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Result of Gender Discrimination on Reproductive Health of Married Women in

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 BANGLADESH RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS JOURNAL
ISSN: 1998-2003, Volume: 8, Issue: 3, Page: 239-249, May - June, 2013

Review Paper
GENDER DISCRIMINATION ON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF MARRIED WOMEN
IN BANGLADESH

Amit Kumar Biswas*1, Md. Kayum Shikdar2, Tarana Tabassum3 and Ripon Mollick4

Amit Kumar Biswas, Md. Kayum Shikdar, Tarana Tabassum and Ripon Mollick (2013). Gender Discrimination on
Reproductive Health of Married Women in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Res. Pub. J. 8(3): 239-249. Retrieve from
http://www.bdresearchpublications.com/admin/journal/upload/1308134/1308134.pdf

Abstract
Gender discrimination has been identified as one of the prime reproductive health
issues in Bangladesh. This study aims to determine the effect of gender inequality on
the reproductive health of married women in ward no 24 and 25 of Khulna city and
two villages of Dhigolia thana of Khulna district named Chondonimahal and
Hajigram of Bangladesh. The study was conducted on 200 respondents through
survey, case study and observation method. From the analysis of data it comes
clear that the term gender inequality has a clear effect on the reproductive health
of the women of study area Almost 76 percent respondents had to perform regular
household activities during their pregnancy, and 41.5 percent respondents didn’t
get proper medical facility from the health personnel. On the other hand 62
percent respondents use contraceptive techniques and they had a less access on
the taking decision of use contraceptive techniques and 41.5 percent decision was
taken by their husband. It is also evident that 33.5 percent respondents faced
problems due to use birth control method. In the case of child delivery, 80 percent
of total delivery placed at home and 68.35 percent delivery was assisted by
traditional birth attendants (Dai) but in rural area it happened for 85.1 percent
cases. Abortion happened for 22 percent of total respondents and it is astounding
that due to conceive of girl child 13 percent respondents were forced by their
husband to make abortion. The study concludes that to improve this regrettable
state of affairs, some realistic steps are needed to be initiated not only by the major
paramount agencies, such as GO and NGOs but also by the women themselves.
Efforts, therefore, need to be made to arouse people’s concern and create
awareness of gender differences, with particular emphasis on poorer farm
households.

Key words: Gender discrimination, offspring, pregnancy, pre-natal care, reproductive

health, sexual intercourse.
Introduction
“The afflicted world in which we live is characterized by deeply unequal sharing of the
burden of adversities between women and men. Gender inequality exists in most parts of
the world, from Japan to Morocco, from Uzbekistan to the United States of America.
However, inequality between women and men can take very many different forms.
Indeed, gender inequality is not one homogeneous phenomenon, but a collection of
disparate and interlinked problems.” (Sen, 2001). In developing countries like Bangladesh
Gender inequality is of particular importance to the study of reproductive health. The
construction of feminine identity, centered on motherhood and the ability to relate to
others, has decisive consequences for self-esteem, social valuation, and the capacity of
women to make decisions and act in their own self interest. Women living in contexts of
limited female autonomy are often pressured into early pregnancy and union and to
having large families. The need to satisfy expectations for their gender and social position,
fear of being devalued or abandoned, and the desire to cement affective relationships
may restrict their capacity to exercise their sexuality with autonomy and to separate it
from procreation. Similarly, a wife's personal convictions on birth control and family

