Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ebffiledoc 7649
Ebffiledoc 7649
https://textbookfull.com/product/molecular-symmetry-and-group-
theory-approaches-in-spectroscopy-and-chemical-reactions-1st-
edition-r-c-maurya-2/
https://textbookfull.com/product/chemical-reactions-basic-theory-
and-computing-1st-edition-antonio-lagana/
https://textbookfull.com/product/molecular-spectroscopy-
experiment-and-theory-from-molecules-to-functional-materials-
andrzej-kolezynski/
https://textbookfull.com/product/shattered-symmetry-group-theory-
from-the-eightfold-way-to-the-periodic-table-1st-edition-
ceulemans/
Nanophotonic Chemical Reactions New Photochemical
Reactions and Their Applications Takashi Yatsui
https://textbookfull.com/product/nanophotonic-chemical-reactions-
new-photochemical-reactions-and-their-applications-takashi-
yatsui/
https://textbookfull.com/product/shattered-symmetry-group-theory-
from-the-eightfold-way-to-the-periodic-table-1st-edition-pieter-
thyssen/
https://textbookfull.com/product/simultaneous-mass-transfer-and-
chemical-reactions-in-engineering-science-bertram-chan/
https://textbookfull.com/product/dynamic-chemical-processes-on-
solid-surfaces-chemical-reactions-and-catalysis-1st-edition-ken-
ichi-tanaka-auth/
https://textbookfull.com/product/molecular-spectroscopy-second-
edition-jeanne-l-mchale/
R. C. Maurya, J. M. Mir
Molecular Symmetry and Group Theory
Also of Interest
Micro-Raman Spectroscopy.
Theory and Application
Popp, Mayerhöfer,
ISBN ----, e-ISBN ----
Elemental Analysis.
An Introduction to Modern Spectrometric Techniques
Schlemmer, Balcaen, Todolí, Hinds,
ISBN ----, e-ISBN ----
R. C. Maurya, J. M. Mir
Molecular
Symmetry and
Group Theory
Approaches in Spectroscopy and Chemical Reactions
Authors
Prof. Dr. R.C. Maurya
D. Sc, CChem FRSC (UK)
Professor of Inorganic Chemistry
Former Head, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, and
Dean, Faculty of Science
Rani Durgavati University
Jabalpur-482001 (M. P.)
India
ISBN 978-3-11-063496-9
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-063503-4
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-063512-6
www.degruyter.com
Dedicated to
Mrs. Usha Rani Maurya,
who has always been a source of inspiration for Dr. Maurya
throughout his growth
Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur (M.P.), India
Foreword
The concept and application of Symmetry and Group Theory leading to the
understanding of molecular structures, chemical bonding, spectral properties
of molecules and symmetry allowing chemical processes have become vital
for students as well as faculty members of science, especially chemistry and
physics. A very well presented and lucid text on the theme with student-
friendly approach, especially targeting university and college students, is in
demand. In this regard, the present book is a treasure trove because the au-
thor of the text has been Professor and Head of Chemistry and Pharmacy
Department, and Dean Faculty of Science of our University with a long and
wide teaching experience enabling him with rich inputs on the students’
requirement.
The present book with the subject matter being carefully distributed over four
chapters will serve the purpose for which it has been designed. This must have
been a tediously hard work of Professor R. C. Maurya, D.Sc., CChem FRSC (UK),
for which he deserves all appreciations. I am very sure that this book would be
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110635034-201
VIII Foreword
very much liked by the teaching community and students of chemistry as well
physics too.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110635034-202
X Preface
Final touch to this book was given in San Jose, California, during RCM’s stay
with his son, Animesh Maurya, for which he deserves thanks. Finally, RCM is
thankful to his wife Mrs. Usha Rani Maurya for her encouragement and sacrifices.
Preface IX
Appendix I 441
Appendix II 455
Bibliography 459
Index 461
1 Symmetry elements and symmetry operations:
molecular symmetry
1.1 Introduction
In geometrical sense, when we say that a molecule has symmetry, we mean that cer-
tain parts of it can be interchanged with other without altering the identity or the orien-
tation of the molecule. In other words, an object or a molecule is said to be
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110635034-001
symmetrical if it can take more than one equivalent (or indistinguishable) orienta-
tion. It may not necessarily be identical with the original configuration because only
some equivalent parts may have been interchanged. For example,
Let us consider H2 (Fig. 1.1) molecule in orientation (a) H and H′ are same. It
can be rotated by 180° to the orientation (b). (b) It cannot be distinguished from (a),
that is, they are equivalent.
