GEE 17 Complete Module 1

LEARNING GUIDE in GE
Environmental Science
Name _______________________________________________________
Course, Year & Section ________________________________________
UNIVERSITY OF ANTIQUE
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Chapter 1: Introduction
to Environmental Science
“Childhood setting and exposure to nature are strong predictors of academic performance in
environmental sciences courses.”
- Nick Balster, Soil Science Professor
Understanding Environmental Science requires

scientific knowledge about the natural world, as well
as the ways in which humans interact with this
natural world. Studying this academic discipline
involves reviewing basic science concepts while
looking into the effects of human actions on the
environment.
This course aims to inculcate desirable attitudes of
students towards their environment.
(Illustration by Danielle Lamberson Philipp:
https://www.morningagclips.com/the-nature-effect/)
These are the learning objectives in this chapter:
1. Define environmental science and its related disciplines
2. Explain briefly the various environmental principles
3. To appreciate the study of environmental science by

showing concern about the environment
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Lesson 1: Environmental Science as a Field of Study
Definitions/Important Concepts about Environmental Science

 Environmental science investigates human influence in the world, the environmental
problems and ways of resolving/preventing these problems: pollution, loss of
biodiversity, habitat destruction, global warming and climate change.
 Environmental science is the study of the
natural sciences in an interdisciplinary
context that always includes
consideration of people and how they
have influenced various systems around
us. It includes many aspects of biology,
earth and atmospheric sciences,
fundamental principles of chemistry,
human population dynamics, and an
appreciation for the Earth and its natural
resources. Figure 4 illustrates how man
interrelates with his environment, and vice versa.
 Environmental Science is a multi-disciplinary science that inter-relates biology, chemistry,
agriculture, public health, social sciences, atmospheric science, ecology, and geosciences.
a. Biology is the study of living things and their vital processes. Basic biological
principles are homeostasis, unity, evolution, diversity, behaviour and
interrelationships and continuity.
HOMEOSTASIS: Living things have regulatory
mechanisms to maintain their internal environment
within tolerable limits, even though external
environment may fluctuate. These vital regulatory
mechanisms/processes have only one object: that
of preserving constant the conditions of life for
survival or homeostasis. This concept was first put
forward in the 19th century by French physiologist
Claude Bernard applying it to the struggle of an
organism to survive. Later, the concept was
extended to include any biological system, from the
cell to the entire biosphere. The diagram illustrates
how man maintains his normal body temperature.
examples.yourdiction
UNITY: All living organisms, regardless of their uniqueness,

have certain biological, chemical, and physical
characteristics in common. Living things have a sameness
of basic structure, composition, and function. For example,
all are composed of basic units called cells (shown in the
diagram) and of the same chemical substances (like
deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA), which, when analyzed,
exhibit noteworthy similarities, even in such dissimilar
organisms as bacteria and humans. Evolution itself is a
biological phenomenon common to all living things, even
http://www.labnews.co.uk
though it has led to their differences.
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EVOLUTION: Evolution refers to all the changes that

have transformed living things on Earth from its
earliest beginnings to the diversity that characterizes
them today. Charles Darwin’s Theory of Natural
Selection explains that all living things come from a
common ancestor and that as descendants from the
common ancestor spread into various habitats over
millions of years, they accumulated diverse
adaptations (which brings about variations) that fit
them to specific ways of life. This is the concept of
“survival of the fittest”. Evidences to support the
theory of evolution has come primarily from the fossil
record, from comparative studies of structure and
function, from studies of embryological development,
and from studies of DNA and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
globalchange.umich.edu
The ‘tree of life”(in the diagram) illustrates that all
living things have a common ancestor.
DIVERSITY: Total diversity of life is

estimated to range from 5 million to over
30 million species. Variations are due to
change in the genetic material called DNA.
Whenever a change in a gene (a mutation)
occurs, there is a change of some kind in
the organism that contains the gene. A
change in the genetic material in the
reproductive cells manifests itself as some
kind of structural or chemical change in
the offspring. The fact that new variations
are constantly evolving are verified by
paleontological records as well as by
breeding experiments in the laboratory.
in.pinterest.com
BEHAVIOUR AND INTERRELATIONSHIPS: Each

living thing interacts continuously with its
environment, which includes other living things
as well as non-living factors. The many
interactions between the living things and their
environment are interwoven to form the major
ecosystem dynamics called nutrient cycling and
energy flow (food chains and food webs).
Diagram shows the cyclic pathway of carbon in
an ecosystem.
arcticbiome-ejf.weebly.com
CONTINUITY: Whether an organism is a

human or a bacterium, its ability to reproduce
is one of the most important characteristics of
seekhe.com
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life. Because life comes only from preexisting life, it is only through reproduction that successive
generations can carry on the properties of a species.
b. Chemistry is the scientific study of matter. Important relevant, basic concepts

include classification, phases and changes that matter undergoes and atomic
structure.
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Any object we can see, smell, or touch is
made of matter, including the very small pieces that can’t be seen or touched. Figure 1 shows
how matter is classified into different types.
Figure 1. Classification of Matter opentextbc.c
 Matter can occur in any of these phases: solid, liquid, or gas. Figure 2 shows the processes
involved when matter
changes from one phase to
another.
www.ricksci.com
Figure 2. Phases and Phase Changes in Matter
 Matter may undergo physical/phase changes or chemical changes.
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Melting is a physical change.
Burning of wood and

ripening of fruits are
chemical changes
 The building blocks of the simplest matter, the elements, are atoms. All atoms have the same
basic parts called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Figure 3 shows that electrons are negatively
charged particles, protons are
positively charged particles while
neutrons bear no charge. Neutrons
and protons are located inside the
nucleus of an atom while the
electrons are found outside the
nucleus. In stable atoms, the number
of protons is equal to the number of
electrons.
www.visionlearning.com
Figure 3. Sub-atomic Particles
c. Agriculture is the science, art and practice

of cultivating the soil, producing crops and
raising livestock, as well as the
preparation and marketing of the resulting
products. Basic, relevant concepts include
the technologies of soil cultivation, crop
cultivation and harvesting, animal
production, and the processing of plant
and animal products for human
http://dolphinlifesciences.blogspot.com
consumption and use.
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d. Public health – science and art dealing with the protection and improvement of
community health by giving health care and health information to improve living
conditions
e. Social sciences – science that deals with institutions and functioning of human
society as well as interpersonal relationships of individuals as members of the
society.
f. Atmospheric science- study of the atmosphere, its processes and effects on other
systems
g. Ecology- study of relationships between organism and their environment. The

basic unit of study in Ecology is the ecosystem- its components and their
interactions with each
other.
 An ecosystem is a community or group

of living organisms that live in and
interact with each other in a specific
environment. A tropical forest
ecosystem is made up of living things
such as trees, plants, animals, insects
and micro-organisms that are in constant
interaction between themselves and that
are affected by other physical (sun,
temperature) or chemical (oxygen or
nutrients) factors in the environment.
Importance of Environmental Science
1. Clarifies to us global environmental issues like global warming, climate change, ozone
depletion, biodiversity, etc.
2. enlightens us of the importance of protection and conservation
3. vital to the development of effective and relevant solutions to environmental problems
4. to develop appreciation for the Earth and its natural resources
Lesson 2: Environmental Ethics and Attitudes
How one interacts

with each other or
with his environment
is determined by his
ethical attitudes and
behaviors
Definitions/Important Concepts
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Ethics
 rules of behavior based on ideas of what is good or bad

 standards of conduct that distinguishes right from wrong behavior
 helps us determine which forms of conduct are morally acceptable and unacceptable
 plays a role in any type of human activities that involves intelligent judgement and voluntary
action
Environmental ethics - a field of ethics that examines how humans relate to their natural environment.
Sustainable environmental ethics- ethics which poses that the Earth has limited supply of resources;
that humans must conserve and share the Earth’s resources with other living things in a manner which
allows their continued use in the future; and that humans are part of nature and are affected by natural
laws.
3 ethical perspectives towards environment/natural resources:
1. Anthropocentric/human-centered – mainly concerned with human interests/well-being at

the expense of all other factors; anything that is not beneficial to people has no value;
emphasizes short-term benefits and disregarding long-term consequences
2. Bio-centric- values living things and anything that destroys life is opposed even it creates
jobs
3. Eco-centric- prioritizes preservation of nature/ecosystems over human needs
Environmental Attitudes
3 Types of Environmental Attitudes (Enger & Smith, 2004):
1. Developmental/ individualistic/egocentric- earth and its resources are for the benefit and
pleasure of man; man is the master of nature
2. Preservationist- values nature; environment should be protected and left in its natural state
because it promotes human happiness and fulfillment
3. Conservationist/managerial- natural resources should be used wisely for the greatest good
of most people; emphasizes prudent, efficient, and sustainable extraction and use of
natural resources
Lesson 3: Environmental Principles
1. Everything is connected to everything else.