Corresponding Author’s E-mail: Amitbiswasku@gmail.com

1 , 2, 3 & 4 Student in BSS (Hons.) in Sociology, Sociology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh.
Biswas et al. 240
planning are irrelevant in decision-making; once again she plays a passive role to her
husband's wishes. If the husband dislikes birth control, for whatever reason, then the wife
has no way of protecting herself from unwanted pregnancies. Often there is a pressure
from the husband's family for the wife to produce male offspring. The family is mainly
concerned with the birth of heirs, not the good health of the mother. Inadequate medical
care and nutritionally inferior diets for many women result in poor health and babies with
low birth weight, which affects future generations. As result of gender discrimination, the
reproductive health condition of the adolescent girls and women are in deplorable
situation (Prokash, 2011).
This study is based on the objectives that:
To identify the relationship between gender inequalities and reproductive health
and attempt to seek out the factors those affect the distribution of reproductive health of
married women.
To know whether the rural women or urban women are facing the problems
bitterly as the effect of gender inequality.
To find out the effect of birth control technique on the married women and its
relations to gender inequality.
To explore the idea of the major obstacles of satisfactory reproductive health.
To know the initiatives and strategies to solve reproductive health problem
created due to gender inequality.
Material and Methods
The study was conducted through the use of survey design. Data were collected from the
married women who were affected by gender discrimination in their reproductive life. Unit
of analysis is married women (age 15-49) and study area was ward no 24 and 25 of Khulna
city and two villages of Dhigolia thana of Khulna district named Chondonimahal and
Hajigram. Purposive sampling was used to collect data from the field. Total sample size
was 200 (one hundred from rural and one hundred from urban area). two villages Here
primary sources of data are the married women who are suffering from different kinds of
diseases, male, mother-in-law and other relatives and so on. On the other hand
secondary data are collected from BBS, Books, Journals and daily newspapers, etc.
Results and Discussion
Bangladesh with an area of 147,570 sq. km has a population 130 million with highest
population density in the world (except some island countries). Family Planning Program
which began in early fifties has achieved a remarkable success with a contraceptive
Prevalence Rate (CPR) of 53.8% and Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 3.3 per women in spite of
comparative low socio- economic development in our county. Despite fertility transition
and impressive success of the immunization campaign, the other health indicators are still
remaining behind. About 70 percent of mothers suffer from nutritional deficiency and
anemia. Less than 40 percent of the population have access to basic health care, 67
percent of pregnant mothers do not receive antenatal care, 92 percent of deliveries take
place at home and only 12 percent deliveries are attended by trained personnel.
Inadequate medical care and nutritionally inferior diets for many women result in poor
health and babies with low birth weight, which affects future generations. As result of
gender discrimination, the reproductive health condition of the adolescent girls and
women are in deplorable situation (SAARC Gender InfoBase, 2001).
Gender discrimination against women has been identified as one of the prime
reproductive health issues in Bangladesh. This form of discrimination starts at birth and
continues until death. The discrimination exists in the spheres of education, employment,
marriage, dowry, and even violence. From the study the huge gender discrimination is
apparently identified on the reproductive health of women. About 31.5 percent
respondents are illiterate and rest of the large part are literate but a very few have the
high educational degree. In the study areas majority of respondents belongs to the
nuclear family and rest of the respondents belong to the extended family. The decision
about the marriage of girls is taken in most regard by the parents or other members of the
family. But it is the most important issue where the decision of bride is necessary to choose
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Gender Discrimination on Reproductive Health

their life partner. Only 11.5 percent of the total populations in the study areas have rights
to choose their life partner.
Identity of the Respondents

Identity of respondents is an essential part of part of study. Because by the observation of

identity of respondents a reader can easily grasp the nature and extent of the
respondents their age distribution, family type etc. of the respondents are portrayed here.
The table 1 presents the data of two variables like age and number of respondents. Here
the reproductive span is selected from 15 to 49. Table 1 presents the age distribution of
respondents’ by 6 age level. Among these the highest frequency was noted in 27-32 years
of age level. The lowest was in 45-50 years only 2 of the respondents. Here the average
age of urban respondents is 30.12 and the standard deviation is 4.531. The average age
of rural respondents is 29.41 and standard deviation is 5.881. Therefore it is said that both
urban and rural areas middle aged respondents are high.
Table 1. Percentage distribution of respondents by their age
Age group Urban Rural Total
( in year) No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
(%) (%) (%)
15-20 7 7.0 8 8.0 15 7.5
21-26 31 31.0 24 24.0 55 27.5
27-32 34 34.0 31 31.0 65 32.5
33-38 10 10.0 29 29.0 39 19.5
39-44 16 16.0 8 8.0 24 12.0
45-50 2 2.0 0 0 2 1.0
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Mean =30.12 Mean=29.41
Std. deviation=4.531 Std. deviation=5.881
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13