180°
H H' H' H
Fig. 1.1: Rotation of H2 molecule through 180 in orientation (a)
(a) (b) to get orientation (b).
F4 F4 F4 F4
F2 F1 F3 F2
120º 120º 120º
F1 P F3 P F2 P F1 P
F3 F2 F1 F3
F5 F5 F5 F5
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Fig. 1.2: Equivalence of equatorial and axial P-F bonds in PF5 molecule.
In order to make the idea of molecular symmetry more useful or for the systematic
and detailed consideration of symmetry, certain formal tools are needed. The first
set of tools is a set of symmetry operations generated by the symmetry elements.
Thus, a fundamental concept of group theory is the symmetry operations.
The two things symmetry elements and symmetry operations are so closely re-
lated that they sometime confuse beginners. However, they are quite different.
Hence, it is important to have clear understanding of the difference between them.
Symmetry operations
It is possible to classify symmetry of an object or a molecule in terms of symmetry
operations defined as follows:
Symmetry elements
A symmetry element is defined as a geometrical entity such as a line, plane or
a point with respect to which one or more symmetry operations may be carried out.
Symmetry elements and symmetry operations are closely interrelated as the
symmetry operation can be defined only with respect to symmetry element, and at
the same time the existence of a symmetry element can be demonstrated only by
showing the appropriate symmetry operation exists.
Five types of symmetry elements and symmetry operations need be considered
in treating the molecular symmetry (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Various symmetry elements, symmetry operation and their Schoenflies symbols.
. – Identity E or I
(*Trivial operation leaving
the molecule unchanged or
in its original position)
* In identity operation, the symmetry element can be thought of as the whole space.
There are two types of naming systems commonly used for describing symmetry
notation or designation:
Schoenflies notation
This type of notation is commonly used for molecules by spectroscopists. Such no-
tations for axis of symmetry, plane of symmetry, center of symmetry, improper axis
of symmetry and identity are Cn, σ, i, Sn and E, respectively. The point groups of
molecules are designated as C2v, C3v, Td, Oh, D4h and so on.
Hermann–Mauguin notation
This is an international notation for molecular crystals preferred by crystallogra-
phers. Some such notations are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, m, 1(bar), 3(bar), 4 (bar), 6 (bar) and
22 more, for different crystal systems.
n = 2π radians=θ or 360 =θ
θ = 360 =n
Examples
H2O: In this molecule, the axis passing through O atom and in between the two
H atoms has order 2, or is an axis of twofold symmetry. The molecule has to be ro-
tated by 2π radians/2 or 360°/2 = 180° to get equivalent orientation (Fig. 1.3)
180º 180º
O O O
NH3, PH3: In case of NH3, the axis passing through N and the center of the triangle
containing 3Hs is threefold axis. The molecule has to be rotated by 360/3 = 120°
(Fig. 1.4).
H1 H3 H2 H1 H3 H2 H1 H3
C3 H2 1
H3 H1 H2
C3 C32 C33 = E
BF3: In the triangular planar BF3 molecule, the axis passing through B and ⊥r to
the triangle is the axis of threefold symmetry. The molecule has to be rotated by
360/3 = 120° (Fig. 1.5).
C3
F 120º
B F
F Fig. 1.5: Axis of threefold symmetry in BF3 molecule.
[Ni(CN)4]2−: In square planar [Ni(CN)4]2−, the axis passing through Ni and ⊥r to the
plane is an axis of fourfold symmetry (Fig. 1.6).
C4
90º
NC CH
Ni
NC CN Fig. 1.6: Axis of fourfold symmetry in [Ni(CN)4]2– molecule.
CH4: In this case, there are 4C3. The axis contains each of the C–H bonds and center
of the triangle containing three H atoms (Fig. 1.7). In fact, each of the four C3 axes
passes through one apex and center of the opposite face of the cube.
C3
H
H
C
H
H
Fig. 1.7: C3 axis of symmetry passing through one of the C-H bonds in CH4.
C2(2) C2(3)
180º H
H 180º
C2(1) C C
H H
180º Fig. 1.8: C2H4 molecule containing three twofold axes of symmetry.
Allene (CH2 = C = CH2): Similar to C2H4, allene molecule also contains three two-
fold axes. The axis passing to the three carbons is a C2. The second C2 is ⊥r to the
plane of the molecule and passing through mid carbon. The third is ⊥r to the first
two and intersects both at the mid carbon (Fig. 1.9).