 The intricate relationships of various elements of the ecosystem bind the components together
into one functional unit. The trees in the forest are home to ferns, orchids, birds, insects and
mammals. When these plants and animals die, their products of decomposition contribute to
soil fertility. Plants provide oxygen to animals for aerobic respiration while animals furnish
carbon dioxide to plants for photosynthesis. The quality of the soil determines the type of
vegetation that exists while vegetation contributes to the minerals of the soil when they die.
The living component of the ecosystem affects and is affected by the abiotic components, such
as air, temperature, land. Inter-specific relationships create a dependency with each other so
that they both have to co-exist to live. All these relationships provide dependencies, check and
balances that compose the details of our life-support systems.
 Human interaction with nature oftentimes alters the ecosystems. The waste we improperly
dispose of brings about the deterioration of land and water quality. This may in turn reduce
their capacity to provide life for other organisms. Deforestation causes soil erosion and the
earth deposited on the water bodies covers the coral reefs resulting to fishery loss. Suspended
particulates from vehicular and stationary sources may cause lung problems among city
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residents. War causes destruction of wildlife and habitats. There is a cause and effect chain,
even when it is neither always visible nor observable.
 Global economic systems affect the distribution of biological goods worldwide. Through the
Galleon trade, spices reached different parts of the world. Today, oranges and apples from
China have become easily accessible to the Filipino market. Developing countries argue that
globalization promotes the introduction of species detrimental to the recipient habitat and
market.
2. All forms of life are important.

 All living organisms were created for a purpose in relation to humans, other species on earth
and global ecosystem in general. Thus, when a species becomes extinct, it is like removing a
piece of a jigsaw puzzle from the web of life. The variety of life forms, manifested by the
different levels of biological diversity–community, species and genes–contributes to the stability
of the environment.
 Food webs, food chains and ecological relationships link plants and animals together in the web
of life. Even bacteria, insects, snakes and rats have ecological functions even though humans
perceive them as parasites or pests.
3. Everything must go somewhere.

 By-products of consumption go back to the environment. Everything that we throw away –
pieces of paper, left-over food, peelings of fruits, plastic wrappers, used containers–have to
go somewhere. Even plants and animals have their own wastes–feces, urine, dead leaves
and branches. It is the law of nature that the by-products of metabolism return to the soil,
acted upon first by worms, bacteria and fungi, and then converted into minerals, to be again
absorbed by plants and eaten by animals. In short, they enter into a material cycle that is an
integral part of the ecosystem. But what happens if what we throw is an artificial product
such as plastic? Then natural bacteria can not recognize them and may not be capable of
breaking them apart. These non-biodegradable products must enter another material
cycle–the one that goes to the factory to be manufactured into a new product. Thus the
retrieval, collection and recycling of these materials become necessary so that they do not
pollute land and water habitats.
4. Ours is a finite earth.

 Everything that we need is provided by nature in abundance–food, water, energy, minerals
and air. However, some resources that we depend upon nowadays are extracted excessively
but are slow to replace. These non-renewable resources experience limits of supply. For
instance, fossil fuels produced over thousands of years may be exhausted in a hundred
years. Some energy sources like water, and wood may be replaced easier but have become
inaccessible due to pollution and excessive extraction. Diminishing forest cover have
resulted from logging, ineffective reforestation and continued land conversion. However,
food scarcity and poverty may have resulted from failed distribution systems rather than
inability of the land and water bodies to yield food.
5. Nature knows best.

 Nature manifests certain processes that enable it to maintain balance and remain in a state of
equilibrium. The nutrient cycling of nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorous in the air, water
and land indicates that minerals are utilized within the confines of the earth. The flow of energy
from the sun enables light to be converted into sugar in plants through photosynthesis, and
later for consumer organisms to obtain energy from plant starch. Food chains and food webs
allow transfer of energy from producers and consumers and provide the means for all living
organisms to acquire nutrition. Population control also occurs naturally through predator–prey
relationships.
 The equilibrium in the ecosystem is maintained, thus if humans intervene, unforeseen negative
impacts known as ecological backlash, may arise. Floods are often times backlashes of excessive
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felling of trees. The importation of golden kuhol, that became a pest, reminds us that biological
organisms may not acclimatize in a new environment or may cause harm to indigenous species.
6. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation.

 Creation presupposes the existence of a Creator. The beautiful nature around us, perfect by
itself, has deteriorated due to the negative impacts of human use. This principle suggests
how a Human-Creator relationship is translated in our attitude towards creation.
Theologians explain that there are different levels of this relationship. First is a relationship
determined by dominion of humans over creation, that humans can do as they wish because
this was given by God. The book of Genesis says “have dominion over the fish of the sea
and the birds of the air…” The second level is one of stewardship, that of a caretaker where
humans are not owners but guardians of the integrity of nature.
7. Everything changes.
 Changes in the biophysical world occur naturally. As they say, there is nothing more
permanent in this world than change. Consider the following examples. Metamorphosis of
caterpillars to butterflies illustrates morphological changes that occur in living forms. The
increase of vegetation on earth augmented the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere
through time. Seasons are cyclic changes that contribute to the diversity of flowers, fruits,
vegetables and other crops during the year. Random changes manifested by natural
catastrophe such as typhoons destroy forests, coral reefs and mangroves. Volcanic
eruptions annihilate surface flora and submerge rivers.
 Human-induced alteration such as climate change may cause more massive repercussions.
Land use change–from forests to agricultural land to human settlements–change the
composition of vegetation and animals. Human-induced changes can be managed so that
the negative impacts are minimized and positive changes accentuated.
8. The amount of life nature can support is limited.
 Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals of a given species which can be
supported by a particular habitat or ecosystem without damaging it. For example, a typical
Filipino bahay kubo can only support a limited number of family members; the presence of too
many residents results in overcrowding. Therefore, nature as its own processes or mechanisms
to regulate the population of a species within or environment.
9. Human progress must consider its effect on nature.
 Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. Development is viewed as essential in improving
the quality of human life, yet human activities often change the environment and destroy or
damage natural resources. Sustainable development strives for human progress without
threatening the environment.
Lesson 4: Environmental Organizations in the Philippines
ABS-CBN Bantay Kalikasan
Bantay Kalikasan (BK), the environmental arm of ABS-CBN Lingkod

Kapamilya Foundation, was created in 1999 to serve as a catalyst in
addressing the country’s environmental issues/concerns such as air
and water pollution, denudation of forests, irresponsible waste
disposal and their life-threatening effects.
Recently, the thrust of BK is mainly environmental education
through ecotourism. The goal is to implant in the minds and hearts
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of Filipinos that taking care of the environment is the path to quality of life, and that livelihood does not
have to come from environmentally destructive practices.
Center for Environmental Concerns – Philippines (CEC-Phils)
The Center for Environmental Concerns–Philippines (CEC-Phils) is a non-

government organization founded through the initiatives of
organizations representing fisherfolks, farmers, indigenous peoples,
women, urban poor, and professional sectors. The organization
closely works with communities and organizations nationwide,
supporting their initiatives to nurture their ecosystems, defend their
common access to natural resources, advocates for people-oriented,
patriotic, sustainable, and scientific policies and programs for the
protection of the Philippine environment, and engages in information
sharing, international networking, cross-cultural exchanges, and
solidarity initiatives on common environmental issues and concerns.
Global Environment and Nature Ecosystems Society-Philippines Foundation, Inc (GENESYS)
The Global Environment and Nature Ecosystems Society (Phil.)

Foundation (GENESYS) was formally established in mid-1999 as
a non-profit, non-government organization. Its primary purpose
is to manage and implement environment restoration and
prevention projects through the coordination and pooling of
resources among various sectors, groups and individuals. The
underlying ideology is based on the belief that caring for all
living things and preserving the environment in a sustainable
manner benefits mankind, improves living conditions for future
generations, and partly fulfills God’s purpose for man on earth.
Mission
To manage and implement environment restoration and
prevention projects through the coordination and pooling of
resources among various sectors, groups and individuals
Haribon Foundation
Our Vision
Haribon transforms every individual into a biodiversity
champion.
Our Mission
Haribon advocates biodiversity conservation through
building constituencies, empowering communities and
applying multi-disciplinary approaches.
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Hatched in 1972, the Haribon Foundation and the individuals it trained and nurtured were instrumental
in the formation of other environmental organizations in the country.
The niche of Haribon – developed over 45 years of scientific excellence and socio-economic research – is
biodiversity conservation. The Foundation’s natural and social scientists continue to work with people
from all levels of governance to develop sustainable resource management strategies.
The name Haribon was coined from Haring Ibon or the Philippine Eagle. It was so named because the
existence of the king of birds is a perfect barometer of the state of our forests. Haribon stands on Four
Pillars when it comes to conserving biodiversity in the Philippines: Conserving Sites and Habitats, Saving
Species, Empowering People, and Encouraging Sustainability.
Philippine Tropical Forest Conservation Foundation, Inc. (PTCF)
We are Forest Foundation Philippines, a non-profit organization that provides grants to organizations
that empower the people to protect the forests.
Bonded by a mutual affinity for the protection of the country’s lush forests, the Forest Foundation
Philippines was established in 2002 under two bilateral agreements between the governments of the
United States of America and the Philippines through the US Tropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA).
Since our founding, we have been on a mission to protect the Philippine forests from the threats and
challenges that they face. We have supported over 450 projects, which improved the management of
approximately 1.5 million hectares of forest lands, restored approximately 4,200 hectares of forests
through the re-introduction of appropriate native tree species, established over 40 community-conserved
areas and built over 60 community-level enterprises.
Today, our work continues as the forests still face threats. Guided by the Forest Foundation Philippines
Results Framework, 2017-2021, we have allocated around Php 480M to protect the country’s most
critical forest landscapes: Sierra Madre, Palawan, Samar and Leyte, and Bukidnon and Misamis Oriental.
The Foundation supports organizations that implement projects to protect the forests through its grant
programs.
1. Forest Landscape Grant Program
The program supports activities that foster the protection and sustainable management of forests in the
Foundation’s focal landscapes: Sierra Madre, Palawan, Samar and Leyte, and Bukidnon and Misamis
Oriental.
2. Focused Grants Program