Impact of Social Inequality on Reproductive Health of Women

Patterns of health and illness in women and men show marked differences. Women as a
group tend to live longer than men in nearly all countries. Part of women’s advantage in
life expectancy is biological in origin. When the female potential for greater longevity is
not realized, it is an indication of serious health hazards in their immediate environment
(WHO, 1998). Women suffer considerable mortality and morbidity in relation to their sexual
and reproductive health. Fertility regulation, pregnancy, childbirth, sexually transmitted
diseases, infertility, and diseases of the reproductive system require health services for
women.
Table 2 shows the distribution of respondents by their marital status. It is observed in urban
63 percent (N=100) women got married at 10-17 age group and 75 percent in rural within
the same age group. In the urban areas average age at marriage is 18.75 and rural
is15.64.
Table 2. Percentage distribution of respondents by their marital age
Age Group of Urban Rural Total
Marriage No. Percent (%) No. Percent (%) No. Percent (%)
10-17 63 63.0 75 75.0 138 69.0
18-25 34 34.0 25 25.0 59 29.5
26-33 2 2.0 0 0.0 2 1.0
34-41 1 1.0 0 0.0 1 0.5
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Mean=18.75 Mean=15.64
Std.deviation=3.557 Std.deviation=3.433
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13

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Biswas et al. 242
Problem’s faced by women for female childbirth
Maximum time mother-in-law and husband create pressure on female for giving female
childbirth. Sometimes they are given divorced and usually forced to have separated or
very few times husband chooses another wife. Therefore, it creates pressure on the overall
health of the women.
It is another issue that has effect on the reproductive health. The following Table 3 shows
about 30 percent (N=200) respondents in urban area who have problems for female
childbirth. On the contrary, 33 percent have no problems and the no response rate is 37
percent. Among this non response categories maximum are suffering from different kinds
of problems. They cannot express it due to having lacking of education, religious
hindrance and so on. Mainly the respondents who have problems are suffering from
mental and physical torture.
Table 3. Percentage distribution of respondents’ problems by female childbirth
Response Urban Rural Total
Categories No. Percent (%) No. Percent (%) No. Percent (%)
Yes 42 42.0 18 18.0 60 30.0
No 31 31.0 35 35.0 66 33.0
No Response 27 27.0 47 47.0 74 37.5
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13
Use of birth control method and its effect on reproductive health of women
Women have to take permission from their respective husbands to use the contraceptives.
This means the patriarchal attitude has not been changed. Rather the patriarchal social
control has more strengthened through the training of the religious leaders and
community leaders for successful implementation of family planning methods. These
leaders only talk to men about the measures of contraceptives. But the men who are
motivated otherwise to control their children, pursued their wives for the acceptance of
contraceptives. Therefore, women lose control over her reproductive rights and fertility
behavior through the patriarchal institutions (Akhter, 1997). Birth control methods are
largely used by the urban and rural respondents now. Table-4 shows about the same using
rate of birth control methods in urban and rural. But total 34 percent (N=200) do not use
any methods because they guess it create complexities, inaccessibility to health services,
illiteracy, religious prohibition and so on. Some respondents, who are among the non-using
rate of birth control methods, have used these methods earlier and have faced problems.
Another table presents the high rate of decision making power regarding birth control
methods by husband in both urban and rural areas. Only 9.5 percent respondents have
the decision making power to take this methods. The influence of family planner is seen 6
percent and some are influenced by other sector including the campaign of dispensary.
As a result of changing structure of society about 19 percent both from both urban and
rural area use this method depending on the decision of husband and wife. Mainly being
male dominated country, the decision comes from husband and suggest to his wife to
take oral pill instead of condom of himself.