C2(2)
180º
C2(3)
H H180º
C C C
C2(1)
H H Fig. 1.9: Allene molecule containing three twofold axes of
180º symmetry.
BF3: In BF3, besides the C3, there are three C2s, passing through B and each of the
F atom, and are in the plane of the molecule (Fig. 1.10).
C3
C2
F 120º C2
B F
180º
F C
2 Fig. 1.10: BF3 molecule containing C3 and 3C2s passing through B.
[Ni(CN)4]2−: In [Ni(CN)4]2−, besides the C4, there are 4C2s, two passing through Ni
and trans CN– and two passing through Ni and the centers of two opposite edges of
square plane (Fig. 1.11). These are in the plane of the molecule.
C2 C2 C2
NC CN
Ni
C2
NC CN
Fig. 1.11: [Ni(CN)4]2– containing C4 and 4C2s passing through Ni.
Benzene: In C6H6, besides the C6, there are 6C2s, three passing through the center of
benzene and two opposite C atoms, and three passing through the center of benzene
and center of the two opposite edges (Fig. 1.12). C3 is also present in benzene.
C2 C2 C2
C2
C2
C2
Fig. 1.12: C6 and 6C2s in benzene passing through its centre.
CH4: In CH4, besides four C3, there are 3C2s as shown in Fig. 1.13. In fact, each of
the Cartesian axes, x, y and z bisecting two HCH bond angles, is the C2 axis.
Z
C2 180º
180º
C2
X
180º
C2
In cases of molecules with more than one axis of symmetry, the axis with highest
fold symmetry is called the principal axis. For examples in BF3, Ni(CN)42−, CH4 and
C6H6, C3, C4, C3 and C6 are the principal axes, respectively. In each case there are
subsidiary axes of twofold symmetry.
C∞ axis: For linear molecules such as H2, CO2, HCN and HCl, the molecular axis
is an infinite fold axis of rotation [Fig. 1.14(a)]. This is because rotation by any frac-
tion of angle along the molecular axis will give infinite equivalent orientations.
Symmetrical linear molecules such as H2 and CO2 possess, in addition, an infinite
number of C2 axes passing through the center of gravity of the molecule [Fig. 1.14(b)].
C2 C2 C2
C2 C2
H Cl Cinf. O C O Cinf.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.14: (a) C ∞ in linear molecules and (b) ∞C2s in symmetrical linear molecules.
* C3+1 C3
+2
120º 120º
C3–1 *
120º Hence, C3 C3–1
Other examples: [C7H7]+: C7− axis; (C8H8)2U (Uranocene):C8, Cr(C6H6) 2:C6 (⊥r to
the plane), 6C2s on the plane, (C5H5) 2Fe (Ferrocene): C5
It is defined as an imaginary plane within the molecule that acts as a mirror and
divides it into two parts, which are mirror images of each other. If a reflection of
any atom of the molecule is carried out on the plane “o” it must result in coinci-
dence with another equivalent atom. In other words if a ⊥r is drawn from any atom
on the plane of symmetry and extended on the other side up to the same length it
must meet another atom of the same type (Fig. 1.16).
O
H2 H1 Fig. 1.16: ┴r drawn from H1 on the plane and extending other side meeting H2 in
hydrogen molecule.
If the reflection is carried out over the plane of the symmetry and the new positions
of the atom noted, the new orientation will be equivalent to the original orientation.
For example in H2O molecule, the pane passing through C2 axis and ⊥r to the mo-
lecular plane is a plane of symmetry (Fig. 1.17).
O σ1 O σ2 O
H1 H2 H2 H1 H1 H2
Fig. 1.17: Reflection over the plane of symmetry generating equivalent and identical orientation
in H2O.
Thus, the plane is the element of symmetry and the process of reflection is a sym-
metry operation. Only one operation is possible on one plane. If the second reflec-
tion is carried out it gives back the original orientation.
The atom(s) on the surface of the plane of symmetry remains unshifted as a result
of reflection, for example, O atom in case of water molecule. All the atoms, other
than those on the plane of the molecule, should be in pairs. If the molecule has more
than one plane, the unpaired atom must occur at the intersection of the planes of
symmetry. The planes of symmetry and reflection plane on it are represented as σ.
Types of planes
They can be classified into three types depending on their relationship with the
principal axis.
(i) The plane passing through the principal axis and one of the subsidiary axes
(if present) is called vertical plane. It is represented by σv.