The program supports activities that foster the protection and sustainable management of forests
outside the focal landscapes.
Eco-Link Women’s Network

Ever since its humble beginning in 1996, the Environmental Cooperation & Linkages Inc. has been
pursuing a wide scope of services, most of which are related to environmental research and conservation
projects. Despite limited access to funding support, it continues to fulfill its mandates. But as of January
2007, after an Internal Evaluation of its decade-old existence, the institution came out with a
programmatic approach in realizing its mission. These are as follows: Health and Women's Program,
Sustainable Rural Development Program, Human Rights, Democratization and Peace-building Program,
Local Governance and Transparency Program, Mindanao Youth Fund, and Human Resource
Development Facility.
Foundations for the Philippine Environment

Established in 1992, the Foundation for the Philippine Environment (FPE) is a private foundation that
operates in the sectors of risk assessment and management, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem
management, indigenous peoples, and civil society organizations engaged in climate change mitigation
and adaptation.
FPE’s overall mission is aligned directly with the GCF’s goal to promote “the paradigm shift toward low-
emission and climate resilient development pathways.”
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As of 2019, all FPE activities are intended to address the increased threats to biodiversity due to climate
change; enhance ecosystem resilience to counteract the effects of climate change; and increase
communities’ adaptive capacities to climate change. Now, the organization is targeting work that will
build the resilience of the most vulnerable communities in the Philippines and empower them to adapt to
the increasing risks caused by a changing climate.
FPE’s vast network at the local level would allow devolving climate finance to reach the most vulnerable
groups in the Philippines, including indigenous peoples and marginalized sectors. Utilizing an Enhanced
Direct Access approach would be a high priority for FPE to allow climate funds to be directly channeled
to those most affected by climate change.
If accredited, the FPE can undertake work in these areas:
Building resilient communities through ecosystems-based approach to natural resources rehabilitation

and restoration
Developing a resilient grant facility to empower rural communities to respond to climate change by
building awareness, adaptive capacity, and low-carbon rural development
Enhancing the capacity and information base of local governments and community groups to pursue an
integrated approach to reducing vulnerability to flood-related-risks, which includes upgrading small-
scale infrastructure to withstand increased incidence of severe flooding due to climate change.
Philippine Ocean Heritage
Quiz 1 Introduction to the Course

1. What ethical perspective is being describe that the preservation of ecosystems or other
living things takes priority over human needs?
a. Anthropogenic b. bio-centric c. frontier ethic d. eco centrism
2. This ethical perspective put its emphasis on short-term benefits wherein anything not
providing benefits to people has no value.
3. What ethical perspective opposed development if it destroys life?
4. It assumes that the human race is and should be the matter of nature and that the earth
and its resources exist for our benefit and pleasure.
a. Bio ethic b. eco centrism c. development ethic d. preservation ethic
5. What environmental attitude gives importance to protect the inherent value of nature
since it promotes the fulfillment of human?
a. Conservation ethic b. eco centrism c. development ethic d. preservation ethic
6. It focuses on the concept of the use of natural resources wisely for the common good of
most people.
a. Conservation ethic b. eco centrism c. development ethic d. preservation ethic
7. What environmental principle exemplifies the 3Rs
a. Everything changes c. Nature knows best
b. Everything must go somewhere d. Ours is a finite earth
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8. The variety of life forms contribute to the stability of the environment. This describes
what principle?
a. Everything is connected to anything else
b. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation
c. All forms of life are important
d. Nature knows best
9. Human activities alters and destroys the environment which may compromise the needs
of the future generation. This principle refers to
a. Human Progress must Consider its Effect on Nature
b. The amount of Life Nature can Support is Limited
c. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation.
d. Everything is connected to everything else.
Assignment 1
Select one (1) from the different environmental organization and formulate a plan applicable to
your community that would support the advocacy of your chosen organization.
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Chapter 2: Hierarchy
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Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on a scale
from small to large.
The different levels of organization of living things are:
ATOM
The atom is the smallest
and most fundamental
unit of matter. It consists
of a nucleus surrounded
by electrons.
MOLECULE
Two or more atoms bond to form
molecules. For example, two atoms of
hydrogen combine with one atom of
oxygen to from a water molecule.
Large biologically important

molecules are called macromolecules.
An example of a macromolecule is
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which A water molecule
contains the instructions for the
structure and functioning of all living
organisms.
A DNA macromolecule
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ORGANELLES
Organelles are composed of
aggregated macromolecules that
are surrounded by membranes.
Organelles are found inside cells.
Examples are mitochondria and
chloroplasts, nucleus, ribosomes,
etc.
CELL
The cell is the smallest fundamental unit of
structure and function in living things. All
living things are made of cells. Some
organisms consist of a single cell and others
are multicellular. Cells are classified as
prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are
single-celled or colonial organisms that do
not have membrane-bound nuclei; in
contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have
membrane-bound organelles and a
membrane-bound nucleus.
TISSUE
In larger organisms, cells
combine to make tissues.
Tissues are groups of
similar cells carrying out
similar or related functions.
Examples are epithelial
tissues, connective tissues,
nervous tissues, muscle
tissues, etc. Muscle tissue
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ORGAN
An organ is a group of
tissues performing a
common function.
Examples are heart,
lungs, stomach,
intestines, skin, etc.
Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of
organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For
instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it
includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Furthermore, organisms are individual living
entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled
eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms.
All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a population. For
example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the population of pine
trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with
the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants and also insects and microbial populations. A
community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers,
insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem.
An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living
parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization,
the biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes
land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent. Taken together, all of these levels comprise
the biological levels of organization, which range from organelles to the biosphere.
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CHAPTER 3
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
Biotic and Abiotic Factors in Ecosystem

Biotic Factors – refers to the biological influences on organisms within an ecosystem. This
include all ecological community and relationships such as insect-flower relationships, predator-
prey relationships, seed dispersal, scavenging, symbiosis(mutualism, parasitism and
commensalism), overpopulation, animal behaviour, aposematic coloration.
Abiotic Factors – those that replace physical or nonliving factors that shape the ecosystem.
These include the climatic conditions of terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems,
including temperature, precipitation, and humidity, wind nutrients available, substrate (soil),
atmospheric gasses, currents and sunlight.
Together, biotic and abiotic factors determine the survival and growth of an organism and the
productivity of the ecosystem in which the organism lives.
The abiotic factors determine the type of

organisms that can successfully live in a
particular area. Some of the major nonliving
factors of an ecosystem include;
1. Sunlight. This is necessary for
photosynthesis.
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2. Water. All living things require some water, but some can live with lesser amounts.
3. Temperature. All living things have a range of temperatures in which they can survive,
beyond those limits they will have difficult time.
4. Oxygen. Many living things require oxygen; it is necessary for cellular respiration, a process
used to obtain energy from food; others are actually killed by the presence of oxygen (certain
bacteria).
5. Soil. The type of soil, pH, and amount of water it holds, available nutrients, etc. determine
what type of organism can successfully live in or on the soil; for example, cacti live in sand,
cattails in soil saturated with water.
The biotic factors include the plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and any other living things that live
in an area. Categories include:
1. Producers or autotrophs- make their own food. Producers, such as plants make food
through a process called photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide
and water to make sugar. This food is used by the plant for its own energy or may be
eaten by consumers.
2. Consumers or heterotrophs – need to eat food that autotrophs have produced. There
are different types of consumers.
3. Herbivores eat plants. Carnivores eat animals. Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
4. 3. Decomposers- heterotrophs that break down dead tissue and waste products. They
play a very important role in the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients. Bacteria and
fungi are decomposers.
5. Within an ecosystem, all living things have a habitat or the physical area in which they
live. The habitat of an organism may include many different areas. Think of the various
places you might found a mouse; in a field, a garden and in your house. Animals that
migrate will have different habitats during different seasons.
6. If events occur to change a habitat a series of changes may result in the ecosystem.
For example, cutting the trees in a forest destroys the homes of some animals, increases
the amount of light that reaches the forest floor, reduces the amount of food for
organisms that depend on those trees, reduces the amount of carbon dioxide taken
from the air and oxygen released into it. As a result of this habitat destruction, some
organisms may become threatened, endangered and eventually extinct.
Important Processes in Ecosystem
1. Photosynthesis. This is carried out by plants (with chlorophyll). The rate is influenced by
light intensity, temperature, and availability of water.
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2. Decomposition. This is the reverse process of photosynthesis, with organic matter being
converted into inorganic compounds (like carbon dioxide), accomplished by
decomposers such as microorganisms like bacteria and fungi; and larger organisms like
earthworm.
Factors Influencing the Distribution of Plants & Animals

1. Temperature. The ability to withstand extremes temperature varies widely among
plants and animals.
Animals respond to variation in temperature both physiologically and behaviourally.
• Birds and mammals are endotherms (hot-blooded) and maintain relatively high body
temperatures using their own metabolism.
• Other mammals (such as reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects) are called ectotherms.
and their body temperatures are largely set by the ambient (surrounding) temperature.
• Ectotherms use sources of heat such as solar radiation (direct and indirect) and
conduction to help adjust their body temperature.
• Endotherms may maintain body temperature by chaining the position of fur or feathers;
sweating and panting; shivering; behavioural means such as seeking shade or water,
burrowing, or varying periods of activity.
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• Endotherms may avoid extended periods of low or
high temperatures by hibernating or estivating.
• Hibernation is winter dormancy.
• Estivation is summer dormancy.
Plants obviously cannot move to escape high or low temperatures.

