clutches mentioned earlier differentiate
from mechanical clutches only in the method of applying
clamping force. In case of hydraulic or pneumatic clutches,
the clamping force is obtained by the use of a hydraulic or
pneumatic cylinder with hydraulic or pneumatic pressure
actuating it. In the case of electric clutches, an electric
current activates an electromagnet which in turn exerts a
clamping force for the clutch. (See Figs. 7 and 8.)
Observing the Eq. 2, it is clear that a direct increase in
P will result in a direct increase in clutch torque capacity.
One of the first things to limit P is the allowable load-
ing per square inch of the facing material used. Since
almost every friction material has its own unit loading
limitations, the designer must be aware of this limit
when he is specifying a particular clamping force. Also,
as a general rule, wear of the friction material increases
with an increase in unit loading. In case of mechanical
PRESSURE PLATE
PRESSURE SPRING
FRICTION
MATERIAL
BACK PLATE
VIBRATION
DAMPENER
PTO HUB
HUB
ASSEMBLY
R E L E A S E LEVER
DRIVEN M E M B E R COVER
ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY
Fig. 7 - Cross section of clutch showing pressure plate
loaded by springs
clutches, clutch release effort increases proportionately
with increase in clamping load. A very definite limit
exists on the amount of effort required to release the clutch.
Because of the usual space limitations imposed upon the
clutch designer, small size clutches must carry large loads
and, therefore, have high clamping forces. The rates of
clutch release force buildup and loss of clamping force with
facing material wear increases with increase in clamping
force. When longer springs are used to decrease the effective
spring rate, then centrifugal forces which exist in the clutch
tend to deform and buckle the clamping springs.
The effect of centrifugal force acting on clutch release
levers must also be considered. Unless the levers are de-
signed so that they are centrifugally balanced and exert no
forces around their own pivot axis, they will either unload
the pressure plate to some degree, thereby reducing the ef-
fective clamping force on the friction material; or they will
load the pressure plate, thereby adding clamping force to
the friction material and requiring an increase in release
effort to disengage the clutch.
Heat generated during clutch engagement has adverse
effects on clamping force springs in that it tends to remove
the temper from the springs, thereby decreasing the clamping
force. In applications where the heat generation is expected
to be high due to the duty cycle, means to prevent spring
relaxation are recommended. These are the use of insulating
washers between pressure plate and the springs and man-
ufacturing the springs from high temperature steel, such as
chrome-silicon or chrome-vanadium steel.
DRIVE RING
DRIVE PLATE
RELEASE LEVER
SYSTEM
RELEASE
CLUTCH BEARING
BODY
RELEASE
SLEEVE
ADJUSTING RING
PRESSURE PLATE
Fig. 8 - Cross section of clutch showing pressure plate
loaded by over-center linkage system
 Downloaded from SAE International by University Of Newcastle, Thursday, August 09, 2018

EFFECT OF HEAT sembly. While this procedure is not 100% reliable due to
variation in application and end user, it does give the de-
It can be seen that heat affects every factor of Eq. 2. signer one measure of clutch mass requirement. Ventilation
Heat can b e controlled several ways. In a well-defined holes and passageways help to reduce clutch temperature.
clutch duty cycle with all values such as horsepower trans- The return of the wet or oil cooled clutch with its superior
mitted, speed, engagement or slip time, acceleration time, performancehas opened a new field of applications for clutches.
running while engaged time, running while released time, In any clutch application, unless the clutch is used as a
and cycle repeat time known, it is possible to calculate the torque limiting device, the clutch torque capacity exceeds
theoretical temperature rise of the given mass clutch as- the prime mover torque capability. The ratio of clutch torque
capacity to the prime mover torque capacity is known as the
service factor. Service factors range from 1.25 for light
on-highway trucks to 4.0 fete heavy crawler tractors.
Table 2 - Service Factors Since wet clutches have their heat removed by some
cooling media, their application service factors usually run
Service Factors Service Factors lower than identical duty applications with dry clutches.
for Mechanically for Wet Mechanical Excessive service factors are undesirable because engage-
Actuated Dry and Hydraulic ment characteristics of high service factor applications b e -
Applications Clutches Clutches come progressively more aggressive with resulting shocks to
the drive line, jack-rabbit starts, and other problems more
Tractors related to jaw-type clutches. In wet clutch applications,
Heavy Crawler 4.0 3.0 an excessive service factor reduces engagement time with
Light Crawler 2.5 2.0 increased surface temperature and resulting damage to facing
Wheel Farm 2.0 1.5 material.
Wheel Industrial 3.0 2.0 Table 2 lists service factors for dry and wet clutches.
Scraper Hauler 3.0 2.0 These service factors are based on averages of satisfactory
Trucks service for typical applications using no torque converter.
Small Highway 1.25 1.25
Medium Highway 1.5 1.5 CONCLUSION
Large Highway 2.0 1.5
Fork Lift 4.0 2.0 In review it can b e seen that every friction clutch gen-
Motor Graders 3.0 2.0 erates heat during engagement. In turn, heat affects every
Farm Machinery factor contributing to clutch torque capacity. While the
Self-Propelled 2.0 1.5 heat generated during clutch engagement can not be elim-
Power Take-Off inated, its effects may be reduced through good design and
Applications proper application to a particular job.
Reciprocating
Compressors 4.0 REFERENCES
Turbine
Compressors 3.0 1. T. P. Newcomb, "Temperatures Reached in Friction
Blowers 4.0 Clutch Transmissions." Journal of Mechanical Engineering
Reciprocating Science, Vol. 2, No. 4.
Pumps 3.0 2. E. F. Finkin, "The Consequences of Spline Friction in
Centrifugal Pumps 1.5 Multiple Disk Brake and Clutch Packs." ASME Transactions,
Rock Crushers 3.0 Paper 67-Lub 26.
Coal Augers 2.5 3. L. P. Ludwig, "Engagement Characteristics of Wet -
Concrete Mixers 2.0 Type Clutches." SAE Transactions, Vol. 67 (1959), pp. 391-
Mud Pumps 3.0 400.
Farm Tractor PTO 2.0 1.5 4. G. R. Harting, "Design and Applications of Heavy-
Duty Clutches." SAE Special Publication 239.

This paper is subject to revision. Statements and opinions
advanced in papers or discussion are the author's and are
his responsibility, not the Society's; however, the paper has
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
been edited by SAE for uniform styling and format. Discussion will be printed
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