(ii) The plane ⊥r to the principle axis is called horizontal plane, represented as σh.
(iii) The plane passing through the principal axis (i.e., vertical plane) and bisecting
the angle between the two C2 axes in a molecule is called dihedral plane, repre-
sented as σd.
Examples
Human and most of the animals have a symmetry plane.
H2O: It has two reflection planes: (i) a molecular plane and (ii) a ⊥r plane bi-
secting the HOH angle, that is, in between the two H atoms. Both these planes con-
tain the C2 axis of rotation, which is also the principal axis. Taking C2 as the z axis,
the two symmetry planes may be denoted as σv(xz) and σv(yz). These are often de-
noted as σv and σv′. There is no σh in H2O (Fig. 1.18).
Z
C2 yz plane
𝜎v(yz)
O X
xz plane
H1 H2 𝜎v(xz) Fig. 1.18: Two vertical symmetry planes [σv(xz) and σv(yz)] in
Y
(Molecular plane) H2O molecule.
NH3, PH3: In NH3 molecule, there are three σ, each passing through N and one of
the H atoms. As they contain the principal axis C3, they are represented as σv(a),
σv(b) and σv(c) (Fig. 1.19).
C3
𝜎v(c)
N 𝜎v(a)
Hc Ha
BF3: In case of trigonal planar BF3 molecule, there are three σv, each passing
through C3 and one of the C2s, that is, through one of the B–F bonds. As these
planes bisect the angle between the two C2 axes, they are dihedral plane (σd). Being
planar molecule, the plane of the molecule is also a plane of the symmetry. This is
⊥r to C3 and is σh (Fig. 1.20). Similar to BF3, NO3−, CO32− and SO3 also contain C3,
3C2s, 3σd and σh (Fig. 1.21).
Z
𝜎v C3
𝜎d
F
C2 𝜎v (Moleular plane)
𝜎d B F 𝜎h
C2
F 𝜎 C2 = Plane Fig. 1.20: Three dihedral planes and one horizontal
v
𝜎d
plane in BF3 molecule.
B
C3, 3C2, 3𝜎d
A B
(NO3–, CO32–,SO3)
A = S,N,C
B=O 𝜎h Fig. 1.21: Three dihedral planes and one horizontal plane in
B (Moleular plane) NO3–, CO32– and SO3 species.
PF5: In PF5 with trigonal bipyramidal structure, there are three σv, passing through
P and three F atoms F1 F2 F3, F1 F2 F4 and F1 F2F5. They contain the principal axis C3.
Unlike BF3, C2 is not present in the molecule and hence no σd. This molecule also
contains one σh as shown by the pink dotted triangle, including axial planar
F atoms, F3F4F5 (Fig. 1.22).
F1
F4 C3
𝜎v 𝜎h
P 𝜎v F3
𝜎v
F5
F2 Fig. 1.22: Three vertical planes and one horizontal plane in PF5 molecule.
[Ni(CN)4]2−, XeF4: The square planar complex ion has 4σv. Each one contains C4
and one of the C2s, and hence passes through central Ni (Fig. 1.23). Moreover, two
σv passing through minimum number of atoms (only Ni, as shown in the
Fig. 1.23) and bisecting the angle between two C2 axes, are σd planes. Being
a planar molecule, it also contains a σh. Similarly, XeF4 also contains 2σv, 2σd
and a σh (Fig. 1.24).
𝜎d
C2, C4
C2
NC 𝜎v 𝜎v CN
𝜎d 𝜎v
Ni 𝜎
v C2
NC CN
𝜎h C2 Fig. 1.23: 2σv, 2σd and a σh planes in [Ni(CN)4]2–.
𝜎d
C2, C4
F 𝜎 v 𝜎v F C2
𝜎d 𝜎v
Xe
𝜎v C2
F F
𝜎h C2
C6H6: This planar molecule contains six σv. Each one passes through C6 and one of
the C2s. Three pass through opposite C atoms, and three pass through the centers of
the opposite edges. Out of six σv, 3σv passing through centers of opposite edges, are
σd. The plane passing through six atoms is ⊥r to C6, and is σh (Fig. 1.25).
C6, C2
C 2'
𝜎d 𝜎v
𝜎d C2''
𝜎v
C2'
𝜎d C2''
𝜎d 𝜎v
C2
C2'' Fig. 1.25: 3σv, 3σd and a σh planes in benzene molecule.