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Gender Discrimination on Reproductive Health

Table 4. Birth Control Method and its Effect on Reproductive Health

Percentage Distribution of Respondents by Use of Birth Control Methods

Response Urban Rural Total
Categories No. Percent (%) No. Percent (%) No. Percent (%)
Yes 65 65.0 60 60.0 125 62.5
No 35 35.0 33 33.0 68 34.0
No Response 0 0.0 7 7.0 7 3.5
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Percentage Distribution of Respondents Having Decision Making Power to Use Birth Control Methods
Response Categories Urban Rural Total
No. Percent (%) No. Percent (%) No. Percent (%)
Husband 39 39.0 30 30.0 69 34.5
Own 5 5.0 14 14.0 19 9.5
Family Planner 6 6.0 6 6.0 12 6.0
Other(Dispensary) 4 4.0 0 0.0 4 2.0
Both Husband and Wife 18 18.0 20 20.0 38 19.0
No Use 18 18.0 14 14.0 32 16.0
No Response 10 10.0 16 16.0 26 13.0
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13
Reproductive health status of women during pregnancy
There exist a relationship between total number of pregnancy and overall reproductive
health of women. “Millions of women in developing countries experience life threatening
and other serious health problems related to pregnancy or childbirth. Complications of
pregnancy and childbirth cause more deaths and disability than any other reproductive
health problems” (UNFPA, 2000 ). Findings of the study show that 35.5 percent women
became 2 times pregnant in both rural and urban area, 6 percent women for 5 or more
times and only 3 percent women have not yet had pregnant. From the data it is observed
that the number of pregnancy is about same for rural and urban women albeit exist some
differentiations between two study area.

The findings of the study explicates that highest 38% respondents have one child and
lowest 2.5% respondents have five or more children. In urban-rural comparison data of
table 5 reveals that the percentage of one child per woman is higher in urban area than
the rural area. In urban area 43% respondents have one child and in rural area it is
applicable for 33% respondents. Data of table 5 also reveals that two children per woman
are higher in rural area the urban area. In rural area 41% respondents have two children
whereas in urban area 34% respondents have two children.

Every year in Bangladesh between eight hundred thousand and a million women attempt
induced abortion and MRs, usually in clandestine circumstances without trained
assistance in unsanitary conditions (BAPSA, 2000). However, in Bangladesh, skilled
attendants assist only 12% of births (doctors 7% and nurses, midwives, or family welfare
visitors2 5%). Furthermore, almost 92% births are delivered at home, often in unsafe and
unhygienic conditions. Traditional birth attendants (TBAs, locally called dais) assist 64%
births. Again there are significant Rural-Urban differences, as professionally trained
personnel attend 33% of births in urban areas, compared to only 8% in rural areas (NIPORT
et al., 2001). The vast majority of deliveries (87.7%) take place at home and a Skilled Birth
Attendant (SBA) is present at less than 14 per cent of all cases. Therefore, safe delivery at
home with referral linkages, addressing "three delays" and management of complications
and Emergency Obstetric Care (EmOC) services are critically important for saving
women's life as well as the newborns (UNFPA, 2003). The present study represents that
68.35% births were assisted by the traditional birth attendants (locally called dai); 22.7%
assisted by doctors and 8.95% births were assisted by nurses. In urban-rural comparison,
data of table 5 indicates that in rural area 85.1% births were assisted by the traditional

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Biswas et al. 244
birth attendants and in urban area 51.6% births were assisted by the traditional birth
attendants. In urban area 12.6% births were assisted by nurse as compared to rural area of
5.3%. The data of table 5 also make clear that in this era of scientific revolution a large
number of women are not getting proper health facility and the chance of delivery by skill
birth attendance even they are forced to assist birth by traditional birth attendants in a
risky condition.
Table 5. Reproductive Health Status of Women during Pregnancy