• Photosynthesis slows down or stops when temperatures get too high or too low.
• At high temperatures, leaves can lose some heat by evapotransportation (loss of water
through small halls in leaves.
• Plants adapted to withstand low temperatures because that may have hairs or leaves or
stems; have more solutes in cytoplasm to reduce freezing point; tend to be short and
grow
Closely together to resist the cold temperatures and winds; and tend to be dark-
colored to absorb as much of the sun’s heat as possible.
2. Water. The precipitation determines, along with mean temperature, the world-wide
distribution of biomes. Primary problems for plants in areas like deserts is a lack of water.
Plants adapted for dry conditions include:
• Xerophytes such as cacti that usually have special means of storing and conserving
water. They often have a few or no leaves, which reduce transpiration.
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Some examples of Xerophytes
• Phreatophytes plants that grow extremely long roots, allowing them to acquire moisture
at or near the water table.
• Perennials, plants that survive by becoming dormant during dry periods, then spring to
life when water becomes available.
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• Ephemerals, plants that usually germinates in the spring following winter rains. They
grow quickly, flower and produce seeds before dying. These seeds are extremely hardy.
They remain dormant, resisting drought and heat, until the following spring sometimes
2 or 3 springs when they repeat the cycle, germinating after winter rains to bloom again
in the spring.
3. Fire. Historically, humans have thought that all fires are detrimental because they
blackened landscapes and burned trees. In fact, plants and animals evolved together with
fire, making it a necessary element in the survival of many ecosystems.
Effects of Fire
Many fires depend on fire to heat and scar their seeds as a process for germination.
Decaying trees release nutrients into the soil and serve as a base for new plants to sprout.
Much of the plant life has evolved to use fire directly as a catalyst for reproduction or
benefited by the nourishment left in its path.
The specific effect of fire on animals depend on what kind of fire, the type of
vegetation, and the individual animal.
• Larger animals generally survive more often than smaller ones; although a burrowed
animal can escape burning, usually it suffocates in the meantime.
• Many birds also thrive after a fire when the seeds of many trees are dispersed. Birds like
woodpeckers, take advantage of burned
out trees to make nests or forage for dead insects.
• Insects do not usually survive fires well because their escape range is too small. This can
affect birds if the specific insects are a food source for the aviators. Trees can benefit
from the death of insects that reside in their trunks.
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4. Light. Light influences daily and seasonal activity patterns of plants and animals. It is
necessary for photosynthesis which, in turn, is the source of energy in almost all
ecosystems.
Ecological Relationships
Community Interactions
1. Competition
Happens when organisms of the same or different species attempt to use an
ecological resource in the same place at the same time. The competition is generally
observed for acquiring some limiting abiotic factor in the environment. Plants compete for
water, light, minerals and carbon dioxide for example. Some plants are better able to
compete than others in a given portion of an ecosystem.
These species exclude their competitors from that part of the ecosystem this is called
competitive exclusions.
2. Predation is an interaction where one organism captures and feeds on another organism.
Predator refers to the organism that kills and consumes and Prey is an organism turns into
someone’s dine.
3. Symbiosis refers to any relationship in which two species live closely together. Species
always live together in communities, but some species interact in a much more intimate
way.
These species exclude their competitors from that part of the ecosystem this is called
competitive exclusions.
2. Predation is an interaction where one organism captures and feeds on another organism.
Predator refers to the organism that kills and consumes and Prey is an organism turns into
someone’s dine.
3. Symbiosis refers to any relationship in which two species live closely together. Species
always live together in communities, but some species interact in a much more intimate
way.
Three Types of Direct Interaction
MUTUALISM-occurs when both species benefit from the relationship
Ex. Flowers and insects.
Examples of Mutualism
1. Pollination
• Pollinator may get:
 food (nectar,pollen-high energy or high protein food)
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 Mating advantage-some bees get scent molecules
 Nesting materials-some bees get wax for their nests
• Flowering plants get:
 Efficiency of pollen transfer
 Mixing of pollen from many plants and prevention of inbreeding
• Pollinators include flies, bees, wasps, bats, beetles, birds
 Any animal that visits the flower regularly may be a pollinator
Dispersal Mutualisms
• Fruits are plant rewards for animal dispersal of seeds
• Seeds often pass through the guts of dispersers without harm
 some seeds even benefit from this by being deposited with the manure as a fertilizer
 Some seeds use the passage as a signal to germinate and will not do so without this
 Some plants protect the seed with toxins while making the fruit palatable
Ex. Peach seeds (pits) are full of cyanide
 some plants sacrifice some seeds to dispersers (seeds are usually very good food-lots of
vitamins, proteins and lipids)
• Lots of cheaters in this system (whenever seeds are eaten as food and are not just
passing through the gut)
• Fruit colors are important signals
 Make fruit apparent to dispersers (advertisements)
 Green fruit often contain same toxins as other part to stop herbivory
 When ripe,color change signals readiness in that fruit has
 Lost it toxins
 Been stocked with sugars
3. Cleaning Mutualism
• One species gets food by removing (and eating) ectoparasites of another
• Partner loses its parasite without having to clean itself
 Also on reefs, cleaner fish perform same function as shrimp
 Birds eat parasites from outside of large herbivores (carabao)
4. Defense Mutualism
• One species get food and / or shelter from another species
• Other partner gets protection from being eaten
 Ant-acacia system
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 Acacia Tree provides
- place for ants to live in swollen base of tree
- food for ants in form of special extension of leaves
 Ants are aggressive and attack almost anything that comes into provide protection from
- other insect herbivore
- large, vertebrate herbivores (including you, if you happen to lean on the tree)
Importance of Mutualisms
1. Mutualism once thought to be important in the way nature worked
2. Mutualism fell out of favour:
• Competition/predation studies became more common
• Theory predicted either that mutualist populations became infinite in size or that an
equilibrium was unstable (tended to go to extinction when perturbed from equilibrium
point)
• Correlated point is that you never see three-way mutualism (where there must be three
partner presents) and theory predicts that instability goes up very sharply as the
number of partners increases
3. Many feel that some mutualisms get their start as parasitic relationships and that
evolution of the system may under certain conditions, favour mutualism as the final
outcome.
COMMENSALISM
Commensalism happens when one member of the association benefits and other is neither
helped nor harmed. Commensalism means literally “at table together”. This is a symbiotic
relationship between two species in which one species benefits and the other neither benefits
nor harm. Often, the host species provides a home and/or transportation for the other species.
Examples:
Clownfishes live within the waxing mass of tentacles of sea anemones; because most
fishes avoid the poisonous tentacles, the clownfishes
are protected from predators. Perhaps this relationship borders on mutualism because
the clownfishes actually may attract other fishes on which the anemone can feed. The
sea anemone’s tentacles quickly paralyze and seize other fishes as prey.
PARASITISM
If one organism lives in or on another organism, obtaining from its host part of all of its
nutritional needs. Ex. Fleas, lice, tapeworm
This is a symbiotic relationship between two organisms in which one species (parasite) benefits
for growth and reproduction to the harm of the other species (host). It must be emphasized
that parasite and host interact and that excessive harm done to a host, which makes it less
competitive, also endangers the survival of the parasite species.
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Parasitism can be differentiated into ectoparasites and endoparasites, depending respectively
on whether they live on or in the host. Lice, flea, ticks, etc. are examples of ectoparasites.
Tapeworms and the malaria parasite are examples of endoparasites.
A parasite is an organism that:
• Lives on or in the body of another organism ( the host)
• From whose tissues it gets its nourishment, and
• To whom it does some damage
Animals are parasitized by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, flatworms (tapeworms and
flukes), nematodes, insects (fleas,lice), and arachnids (mites).
Plants are parasitized by viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and a few other plants.
Parasites damage their host in two major ways:
• Consuming its tissues,e.g. hookworm
• Liberating toxins, for example,
o Tetanus bacilli secrete tetanus toxin which interferes with synaptic transmission
o Diptheria bacilli secrete a toxin that inhibits protein synthesis by ribosomes.
The relationship between parasite and host varies along a spectrum that extends from.
1. “Hit and run” parasites that live in their host for a brief period and then move on to
another with or without killing the first to
2. Parasites that establish chronic infections. Both parasite and host must evolve to ensure
the survival of both because if the parasite kills its host before it can move on, it
destroys its own meal ticket.
Examples:
• Parasitism in Plants
A plant parasite is the Doddler ( Cuscuta sp.). It is often found twined round the
stems of clover plants or grasses, which it damages severely. Each doddler plant consists of a
long slender yellow or pinkish stem, with the leaves reduced to tiny scales, and roots being
except for a short time after germination. At intervals along the twinning stem small rootlike
structures, called haustoria, link the Doddler to its host and penetrate to the host’s vascular
bundles.
In this way the parasite obtains organic nutrients, water and mineral salts directly from the
host. The Doddler is not fussy about its host. Any herbaceous plant can be infected. Woody
plants are usually too hard for the haustoria to be able to penetrate. If plants are densely
packed, doddler will spread rapidly to adjacent plants. It can cause a great deal of damage to
wheat or Lucerne fields.
• Parasitism in Animals
The bilharzia parasite, Schitosoma haematobium, a parasitic flatwormis a good example of a
successful parasite. It complete its life cycle into two host. The male and female adults live in
the blood of humans while larval forms live in the bodies of a type of snail, Bulinus africanus.
The adults posses suckers with which they attach themselves to the walls of blood vessels. Their
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bodies are covered with thick cuticles. When mature, adults meets in the blood of man. The
male and female become “associated” in that the slightly broader male rolls its body into a tube
in which the long thin female lives.
When the female is ready to to lay eggs, she frees herself and moves into small blood vessels in
the wall of a bladder. There she lay eggs. When the egg comes in contact with the water, its
shell breaks and a ciliated larva called a miracidium, is released. If it comes in contact with a
host it works itself into the body of the snail by means of hydrolysis. Sporocysts are produced
by the miracidium. Cercariae are produced after several generations of sporocysts. The
cercariae make their way into the water and make contact with a human. From there, it comes
into the blood stream and live there. Within six to twelve weeks the larvae develop into adults
and the cycle is reported once more.
CHAPTER 5
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Definition/Important Concepts
 Food Chains: simple model to show energy flow in an ecosystem; one possible route
- Arrows indicate direction energy flows
- Usually 3 to 5 trophic (energy) levels
- On average only 10% of energy is transferred to next trophic level
– Most energy is lost as heat
– Also lost as urine, feces and other
Top Carnivore
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 Food web: several interconnected food chains