Allene (H2C = C = CH2): This molecule has three C2 axes: one passing through the
molecular axis, the other two C2′ and C2″ are ⊥r to it. The first plane passes through
the molecular axis and H1H2, that is, PQRS, and the second passes through the mo-
lecular axis and H3H4, that is, ABCD. As these planes are passing in between the
two subsidiary axes [the plane PQRS passes in between C2 and C2′; the plane ABCD
passes in between C2′ and C2″], these are dihedral planes (σds) (Fig. 1.26).
AB4: A regular tetrahedral molecule possesses six planes of symmetry. Using
the numbering system (Fig. 1.27), we may specify these symmetry planes by stating
C2"
S R
B C
H1
H3 Plane ABCD
bisecting angle
C2 C C C
between
180° H4 C2' and C2" (𝜎d)
A
H2 C2'
D
P Q
Plane PQRS bisecting Fig. 1.26: Two dihedral planes in Allene
angle between C2 and C2' (𝜎d) molecule.
Z
C2 180º
B4 180º
B2
x
A C2
180º
B1 B3
C2
Fig. 1.27: Six dihedral planes (AB1B2, AB1B3, AB1B4, AB2B3, AB2B4 and
y AB3B4) in AB4 tetrahedral molecule.
the atoms they contain: AB1B2, AB1B3, AB1B4, AB2B3, AB2B4 and AB3B4. These planes
are dihedral planes (σds) as they pass in between two C2′s.
AB6: A regular octahedral possesses a total of nine symmetry planes. Referring
to Fig. 1.28, there is first three of the same type, namely, those including the
following sets of atoms: AB1B2B3B4, AB1B5B3B6 and AB2B5B4B6 (σh, perpendicular
to principal axis). There are three more of the second type, including atoms, viz.,
AB5B6, AB1B3 and AB2B4 (σd). The rest three planes (σd) are those which pass
through the centers of the opposite edges, including “A.” Three such planes
( ) are shown in Fig. 1.29.
AB2B5B4B6 B5
(𝜎h) AB1B5B3B6
(𝜎h)
B2 B3
A AB1B2B3B4
(𝜎h)
B1 B4
Fig. 1.28: Three horizontal planes (AB1B2B3B4, AB1B5B3B6 and
AB2B5B4B6) and three dihedral planes (AB5B6, AB1B3 and AB2B4) in
B6 a regular octahedral AB6 molecule.
Second Family—Gobiidæ.
Body elongate, naked or scaly. Teeth generally small, sometimes
with canines. The spinous dorsal fin, or portion of the dorsal fin, is
the less developed, and composed of flexible spines; anal similarly
developed as the soft dorsal. Sometimes the ventrals are united into
a disk. Gill-opening more or less narrow, the gill-membranes being
attached to the isthmus.
Small carnivorous littoral fishes, many of which have become
acclimatised in fresh water. They are very abundant with regard to
species as well as individuals, and found on or near the coasts of all
temperate and tropical regions. Geologically they appear first in the
chalk.
Gobius.—Body scaly. Two dorsal fins, the anterior generally with
six flexible spines. Ventral fins united, forming a disk which is not
attached to the abdomen. Gill-opening vertical, moderately wide.
Fig. 220.—Gobius lentiginosus, from New Zealand.
The “Gobies” are distributed over all temperate and tropical
coasts, and abundant, especially on the latter. Nearly three hundred
species have been described. They live especially on rocky coasts,
attaching themselves firmly with their ventrals to a rock in almost any
position, and thus withstanding the force of the waves. Many of the
species seem to delight in darting from place to place in the rush of
water which breaks upon the shore. Others live in quiet brackish
water, and not a few have become entirely acclimatised in fresh
water, especially lakes. The males of some species construct nests
for the eggs, which they jealously watch, and defend even for some
time after the young are hatched. Several species are found on the
British coast: G. niger, paganellus, auratus, minutus, ruthensparri.
Fossil species of this genus have been found at Monte Bolca.
A very small Goby, Latrunculus pellucidus, common in some
localities of the British Islands and other parts of Europe, is
distinguished by its transparent body, wide mouth, and uniserial
dentition. According to R. Collett it offers some very remarkable
peculiarities. It lives one year only, being the first instance of an
annual vertebrate. It spawns in June and July, the eggs are hatched
in August, and the fishes attain their full growth in the months from
October to December. In this stage the sexes are quite alike, both
having very small teeth and feeble jaws. In April the males lose the
small teeth, which are replaced by very long and strong teeth, the
jaws themselves becoming stronger. The teeth of the females remain
unchanged. In July and August all the adults die off, and in
September only the fry are to be found.