Number of pregnancy of the respondents

Urban Rural Total
Number of
Number of Percent Number of Percent Number of Percent
Pregnancy
respondents (%) respondents (%) respondents (%)
0 0 0.0 6 6 6 3.0
1 41 41.0 28 28.0 69 34.5
2 34 34.0 37 37.0 71 35.5
3 11 11.0 11 11.0 22 11.0
4 9 9.0 11 11.0 20 10.5
5 or more 5 5.0 7 7.0 12 6.0
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Number of Children of the Respondents
Urban Rural Total
Number of
Number of Percent Number of Percent Number of Percent
Children
respondents (%) respondents (%) respondents (%)
0 7 7.0 6 6.0 13 6.5
1 43 43.0 33 33.0 76 38.0
2 34 34.0 41 41.0 75 37.5
3 11 11.0 10 10.0 21 10.5
4 2 2.0 8 8.0 10 5.0
5 or more 3 3.0 2 2.0 5 2.5
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Percentage Distribution of Respondents by Delivery Personnel
Urban Rural Total
Personnel
Number of Percent Number of Percent respondents Percent
of Delivery
respondents (%) respondents (%) (%)
Traditional
Birth 49 51.6 80 85.1 129 68.35
Attendants
Doctor 34 35.8 9 9.6 43 22.7
Nurse 12 12.6 5 5.3 17 8.95
Total 95 100.0 94 100.0 189 100.0
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13

Impact of regular households’ activities and extra food consumption on reproductive

health of women
Dr. Rowshanara Khanam, a leading gynecologist, said women experiencing
complications in their pregnancies often do not get to hospitals in time because of social
taboos regarding women going outside the community and being treated by 'strangers.'
(Shahnaj, 2004). Bangladesh: more than 20,000 pregnant women die annually (Balk, 1997).
The findings of the study (table 6) show that in the urban area 60 percent respondents
have to work during pregnancy compared to 93 percent in rural, though joint family is
more in rural, women cannot discontinued her from the daily activities. She is forced to
perform the daily activities. Even in many respects if she fails to perform her job due to
illness or other causes she is to beaten and provided psychological pressure. More or less it
is observed in educated and non-educated family.

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Gender Discrimination on Reproductive Health

Findings of the present study explicates that 58.5% respondents had got required health
services from health personnel during their pregnancy and 41.5% respondents had not got
required health services.
Unacceptably high maternal mortality ratio (320-400 per 100,000 live births) and morbidity
remains a serious concern in Bangladesh. About half of the pregnant women are
malnourished (BMI < 18) and most of them suffer from anemia and other ailments related
to nutritional deficiency. An estimated 12,000 mother’s die yearly from pregnancy related
complications (NIPORT, 2001). Findings of the study show that in the urban area 52%
(N=100) women get the extra food compared to 47% in rural. On the other hand 48% do
not get the extra food in urban compared to 53% in rural. From the above data it is
observed that around more than 50% respondents from both urban and rural areas do not
get the extra food which is needed to survive the women soundly. As a result the
malnutrition, low blood pressure, amnesia, bleeding, irregular menstruation etc. rampantly
seen.
Table 6. Impact of Regular Households Activities and Extra Food Consumption during
Pregnancy

Respondents Involving Regular Household Activities during Pregnancy

Urban Rural Total
Response of No Percentage No Percentage No Total Percentage
Household (%) (%) (%)
Activities
Yes 60 60.0 93 93.0 153 76.5
No 40 40.0 7 7.0 47 23.5
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Respondents Getting Required Health Services during Pregnancy from Health Personnel
Urban Rural Total
Category of No Percentage No Percentage No Total Percentage
Response (%) (%) (%)

Yes 65 65.0 52 52.0 117 58.5

No 35 35.0 48 48.0 83 41.5
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 200
Percentage Distribution of Respondents Having Extra Food during Pregnancy
Urban Rural Total
Category of No Percentage No Percentage No Total
Response (%) (%) Percentage (%)

Yes 52 52.0 47 47.0 99 49.5

No 48 48.0 53 53.0 101 50.5
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13

Abortion Related Complications of Women

Abortion can damage reproductive organs and cause long-term and sometimes
permanent problems that can put future pregnancies at risk. Women who have abortions
are more likely to experience ectopic pregnancies, infertility, hysterectomies, stillbirths,
miscarriages, and premature births than women who have not had abortions (Strahan,
2002).Reproductive health in many respects depends on abortion. The above Table 7
presents the response rate of abortion in urban and rural area. Table presents about 15
percent (N=200) respondents have been aborted. And non-aborted rate is 85 percent. It
is noted that there are many risks at the time of abortion that penetrate the health of
respondents.