– shows that an organism occupies more than one trophic level
– Expresses more possible feeding relationships at each trophic level
Food Web
Trophic Structure
Food Chain and Food Web

• Food Chain – process in which energy from food passes from one organism to the nest
in a sequence.
• Food Web – a complex interconnected food chains in the ecosystem.
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BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
WATER CYCLE
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Stage 1 – Evaporation
Evaporation occurs when the sun heats up water in rivers or lakes or the ocean and turns it into
water vapor or steam. The water vapor or steam leaves the river, lake or ocean and goes into
the air.
Stage 2- Condensation
Condensation occurs when water vapor or steam in the air gets cold and changes from a gas
back into liquid forming clouds.
Stage 3 – Precipitation
Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed that the clouds get heavy and water
falls back to the earth in the form of rain, hail, sleet or snow.
Stage 4- Collection
This is when water that falls from the clouds as rain, snow, hail or sleet, collects in the oceans,
rivers, lakes, stream. Most will soak into the ground and will collect as underground water.
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OXYGEN CYCLE
CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle is the process in which carbon travels from the atmosphere into organisms
and the Earth and then back into the atmosphere. Plants take carbon dioxide from the air and
use it to make food. Animals then eat the food and carbon is stored in their bodies or released
as CO2 through respiration.
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NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen Cycle
 is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates
among atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out
through both biological and physical processes.
The air we breathe contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and remaining are other trace gases. The nitrogen
component of air is inert. So this means plants and animals cannot use it directly. To be able to use nitrogen, plants
convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates, nitrites and ammonia compounds by a process called the nitrogen cycle.
Animals derive their nitrogen requirements from plants.
Five Steps of Nitrogen Cycle:
1. Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ or NO3-)
 is a process by which molecular nitrogen in the air is converted into ammonia or related nitrogenous
compounds in soil. Atmospheric nitrogen is molecular dinitrogen, a relatively nonreactive molecule
that is metabolically useless to all but a few microorganisms.
 This is the first step of the nitrogen cycle. This step is characterized by the conversion of atmospheric
N2 into ammonia (NH3). Bacteria like Azotobacter and Rhizobium have a major role in this process.
They are harbored in the roots of the leguminous plants and help convert inert nitrogen to ammonia.
Nitrogen fixation can occur in any of the following ways: atmospheric fixation (involves lightening),
industrial fixation(manufacturing ammonia under high temperature and pressure condition)
2. Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-)
 is the biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrite followed by the oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate. The
transformation of ammonia to nitrite is usually the rate limiting step of nitrification.
 this is an important step in the nitrogen cycle in soil.
 occurs in two-steps. The first step is in which NH3/NH$+ is converted to NO3- (nitrates). The bacteria
Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus present in the soil convert NH3 to NO2-, and another bacterium,
Nitrobacter converts NO2- to NO3-. These bacteria gain energy through these conversions.
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3. Assimilation (Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into biological tissues)
 is the process by which plants and animals incorporate the NO3- and ammonia formed through
nitrogen fixation and nitrification. Plants take up these forms of nitrogen through their roots, and
incorporate them into plant proteins and nucleic acids.
 Once the nitrogen has been fixed in the soil, plants can absorb nitrogen through their roots. This
process of absorption is known as assimilation.
4. Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3)
 is the process by which the organically bound nitrogen of microbial, plant, and animal biomass is
recycled after their death.
 is carried out by a diverse array of microorganisms that perform ecological decay services, and its
product is ammonia or ammonium ion.
 process by which ammonia can be generated. Organic remains of plants and animals are broken
down in the soil by some bacteria to release ammonia into the soil. These dead and waste matter is
used by these microorganisms as food and they release ammonia into the soil.
5. Denitrification(NO3- to N2)
 is the last step in the nitrogen cycle where the reduction of soil nitrate to nitrogen-containing gases,
such as nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen gas, takes place. ... Specifically, soil microbes utilize
nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor to form nitrite in a process called reduction.
 is the reverse of nitrification that occurs in the deep layers of soil where the bacteria convert NO3- is
converted into N2 and other gaseous compounds like NO2. This occurs because in deep layers of soil,
oxygen is not available and the soil bacteria use these nitrogen compounds instead of oxygen.

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CHAPTER 2
GENERAL CONCEPTS OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem- a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with
the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil),
interacting as a system.
Levels of Organization
• Individual Organism – Any living things are included. The individual organisms act
reciprocally with the abiotic factors of the environment which limit their distribution.
• Population – it is a group of individuals of the same species, which inhabit the same
geographic area. It comprises all the individuals of a given species in a specific area or
region at a certain time.
• Community – it is the whole of organisms living in a specific area. It includes organisms
of different species.
• Ecosystem – it is dynamic entities composed of the biological community and the abiotic
environment. An ecosystem’s abiotic and biotic composition and structure is
determined by the state of a number of interrelated environmental factors.
• Biosphere – it is the total portion of the planet which inhabits the living beings. It
includes all the communities and all the ecosystem on Earth.
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Types of Ecosystem
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Fresh water Ecosystem
• Marine Ecosystem
Biotic and Abiotic Factors in Ecosystem
Biotic Factors – refers to the biological influences on organisms within an ecosystem. This
include all ecological community and relationships such as insect-flower relationships, predator-
prey relationships, seed dispersal, scavenging, symbiosis(mutualism, parasitism and
commensalism), overpopulation, animal behaviour, aposematic coloration.
Abiotic Factors – those that replace physical or nonliving factors that shape the ecosystem.
These include the climatic conditions of terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems,
including temperature, precipitation, and humidity, wind nutrients available, substrate (soil),
atmospheric gasses, currents and sunlight.
Together, biotic and abiotic factors determine the survival and growth of an organism and the
productivity of the ecosystem in which the organism lives.
The abiotic factors determine the type of organisms that can successfully live in a particular
area. Some of the major nonliving factors of an ecosystem include;
1. Sunlight. This is necessary for photosynthesis.
2. Water. All living things require some water, but some can live with lesser amounts.
3. Temperature. All living things have a range of temperatures in which they can survive,
beyond those limits they will have difficult time.
4. Oxygen. Many living things require oxygen; it is necessary for cellular respiration, a process
used to obtain energy from food; others are actually killed by the presence of oxygen (certain
bacteria).
5. Soil. The type of soil, pH, amount of water it holds, available nutrients, etc. determine what
type of organism can successfully live in or on the soil; for example, cacti live in sand, cattails in
soil saturated with water.
The biotic factors include the plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and any other living things that live
in an area. Categories include:
7. Producers or autotrophs- make their own food. Producers, such as plants make food
through a process called photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide
and water to make sugar. This food is used by the plant for its own energy or may be
eaten by consumers.
8. Consumers or heterotrophs – need to eat food that autotrophs have produced. There
are different types of consumers.
9. Herbivores eat plants. Carnivores eat animals. Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
10. 3. Decomposers- heterotrophs that break down dead tissue and waste products. They
play a very important role in the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients. Bacteria and
fungi are decomposers.
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11. Within an ecosystem, all living things have a habitat or the physical area in which they
live. The habitat of an organism may include many different areas. Think of the various
places you might found a mouse; in a field, a garden and in your house. Animals that
migrate will have different habitats during different seasons.
12. If events occur to change a habitat a series of changes may result in the ecosystem.
For example, cutting the trees in a forest destroys the homes of some animals, increases
the amount of light that reaches the forest floor, reduces the amount of food for
organisms that depend on those trees, reduces the amount of carbon dioxide taken
from the air and oxygen released into it. As a result of this habitat destruction, some
organisms may become threatened, endangered and eventually extinct.
Important Processes in Ecosystem
1. Photosynthesis. This is carried out by plants (with chlorophyll). The rate is influenced by
light intensity, temperature, and availability of water.
2. Decomposition. This is the reverse process of photosynthesis, with organic matter being
converted into inorganic compounds (like carbon dioxide), accomplished by
decomposers such as microorganisms like bacteria and fungi; and larger organisms like
earthworm.
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Factors Influencing the Distribution of Plants & Animals