There are several other genera, closely allied to Gobius, as
Euctenogobius, Lophiogobius, Doliichthys, Apocryptes, Evorthodus,
Gobiosoma and Gobiodon (with scaleless body) Triænophorichthys.
Sicydium.—Body covered with ctenoid scales of rather small size.
Cleft of the mouth nearly horizontal, with the upper jaw prominent; lips
very thick; the lower lip generally with a series of minute horny teeth.
A series of numerous small teeth in upper jaw, implanted in the gum,
and generally movable; the lower jaw with a series of conical widely-
set teeth. Two dorsal fins, the anterior with six flexible spines. Ventral
fins united, and forming a short disk, more or less adherent to the
abdomen.
Small freshwater fishes inhabiting the rivers and rivulets of the
islands of the tropical Indo-Pacific. About twelve species are known;
one occurs in the West Indies. Lentipes from the Sandwich Islands is
allied to Sicydium.
Periophthalmus.—Body covered with ctenoid scales of small or
moderate size. Cleft of the mouth nearly horizontal, with the upper jaw
somewhat longer. Eyes very close together, immediately below the
upper profile, prominent, but retractile, with a well-developed outer
eyelid. Teeth conical, vertical in both jaws. Two dorsal fins, the anterior
with flexible spines; caudal fin with the lower margin oblique; base of
the pectoral fin free, with strong muscles. Ventral fins more or less
coalesced. Gill-openings narrow.
The fishes of this genus, and the closely-allied Boleophthalmus,
are exceedingly common on the coasts of the tropical Indo-Pacific,
especially on parts covered with mud or fucus. During ebb they leave
the water and hunt for small crustaceans, and other small animals
disporting themselves on the ground which is left uncovered by the
receding water. With the aid of their strong pectoral and ventral fins
and their tail, they hop freely over the ground, and escape danger by
rapid leaps. The peculiar construction of their eyes, which are very
movable, and can be thrust far out of their sockets, enables them to
see in the air as well as in the water; when the eyes are retracted
they are protected by a membranous eyelid. These fishes are absent
in the eastern parts of the Pacific and on the American side of the
Atlantic; but singularly enough one species reappears on the West
African coast. About seven species are known (including
Boleophthalmus), P. koelreuteri being one of the most common
fishes of the Indian Ocean.
First Family—Cepolidæ.
Body very elongate, compressed, covered with very small cycloid
scales; eyes rather large, lateral. Teeth of moderate size. No bony
stay for the angle of the præoperculum. One very long dorsal fin,
which, like the anal, is composed of soft rays. Ventrals thoracic,
composed of one spine and five rays. Gill-opening wide. Caudal
vertebræ exceedingly numerous.
The “Band-fishes” (Cepola) are small marine fishes, belonging
principally to the fauna of the northern temperate zone; in the Indian
Ocean the genus extends southwards to Pinang. The European
species (C. rubescens) is found in isolated examples on the British
coast, but is less scarce in some years than in others. These fishes
are of a nearly uniform red colour.
Second Family—Trichonotidæ.
Body elongate, sub-cylindrical, covered with cycloid scales of
moderate size. Eyes directed upwards. Teeth in villiform bands. No
bony stay for the angle of the præoperculum. One long dorsal fin,
with simple articulated rays, and without a spinous portion; anal long.
Ventrals jugular, with one spine and five rays. Gill-opening very wide.
The number of caudal vertebræ much exceeding that of the
abdominal.
Small marine fishes, belonging to two genera only, Trichonotus
(setigerus) from Indian Seas, with some of the anterior dorsal rays
prolonged into filaments; and Hemerocoetes (acanthorhynchus) from
New Zealand, and sometimes found far out at sea on the surface.
Third Family—Heterolepidotidæ.
Body oblong, compressed, scaly; eyes lateral; cleft of the mouth
lateral; dentition feeble. The angle of the præoperculum connected
by a bony stay with the infraorbital ring. Dorsal long, with the spinous
and soft portions equally developed; anal elongate. Ventrals
thoracic, with one spine and five rays.
Fig. 222.—Scale from the
lateral line of Hemerocœtes
acanthorhynchus, with lacerated
margin.
Sixth Family—Mastacembelidæ.
Body elongate, eel-like, covered with very small scales. Mandible
long, but little moveable. Dorsal fin very long, the anterior portion
composed of numerous short isolated spines; anal fin with spines
anteriorly. Ventrals none. The humeral arch is not suspended from
the skull. Gill-openings reduced to a slit at the lower part of the side
of the head.