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Biswas et al. 246
Table 7. Percentage Distribution of The Respondents by Responses and Problems of
Abortion
Urban Rural Total
Response of abortion No. Percentage No. Percentage (%) No. Percentage
(%) (%)
Yes 19 19.0 11 11.0 30 15.0
No 81 81.0 89 89.0 170 85.0
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13

Men have a great influence on induced abortion or MR. in Bangladesh even though MR is
legal women is required to have their husband’s permission before menstrual regulation.
Every year in Bangladesh between eight hundred thousand and a million women attempt
induced abortion and MRs, usually in clandestine circumstances without trained
assistance in unsanitary conditions (Mustafiz, 2004). Data of the Figure-1 elucidates that
7.5% pregnancies were aborted due to female childbirth; 5% pregnancies were aborted
due to the pressure of respondent’s husband and 9.5% for physical problems of the
respondents. From Figure-1 it is also evident that in urban area 13% pregnancies were
aborted due to female childbirth and the reason behind this was the desire of son among
the respondent’s family members. The percentage of abortion for female childbirth was
lower in rural area and that was only 2%. The reason behind this was the less medical
access and low level of economic solvency.

Figure-1: Distribution of Causes of Abortion

Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13

Impact of Forced Sexual Intercourse during Pregnancy and Menstruation Period of Women
During pregnancy several husbands want to involve with intercourse. But it creates
pressure on the female body highly. According to Gynecologist Khaleda Parvin it is
prohibited to perform intercourse during first three months since conceive and last three
months until childbirth. She also identified some problems due to intercourse during
pregnancy; these include miscarriage, abnormal pain, Reproductive Tract Infection (RTI)
and so on. Findings of the present study elucidates that 61 percent respondents become
pregnant by forced intercourse in urban area whereas 47 percent in rural area. It is
observed that the forced intercourse during pregnancy is more in the urban than rural.
Here it is observed that the gender discrimination in this extent in urban area is fewer in
rural than urban. Mainly it depends on the mentality, the socio-economic conditions and
so on. The forced intercourse might breed the unwanted physical problems that might
produce depression. Sometimes the reproductive tract infection is also considerable.
People commonly believe that a menstruating woman should not sleep with her husband
as this would harm him. Must not touch a holy book or say her prayers; must not go near
cows. If she does, it is believed that the cows will produce less milk and become ill must
not visit ill people or mothers with new-born babies. This would bring harm or cause illness;

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Gender Discrimination on Reproductive Health

must not touch the container where rice is stored. This would destroy rice production and
bring bad luck to the family; should not leave her home because she may be attacked
by evil spirits which can make her infertile (Bhatia, 2008). In urban-rural perspectives the
data reveals that urban women experienced sexual intercourse during menstruation more
than the rural area. In urban area 17% respondents were involved in sexual intercourse
during menstruation period and in rural area it happened only for 7% respondents. Data
also reveals that irregular intercourse were 6% in rural area and 7% in urban area.
Table 8. Impact of Forced Sexual Intercourse during Pregnancy and Menstruation Period
of Women

Respondents’ Pregnancy Risk by Forced Intercourse

Urban Rural Total
Category of Response No Percentage No Percentage (%) No Percentage
(%) (%)
Yes 61 61.0 47 47.0 108 54.0
No 36 36.0 53 53.0 89 44.5
No Response 3 3.0 0 0.0 3 1.5

Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 100.0

Respondents Performing Sexual Intercourse during Menstruation Period
Urban Rural Total
Category of No Percentage No Percentage No Percentage
Response (%) (%) (%)
Yes 17 17.0 7 7.0 24 12.0
No 74 74.0 87 87.0 161 80.5
Irregular 7 7.0 6 6.0 13 6.5
No response 2 2.0 0 0.0 2 1.0
Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 200 200.0
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13

Table 9. Correlates of Variables Influence Gender Discrimination Related to Reproductive