2. Temperature. The ability to withstand extremes temperature varies widely among
plants and animals.
Animals respond to variation in temperature both physiologically and behaviourally.
• Birds and mammals are endotherms (hot-blooded) and maintain relatively high body
temperatures using their own metabolism.
• Other mammals (such as reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects) are called ectotherms.
and their body temperatures are largely set by the ambient (surrounding) temperature.
• Ectotherms use sources of heat such as solar radiation (direct and indirect) and
conduction to help adjust their body temperature.
• Endotherms may maintain body temperature by chaining the position of fur or feathers;
sweating and panting; shivering; behavioural means such as seeking shade or water,
burrowing, or varying periods of activity.
• Endotherms may avoid extended periods of low or high temperatures by hibernating or
estivating.
• Plants adapted to withstand low temperatures because that may have hairs or leaves or
grow
• Plants adapted to withstand low temperatures because thay may have hairs or leaves or
grow
Closely together to resist the cold temperatures and winds; and tend to be dark-
colored to absorb as much of the sun’s heat as possible.
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2. Water. The precipitation determines, along with mean temperature, the world-wide
distribution of biomes. Primary problems for plants in areas like deserts is a lack of water.
Plants adapted for dry conditions include:
• Xerophytes such as cacti that usually have special means of storing and conserving
water. They often have a few or no leaves, which reduce transpiration.
Some examples of Xerophytes
• Phreatophytes plants that grow extremely long roots, allowing them to acquire moisture
at or near the water table.
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• Perennials, plants that survive by becoming dormant during dry periods, then spring to
life when water becomes available.
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• Ephemerals, plants that usually germinates in the spring following winter rains. They
grow quickly, flower and produce seeds before dying. These seeds are extremely hardy.
They remain dormant, resisting drought and heat, until the following spring sometimes
2 or 3 springs when they repeat the cycle, germinating after winter rains to bloom again
in the spring.
3. Fire. Historically, humans have thought that all fires are detrimental because they
blackened landscapes and burned trees. In fact, plants and animals evolved together with
fire, making it a necessary element in the survival of many ecosystems.
Effects of Fire
Many fires depend on fire to heat and scar their seeds as a process for germination.
Decaying trees release nutrients into the soil and serve as a base for new plants to sprout.
Much of the plant life has evolved to use fire directly as a catalyst for reproduction or
benefited by the nourishment left in its path.
The specific effect of fire on animals depend on what kind of fire, the type of
vegetation, and the individual animal.
• Larger animals generally survive more often than smaller ones; although a burrowed
animal can escape burning, usually it suffocates in the meantime.
• Many birds also thrive after a fire when the seeds of many trees are dispersed. Birds like
woodpeckers, take advantage of burned
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ecosystems.
ecosystems.
Ecological Succession
Ecological Succession- the observed process of change in the species structure of an
ecological community over time. The community begins with relatively few pioneering
plants and animals and develops through increasing complexity until it becomes stable or
self-perpetuating as a climax community. It is a phenomenon or process by which an
ecological community undergoes more or less orderly and predictable changes following
disturbance or initial colonization of new habitat.
• Succession may be initiated either by formation of new unoccupied habitat (e.g.,a lava
flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe wind throw,
logging) of an existing community. Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced
by pre-existing communities is called primary succession, whereas succession that
follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession.
Types of Succession
• Primary and Secondary Succession
An Example of Secondary Succession by Stages:
1. A stable deciduous forest community.
2. A disturbance, such as wild fire, destroys the forest.
3. The fire burns the forest to the ground.
4. The fires leave behind empty, but not destroyed soil.
5. Grasses and other herbaceous plants grow back first.
6. Small bushes and trees begin to colonize the area.
7. Fast growing evergreen trees develop to their fullest, while shade-tolerant trees develop
in the understory.
8. The short-lived and the intolerant evergreen trees dies as the larger deciduous trees
overtop them. The ecosystem is now back to a similar state to where it begin.
Primary Succession
Successional dynamics beginning with colonization of an area that has not been
previously occupied by an ecological community, such as newly exposed rock or sand
surfaces, lava flows, newly exposed glacial tilts, etc.
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Factors Influencing Succession
1. Site conditions
2. Character of the events initiating succession
3. Interactions of the species present
4. More stochastic factors such as availability of colonist or seeds or weather conditions at
the time of disturbance.
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AIR POLLUTION
These are the learning outcomes in this lesson:
1. Identify and describe the major air pollutants.
2. Use air quality index as reference to describe air

quality
3. Enumerate ways to minimize air pollution problems
4. Develop favorable attitude as good stewards of

nature
 condition in which the quality of air is degraded due to the presence of harmful substances,
particulate matter; and biological agents
 Refers to the release of pollutants into the air that are detrimental to human health and the
planet as a whole.
Air Pollutants
 Substances whose concentrations in air are high enough to be considered hazardous in human
health
 Any visible or invisible particle or gas found in the air that is not part of the original, normal
composition.
Major Air Pollutants
Pollutant Description Sources Effects
Ozone A gas that can be found in Ozone is not created Ozone near the ground can cause
two places. Near the directly, but is found when a number of health problems.
ground (the troposphere), nitrogen oxide and volatile Ozone can lead to more frequent
it is a major part of smog. organic compounds mix in asthma attacks in people who
The harmful ozone in the sunlight. That is why ozone is have asthma and can cause sore
lower atmosphere should mostly found in the summer. throats, coughs and breathing
not be confused with the Nitrogen oxide comes from difficulty. It may even lead to
protective layer of ozone burning gasoline, coal, or premature death. Ozone can also
in the upper atmosphere other fossil fuels. There are damage plants and crops.
(stratosphere), which many types of volatile
screens out harmful organic compounds, and
ultraviolet rays. they come from sources
ranging from factories to
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trees.
Carbon A gas that comes Carbon monoxide is released Carbon monoxide makes it hard
Monoxide. from the burning of fossil when engines burn fossil for the body parts to get the
fuels. fuel. Emissions are higher oxygen they need to run
when engines are not turned correctly. Exposure to carbon
properly and when fuel is monoxide makes people feel
not completely burned. Cars dizzy and tired and gives them
emit a lot of the carbon headache. In high concentrations,
monoxide found outdoors. it is fatal. Elderly people with
Furnaces and heaters in the heart disease are hospitalized
home can emit high more often when they are
concentrations of carbon exposed to higher amounts of
monoxide too, if they are not carbon monoxide.
properly maintained.
Nitrogen A reddish-brown Nitrogen dioxide mostly High levels of nitrogen dioxide

dioxide gas that comes from the comes from power plants exposure can give people coughs
burning of fossil fuels. it and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is and can make them feel short of
has a strong smell at high formed in two ways- when breath
levels. nitrogen in the fuel is
burned, or when nitrogen in
the air reacts with oxygen at
very high temperatures.
Nitrogen dioxide can also
react in the atmosphere to
form ozone, acid rain, and
particles
Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide mostly comes Sulfur dioxide exposures can
exposure can affect from the burning of coal or affect people who have asthma
people oil in power plants. It also or emphysema by making it more
comes from factories that difficult for them to breathe. It
A corrosive gas that
make chemicals, paper, or can also irritate people’s eyes,
cannot be seen or
fuel. Like nitrogen dioxide, nose, and throats. Sulfur dioxide
smelled at low levels but
sulfur dioxide reacts in the can damage trees and crops,
can have a “rotten egg”
atmosphere to form acid buildings, and make it harder for
smell at high levels.
rain and particles. people to see long distances.
Lead A blue-gray metal Outside, lead comes from High amounts of lead can be
that is very toxic and is cars in areas where unleaded dangerous for small children and
found in a number of gasoline is not used. Lead can lead to lower IQs and kidney
forms and locations. can also come from power problems. For adults, exposure to
plants and other industrial lead can increase the chance of
sources. Inside, lead paint is having heart attacks or strokes.
an important sources of
lead, especially in houses
where paint is peeling. Lead
in all pipes can also be a
source of lead in drinking.
Particulate Solid or liquid Particulate matter can be Particulate matter that is small
matter matter that is suspended divided into two types- enough can enter the lungs and
in the air. To remain in coarse particles and fine cause health problems. Some of
the air, particles usually particles. Coarse particles these problems include more
must be less than 0.1-mm are formed from sources like frequent asthma attacks,
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wide and can be as small road dust, sea spray, and respiratory problems, and
as 0.00005 mm. construction. Fine particles premature death.
are formed when fuel is
burned in automobiles and
power plants.
Toxic air A large number of Each toxic air pollutant Toxic air pollutants can cause
pollutant chemical that are known comes from a slightly cancer. Some toxic air pollutants
or suspected to cause different source, but many can also cause birth defects.
.
cancer. Some important are created in chemical Other effects depend on the
pollutant in this category plants or are emitted when pollutant, but can include skin
include arsenic, asbestos, fossil fuels are burned. Some and eye irritation and breathing
benzene, and dioxin toxic air pollutants, like problems.
asbestos and formaldehyde
can be found in building
materials and can lead to
indoor air problems. Many
toxic air pollutants can also
enter the food and water
supplies.
Stratospheric Chemicals that can CFCs are used in air If the ozone in the stratosphere is
Ozone destroy the ozone in the conditioners and destroyed, people are exposed to
depleters stratosphere. These refrigerators, since they more radiation from the sun
chemicals include work well as coolants. They (ultraviolet radiation). This can
chlorofluorocarbon(CFCs), can also be found in aerosol lead to skin cancer and eye
halons and other cans and fire extinguishers. problems. Higher ultraviolet
compounds that include Other stratospheric ozone radiation can also harm plants
chlorine or bromine depleters are used as and animals.
solvents in industry.
Greenhouse Gases that stay in the air Carbon dioxide is the most The greenhouse effect can lead
gases for a long time and warm important greenhouse gas. It to changes in the climate of the
up the planet by trapping comes from the burning of planet. Some of the changes
sunlight. This is called the the fossil fuels in cars, power might include more temperature
“ greenhouse effect” plants, houses, and industry. extremes, higher sea levels,
because the gases act like Methane is released during changes in forest composition,
the glass in a greenhouse.
the processing of fossil more extreme weather and
Some of the important
fuels, and also comes from damage to land near the coast.
greenhouse gases are
carbon dioxide, methane, natural sources like cows Human health might be affected
and nitrous oxide. and rice paddies. Nitrous by diseases (increasing
oxide comes from industrial transmission of infectious
sources and decaying plants. disease) that are related to
temperature or by damage to
land water.
AQI: Air Quality Index
• Indicates whether pollutant levels in air may cause health concerns.
• Ranges from 0 (least concern) to 500 (greatest concern)
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Air Air Quality