Freshwater-fishes characteristic of and almost confined to the
Indian region. The structure of the mouth and of the branchial
apparatus, the separation of the humeral arch from the skull, the
absence of ventral fins, the anatomy of the abdominal organs,
affords ample proof that these fishes are Acanthopterygian eels.
Their upper jaw terminates in a pointed moveable appendage, which
is concave and transversely striated inferiorly in Rhynchobdella, and
without transverse striæ in Mastacembelus: the only two genera of
this family. Thirteen species are known, of which Rh. aculeata, M.
pancalus and M. armatus are extremely common, the latter attaining
to a length of two feet. Outlying species are M. aleppensis from
Mesopotamia and Syria, and M. cryptacanthus, M. marchei, and M.
niger, from West Africa.
First Family—Sphyrænidæ.
Body elongate, sub-cylindrical, covered with small cycloid scales;
lateral line continuous. Cleft of the mouth wide, armed with strong
teeth. Eye lateral, of moderate size. Vertebræ twenty-four.
This family consists of one genus only, Sphyræna, generally
called “Barracudas,” large voracious fishes from the tropical and sub-
tropical seas, which prefer the vicinity of the coast to the open sea.
They attain to a length of eight feet, and a weight of forty pounds;
individuals of this large size are dangerous to bathers. They are
generally used as food, but sometimes (especially in the West
Indies) their flesh assumes poisonous qualities, from having fed on
smaller poisonous fishes. Seventeen species.
The Barracudas existed in the tertiary epoch, their remains being
frequently found at Monte Bolca. Some other fossil genera have
been associated with them, but as they are known from jaws and
teeth or vertebræ only, their position in the system cannot be exactly
determined; thus Sphyrænodus and Hypsodon from the chalk of
Lewes, and the London clay of Sheppey. The American Portheus is
allied to Hypsodon. Another remarkable genus from the chalk,
Saurocephalus, has been also referred to this family.[44]
Second Family—Atherinidæ.
Body more or less elongate, sub-cylindrical, covered with scales
of moderate size; lateral line indistinct. Cleft of the mouth of
moderate width, with the dentition feeble. Eye lateral, large or of
moderate size. Gill-openings wide. Vertebræ very numerous.
Small carnivorous fishes inhabiting the seas of the temperate and
tropical zones; many enter fresh water, and some have been entirely
acclimatised in it. This family seems to have been represented in the
Monte Bolca formation by Mesogaster.
Atherina.—Teeth very small; scales cycloid. The first dorsal is
short and entirely separated from the second. Snout obtuse, with the
cleft of the mouth straight, oblique, extending to or beyond the anterior
margin of the eye.
The Atherines are littoral fishes, living in large shoals, which habit
has been retained by the species acclimatised in fresh water. They
rarely exceed a length of six inches, but are nevertheless esteemed
as food. From their general resemblance to the real Smelt they are
often thus misnamed, but may always be readily recognised by their
small first spinous dorsal fin. The young, for some time after they are
hatched, cling together in dense masses, and in numbers almost
incredible. The inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast of France call
these newly hatched Atherines “Nonnat” (unborn). Some thirty
species are known, of which A. presbyter and A. boyeri occur on the
British coast.
Atherinichthys, distinguished from Atherina in having the snout
more or less produced; and the cleft of the mouth generally does not
extend to the orbit.
These Atherines are especially abundant on the coasts and in the
fresh waters of Australia and South America. Of the twenty species
known, several attain a length of eighteen inches and a weight of
more than a pound. All are highly esteemed as food; but the most
celebrated is the “Pesce Rey” of Chile (A. laticlavia).
Tetragonurus.—Body rather elongate, covered with strongly
keeled and striated scales. The first dorsal fin is composed of
numerous feeble spines, and continued on to the second. Lower jaw
elevated, with convex dental margin, and armed with compressed,
triangular, rather small teeth, in a single series.
This very remarkable fish is more frequently met with in the
Mediterranean than in the Atlantic, but generally scarce. Nothing is
known of its habits; when young it is one of the fishes which
accompany Medusæ, and, therefore, it must be regarded as a
pelagic form. Probably, at a later period of its life, it descends to
greater depths, coming to the surface at night only. It grows to a
length of eighteen inches.
Third Family—Mugilidæ.