Health Status of Married Women
Correlates Variables Test Calculated Asym. Findings
Independent Dependent Conducted Value Significance
Variable Variable (2-sided)
Number of Early marriage leaded
Age at pregnancy Pearson’s 54.391 .000 to the higher number
marriage after X2 of pregnancy
marriage
Problems Birth control method
Use of birth due to use Pearson’s 11.149 .025 had an adverse effect
control birth X2 on the health of
methods control women
method
Regular Regular household
household Problems at Pearson’s 21.671 .001 activities during
activities at pregnancy X2 pregnancy created
pregnancy health problems
Women who didn’t
Extra food Problems at Pearson’s 37.827 .000 get extra food during
during pregnancy X2 pregnancy faced
pregnancy various kinds of health
problem
Women who had no
Decision- Place of Pearson’s 35.824 .000 Decision making
making power child X2 power forced to give
at household delivery birth their child at
activities home

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Biswas et al. 248
Correlates Variables Test Calculated Asym. Findings
Independent Dependent Conducted Value Significance
Variable Variable (2-sided)
The women who had
Level of gender Forced by Pearson’s 34.825 .002 low level of gender
consciousness husband for X2 consciousness they
intercourse were forced by their
during husband to engage in
pregnancy sexual intercourse
during pregnancy
Women who had less
Decision of Problems Pearson’s 43.050 .000 access in the decision
taking children due to first X2 of taking children had
female to face problems due
childbirth to give birth of first
female child
The respondents have
Decision Health a low level of decision
making power facilities Pearson’s 195.936 .000 making power at
at household during illness X2 household dynamics
activities and as a result they
do not get medical
facilities during illness
Source: Household Sample Survey, 2012-13

Recommendations
As a patriarchal society the gender discrimination is an inevitable in Bangladesh. Because
of gender discrimination the reproductive health condition of Bangladeshi women is very
vulnerable. The following recommendations should be concerned to ensure the sound
reproductive health and gender equity of Bangladeshi women:
1. Birth control method should be selected from the mutilation of both male and female.
2. Counseling services regarding birth control method need to be arranged for the male
and female.
3. Early marriage and early pregnancy should be avoided to ensure sound reproductive
health of women because it has destructive consequences on the health status of
Bangladeshi women.
4. Female doctors need to be deployed for the provision reproductive health services to
women.
5. Appropriate actions are necessary to improve the quality of existing health services
and to prevent harmful side effects of birth control measures at all levels would have
to be ensured.
6. Gatekeepers, formal and informal community leaders, and religious leaders at all
levels need to be motivated and trained on RH and gender issues.
7. As significant step towards protection of women’s health and reproductive rights,
abortion should be legalized in Bangladesh
8. Special training should be conducted for male and female at community clinics,
satellite clinics, family welfare centers, and Upazilla health complexes.
9. The dominant patriarchal ideology has to be changed to ensure sound reproductive
health of Women in Bangladesh.
10. Women’s Proper knowledge about food and nutrition is necessary to ensure sound
reproductive health.
11. Creation of awareness about sexual health and responsible behavior in the younger
generation to be ensured
Concluding Remarks
Gender inequality holds back the growth of individuals, the development of countries and
the evolution of societies, to the disadvantage of both women and men. The facts of
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Gender Discrimination on Reproductive Health

gender inequality–the restrictions placed on women's choices, opportunities and

participation–have direct and often malign consequences for women's health and
education, and for their social and economic participation. The reality of women's lives
has been invisible to men. This invisibility persists at all levels, from the family to the nation.
Though they share the same space, women and men live in different worlds. Gender
discrimination in Bangladesh starts from birth and continue up to death. Under this gender
discrimination female enjoys less opportunity than male in the family as well as social life.
Women’s reproductive health clearly is affected by gender-based discrimination. Early
childbearing, often a result of early and forced marriage, can result in a range of health
problems, including effects of unsafe abortion. The problems of abortion are seriously
affecting the reproductive health and delay pregnancy. The birth control methods have
a great effect on the reproductive health creating abnormal fat. Mainly the impact of
gender discrimination on the reproductive health is found more in the rural than urban.
The government of Bangladesh hasn’t taken any appropriate decision yet to prevent the
gender discrimination and ensure the effective health care facilities for women to stop
maternal mortality, child mortality, malnutrition and large number of child taking.
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