Implications
Quality Index(ppm)
Good 0-50 No health impacts are expected when air quality is

in this range.
Moderate 51-100 Unusually sensitive people should consider limiting

prolonged outdoor exertion.
Unhealthy 101-150 Active children and adults, and people with

for respiratory disease, such as asthma, should limit
Sensitive prolonged outdoor exertion.
Groups
Unhealthy 151-200 Active children and adults, and people with

respiratory disease, such as asthma, should limit
prolonged outdoor exertion, everyone else,
especially children should limit prolonged outdoor
excertion.
Very 201-300 Active children and adults, and people with

Unhealthy respiratory disease, such as asthma, should limit
(Alert) prolonged outdoor exertion everyone else,
especially children, should limit outdoor exertion.
OTHER POLLUTION RELATED-PROBLEMS
The Green House Effect Thinning of Upper Ozone Layer
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Global Warming Acid Rain
Indoor
Pollution
What Can We do?
• Ride your bike
• Tell your friends and familyabout pollution
• Make sure your parents get pollution checks on their cars
• Ride the school bus
• Learn more; stay up to date
• Join a group to stop pollution
• Encourage your parents to carpool to work

• Switch off lights, fan, heat, etc. when you leave the room
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SELF
TEST
I. DIRECTIONS: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it

on the space provided before each number.
______ 1. What air pollutant is harmful if found in lower atmosphere and becomes a protective
layer if it is in the upper atmosphere?
a. sulfur dioxide b. carbon monoxide c. ozone d. lead
______ 2. An air pollutant which is considered to be a corrosive gas that cannot be seen or
smelled at low levels but can have a “rotten egg” smells at high levels.
a. sulfur dioxide b. carbon monoxide c. ozone d. lead
______ 3. A reddish-brown gas that comes from the burning of fossil fuel refers to a.
nitrogen dioxide b. carbon monoxide c. ozone d. lead
______ 4. What air pollutant comes from the burning of fossil fuel and emissions becomes
higher if fuel is not burned completely?
a. nitrogen dioxide b. carbon monoxide c. ozone d. lead
______ 5. A blue-gray metal that is very toxic and is found in a number of forms and locations is
called
a. nitrogen dioxide b. carbon monoxide c. ozone d. lead
______ 6. A solid or liquid matter that is suspended in the air and measures from less than
0.00005 mm refers to
a. Particulate matter b. lead c. nitrogen dioxide d. lead
______ 7. Which of the following is NOT considered as toxic air pollutant?
a. Lead b. arsenic d. asbestos d. benzene
______ 8. How is air pollutant measured?
a. Emission test b. air quality index c. toxicity index d. air test
______ 9. These refers to gases that stay in the air for a long time and warm up the planet by
trapping sunlight.
a. Ozone depleters c. upper ground gases
b. b. stratospheric gases d. greenhouse gases
______ 10. What AQI value makes the air very unhealthy?
a. 151-200ppm b. 101-150ppm c. 51-100ppm d. 201-300ppm
II. DIRECTIONS: Fill-out the missing data in the table.
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Identify and write the description of the following Air Quality Index
(AQI) Value.
Air Quality Index Implications
Description
(ppm)
0-50
51-100
101-150
151-200
201-300
LAND POLLUTION
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1. Identify and describe the major air pollutants.
2. Use air quality index as reference to describe air

quality
3. Enumerate ways to minimize air pollution problems

nature
Land Pollution
 the deposition of solid or liquid waste materials on land or underground in a manner that
can contaminate the soil and groundwater, threaten public health, and cause unsightly
conditions and nuisances.
 the destruction and contamination of the land through the direct and indirect
actions of humans. The pollution results in changes to the land, such as soil erosion.
Some of the changes are irreversible, while others are not.
CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION
There are several known causes of land pollution. Of those, there are six factors that
contribute more than others.
1. Deforestation and soil erosion
When forests are cleared for development and to meet the demand for wood supply,
the soil is loosened in the process. Without the protection of the trees, the land
becomes barren over time and starts to erode.
2. Agricultural chemicals
Part of the farming process often involves the use of harmful pesticides and insecticides
to protect crops. However, the chemicals can cause the land to become barren. The
once-fertile soil is then more susceptible to environmental elements, such as the wind.
3. Industrialization
The Industrial Revolution may have resulted in significant positive changes to the
economy and society, but it also led to significant pollution of the land. Through unsafe
disposal practices for chemicals used in manufacturing, poor regulation, and the
overwhelming number of industries and factories that are polluting the land daily,
industrialization has become one of the main contributors to the pollution problem.
4. Mining
The mining process can lead to the creation of large open spaces beneath the surface of
the earth. This can result in the land caving in, which compromises the integrity of the
land. Mining also results in harmful chemicals, such as uranium, being disturbed and
released into the environment.
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5. Landfills
The garbage found at landfills is filled with toxins that eventually seep into the earth.
During rains, the toxins are washed into other areas and the pollution is spread. As the
population grows, the amount of garbage filling landfills also grows.
6. Human sewage
Untreated human waste can produce toxic gases that can seep into the ground. As with
air pollution, the soil quality is negatively impacted, and land nearby can be
contaminated. In addition to this, the probability of human illnesses occurring increases.
EFFECTS OF LAND POLLUTION

The contamination of the land has far-reaching consequences that can be catastrophic
for water, soil, and animals. There are several possible consequences of land pollution
to the environment and animals, including these top five:
1. Ground water poisoning
Depending on the soil and whether the chemicals were improperly disposed of on the
land, the chemicals could end up in the ground water. The process is known as leaching.
It can occur on farms, industrial sites, and landfills.
2. Water nutrient enrichment
Chemicals, such as nitrogen, are used frequently on farms. Only a small portion of the
nutrients end up benefitting the crops. The remainder usually ends up in water that is
populated by fish, algae, and other lifeforms. The nutrient-heavy water saps up most of
the oxygen in the water, which leaves little for fish and other life. When this happens,
the water is unable to support most lifeforms.
3. Loss of topsoil
As chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used to maintain crops, the topsoil’s
composition becomes altered. The soil becomes more susceptible to harmful fungus
species and begins to erode. It is important to conserve our soil to maximize land
productivity.
4. Shifting habitat
As deforestation and soil erosion progress, animals are forced to move to find shelter
and food. For some animals, the change is too traumatic, and this has led to some dying.
As a result, some species are at a greater risk of extinction.
5. Increased risk of wildfires
The dry conditions created by pollutants in the soil help to create the perfect
environment for wildfires. The fires can grow quickly because of the dry conditions and
widening area of polluted land.
OTHER EFFECTS OF LAND POLLUTION TO HUMAN
 The impact of land pollution is not limited just to the earth and animals. Humans can also
experience negative consequences that can influence quality of life and health.
 Some of the potential consequences include birth defects, the development of breathing
disorders, skin diseases, and cancer. Most of these develop after exposure to waste from
water poisoning and soil contamination.
 Land pollution has also been linked to developmental deficits in children. Chemicals that
are commonly found in contaminated soil and water, such as lead, have an impact a
child’s cognitive development even if the exposure is very low.
SOLUTIONS TO LAND POLLUTION
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 There are several possible solutions to land pollution, including conservation.
Conservation focuses on preserving natural resources, such as soil and plants. The
efforts to conserve resources can start with utilizing sustainable practices.
 For instance, leaving some of the trees in a forest to naturally die and decay. This not
only leaves the cover needed for the soil and other vegetation, but it helps to provide
the nutrients that the soil needs to remain fertile. Other solutions include:
•Proper waste disposal that focuses on treating waste and disposing it in the safest
manner possible.
•Reusing materials to reduce the need for harvesting of resources. Products that are not
reusable can likely be recycled.
•Reducing the usage of non-biodegradable materials, such as plastic shopping bags. The
simple act of switching to a reusable cloth bag for groceries can help cut down on the
need for non-biodegradable materials.
•Organic gardening can reduce the usage of pesticides and insecticides. Non-gardeners
can help by buying organic food.
SELF ASSESSMENT
DIRECTION: Write the word “True” if the following statement is correct and the word “False” if
the statement in wrong. Indicate the answer on the space provided.
___________ 1. Land pollution can alter the soil condition
___________ 2. Agricultural farm inputs such as pesticides can increase the fertility of soil.
___________ 3. Mining can expose radioactive elements such as uranium which is harmful to
the environment.
___________ 4. If trees in the forest are cut, soil could be eroded over time.
___________ 5. Highly industrialized countries are susceptible to land pollution if waste
disposal practices are unsafe.
___________ 6. Sanitary landfill is the only safe and practical method of waste management.
___________ 7. Air pollution does not totally affect soil quality.
___________ 8. Farm inputs used on farms are carried by run-off water that make rivers and
lakes nutrient enriched.
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___________ 9. Decaying trees help provide nutrients that soil needs to remain fertile.
___________ 10. Land pollution can contaminate water making it unsafe to use.
WATER POLLUTION
1. Differentiate categories of water pollution.
2. Identify causes and effects of water pollution
3. Enumerate ways to prevent water pollution