Body more or less oblong and compressed, covered with cycloid
scales of moderate size; lateral line none. Cleft of the mouth narrow
or of moderate width, without or with feeble teeth. Eye lateral, of
moderate size. Gill-opening wide. The anterior dorsal fin composed
of four stiff spines. Vertebræ twenty-four.
The “Grey Mullets” inhabit in numerous species and in great
numbers the coasts of the temperate and tropical zones. They
frequent brackish waters, in which they find an abundance of food
which consists chiefly of the organic substances mixed with mud or
sand; in order to prevent larger bodies from passing into the
stomach, or substances from passing through the gill-openings,
these fishes have the organs of the pharynx modified into a filtering
apparatus. They take in a quantity of sand or mud, and, after having
worked it for some time between the pharyngeal bones, they eject
the roughest and indigestible portion of it. The upper pharyngeals
have a rather irregular form; they are slightly arched, the convexity
being directed towards the pharyngeal cavity, tapering anteriorly and
broad posteriorly. They are coated with a thick soft membrane, which
reaches far beyond the margin of the bone, at least on its interior
posterior portion; this membrane is studded all over with minute
horny cilia. The pharyngeal bone rests upon a large fatty mass,
giving it a considerable degree of elasticity. There is a very large
venous sinus between the anterior portion of the pharyngeal and the
basal portion of the branchial arches. Another mass of fat, of
elliptical form, occupies the middle of the roof of the pharynx,
between the two pharyngeal bones. Each branchial arch is provided
on each side, in its whole length, with a series of closely-set gill-
rakers, which are laterally bent downwards, each series closely
fitting into the series of the adjoining arch; they constitute together a
sieve, admirably adapted to permit a transit for the water, retaining at
the same time every other substance in the cavity of the pharynx.
The lower pharyngeal bones are elongate, crescent-shaped, and
broader posteriorly than anteriorly. Their inner surface is concave,
corresponding to the convexity of the upper pharyngeals, and
provided with a single series of lamellæ, similar to those of the
branchial arches, but reaching across the bone from one margin to
the other.
The intestinal tract shows no less peculiarities. The lower portion
of the œsophagus is provided with numerous long thread-like
papillæ, and continued into the oblong-ovoid membranaceous cœcal
portion of the stomach, the mucosa of which forms several
longitudinal folds. The second portion of the stomach reminds one of
the stomach of birds; it communicates laterally with the other portion,
is globular, and surrounded by an exceedingly strong muscle. This
muscle is not divided into two as in birds, but of great thickness in
the whole circumference of the stomach, all the muscular fasciculi
being circularly arranged. The internal cavity of this stomach is rather
small, and coated with a tough epithelium, longitudinal folds running
from the entrance opening to the pyloric, which is situated opposite
to the other. A low circular valve forms a pylorus. There are five
rather short pyloric appendages. The intestines make a great
number of circumvolutions, and are seven feet long in a specimen
thirteen inches in length.
Fig. 229.—Mugil proboscideus.
Some seventy species of Grey Mullets are known, the majority of
which attain to a weight of about four pounds, but there are many
which grow to ten and twelve pounds. All are eaten, and some even
esteemed, especially when taken out of fresh water. If attention were
paid to their cultivation, great profits could be made by fry being
transferred into suitable backwaters on the shore, in which they
rapidly grow to a marketable size. Several species are more or less
abundant on the British coasts, as Mugil octo-radiatus (Fig. 105, p.
254), M. capito, M. auratus (Fig. 106, p. 254), and M. septentrionalis
(Fig. 107, p. 254), which, with the aid of the accompanying figures,
and by counting the rays of the anal fin, may be readily distinguished
—M. octo-radiatus having eight, and M. capito and M. auratus nine
soft rays. A species inhabiting fresh waters of Central America (M.
proboscideus) has the snout pointed and fleshy, thus approaching
certain other freshwater and littoral Mullets, which, on account of a
modification of the structure of the mouth, have been formed into a
distinct genus, Agonostoma. Myxus comprises Mullets with teeth
more distinct than in the typical species.
This genus existed in the tertiary epoch, remains of a species
having been found in the gypsum of Aix, in Provence.
First Family—Gastrosteidæ.
Body elongate, compressed. Cleft of the mouth oblique; villiform
teeth in the jaws. Opercular bones not armed; infraorbitals covering
the cheek; parts of the skeleton forming incomplete external mails.
Scales none, but generally large scutes along the side. Isolated
spines in front of the soft dorsal fin. Ventral fins abdominal, joined to
the pubic bone, composed of a spine and a small ray.
Branchiostegals three.