nature
Water Pollution
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 means that one or more substances have built up in water to such an extent that they
cause problems for animals or people.
 the release of substances into subsurface groundwater or into lakes,
streams, rivers, estuaries, and oceans to the point where the substances interfere
with beneficial use of the water or with the natural functioning of ecosystems
 aside from chemicals or microorganisms, water pollution may also include the release
of energy, in the form of radioactivity or heat, into bodies of water.
CATEGORIES OF WATER POLLUTION

A. Point or Disperses Source Pollution
 Refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance,
such as pipe or ditch. Ex. Of sources in this category include discharges from a
sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. Point sources of water
pollution are easier to control than dispersed sources because the contaminated
water has been collected and conveyed to one single point where it can be
treated.
B. Non-point or Dispersed Source Pollution
 Refers to the diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete
source. It is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants
gathered from a large area. The leaching out of nitrogen compounds from
agricultural land which has been fertilized is a typical example. Nutrient runoff in
storm water from “sheet flow” over an agricultural field or a forest is also an
example of non-point source pollution.
 Pollution from dispersed sources is difficult to control, and, despite much
progress in the building of modern sewage-treatment plants, dispersed sources
continue to cause a large fraction of water pollution problems.
CAUSE OF WATER POLLUTION

1. Sewage
 A completely natural substance that should be broken down harmlessly in the
environment. 90 percent of sewage is water. Sewage contains all kinds of other
chemicals, from the pharmaceutical drugs people take to the paper, plastic, and
other wastes they flush down their toilets. When people are sick with viruses,
the sewage they produce carries those viruses into the environment. It is
possible to catch illnesses such as hepatitis, typhoid, and cholera from river and
sea water.
 Suitably treated and used in moderate quantities, sewage can be a fertilizer: it
returns important nutrients to the environment, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, which plants and animals need for growth. The trouble is, sewage is
often released in much greater quantities than the natural environment can cope
with. Chemical fertilizers used by farmers also add nutrients to the soil, which
drain into rivers and seas and add to the fertilizing effect of the sewage.
Together, sewage and fertilizers can cause a massive increase in the growth of
algae or plankton that overwhelms huge areas of oceans, lakes, or rivers. This is
known as a harmful algal bloom (also known as an HAB or red tide, because it
can turn the water red). It is harmful because it removes oxygen from the water
that kills other forms of life, leading to what is known as a dead zone.
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2. Waste Water
 A few statistics illustrate the scale of the problem that waste water (chemicals
washed down drains and discharged from factories) can cause. Around half of all
ocean pollution is caused by sewage and waste water. Each year, the world
generates perhaps 5–10 billion tons of industrial waste, much of which is
pumped untreated into rivers, oceans, and other waterways.
 According to the United Nations, more than 80% of the worldwide wastewater
goes back in the environment without being treated or reused,
 Factories are point sources of water pollution, but quite a lot of water is polluted
by ordinary people from nonpoint sources; this is how ordinary water becomes
waste water in the first place.
3. Chemical Waste
Sources are highly toxic chemicals such as
 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), used to manufacture electronic circuit boards.

Although PCBs are widely banned, their effects will be felt for many decades because
they last a long time in the environment without breaking down.
 heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, and mercury. Lead was once commonly used in
gasoline (petrol), though its use is now restricted in some countries. Mercury and
cadmium are still used in batteries (though some brands now use other metals instead).
Until recently, a highly toxic chemical called tributyltin (TBT) was used in paints to
protect boats from the ravaging effects of the oceans. Ironically, however, TBT was
gradually recognized as a pollutant: boats painted with it were doing as much damage
to the oceans as the oceans were doing to the boats.
Fish kills due to water

pollution
4. Radioactive Waste
 People view radioactive waste with great alarm—and for good reason. At high
enough concentrations it can kill; in lower concentrations it can cause cancers
and other illnesses. The biggest sources of radioactive pollution in Europe are
two factories that reprocess waste fuel from nuclear power plants: Sellafield on
the north-west coast of Britain and Cap La Hague on the north coast of France.
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Both discharge radioactive waste water into the sea, which ocean currents then
carry around the world.
5. Oil Pollution
 Only 12% of the oil that enters the oceans comes from tanker accidents; over 70
percent of oil pollution at sea comes from routine shipping and from the oil
people pour down drains on land. What makes tanker spills so destructive is the
sheer quantity of oil they release at once — in other words, the concentration of
oil they produce in one very localized part of the marine environment.
6. Plastics
 one of the most common materials, used for making virtually every kind of
manufactured object from clothing to automobile parts; plastic is light and floats
easily so it can travel enormous distances across the oceans; most plastics are
not biodegradable (they do not break down naturally in the environment), which
means that things like plastic bottle tops can survive in the marine environment
for a long time. (A plastic bottle can survive an estimated 450 years in the ocean
and plastic fishing line can last up to 600 years.)
 While plastics are not toxic in quite the same way as poisonous chemicals, they
nevertheless present a major hazard to seabirds, fish, and other marine
creatures. For example, plastic fishing lines and other debris can strangle or
choke fish. (This is sometimes called ghost fishing.) About half of all the world's
seabird species are known to have eaten plastic residues. In one study of 450
shearwaters in the North Pacific, over 80 percent of the birds were found to
contain plastic residues in their stomachs.
 Sunlight and seawater embrittle plastic, and the eventual breakdown of larger
objects into “microplastics” makes plastic available to zooplankton and other
small marine animals. Such small pieces of plastic, which are less than 5 mm (0.2
inch) in length, make up a sizable fraction of plastic waste in the oceans. By 2018
microplastics had been found in the organs of more than 114 aquatic species,
including some species found only in the deepest ocean trenches.
 In addition to being nonnutritive and indigestible, plastics have been shown to
concentrate pollutants up to a million times their level in the surrounding
seawater and then deliver them to the species that ingest them.
7. Other causes of pollution
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a. Urbanization & Deforestation
Even though it does not have a direct impact on water quality, urbanization and
deforestation have a lot of indirect effects. For instance, cutting down trees and
concreting over large areas generates an acceleration of flows which does not give
enough time or water to infiltrate and be purified by the ground.
b. Agriculture
Agriculture as an impact on water pollution due to the use of chemicals such as
fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, herbicides or insecticides running off in the water,
as well as livestock excrement, manure and methane (greenhouse effect). Regarding
aquaculture, pollution is directly in the water as excess food and fertilizers are
causing dystrophication.
c. Industries
Industries produce a lot of waste containing toxic chemicals and pollutants. A huge
amount of the industrial waste is drained in the fresh water which then flows into
canals, rivers and eventually in the sea. Another source of water pollution is the
burning of fossil fuels, causing air pollution like acid rain which then flows to
streams, lakes, and other stretches of water.
d. Marine Dumping
Everyday, garbage such as plastic, paper, aluminum, food, glass, or rubber are
deposited into the sea. These items take weeks to hundreds of years to decompose,
and thus tey are a major cause for water pollution,
e. Radioactive Waste
Generated among others- by power plants and uranium mining, radioactive waste
can linger in the environment for thousands of years. When these substances are
released accidentally or disposed improperly, they threaten groundwater, surface
water, as well as marine resources.
Major Water Pollutants and Their Sources
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Water Quality as Measured by Dissolved Oxygen Content in Parts per Million
Scientists measure dissolved oxygen (DO) content in parts per million (ppm) at 20°C (68°F) as an
indicator of water quality. Only a few fish species can survive in water with less than 4 ppm of
dissolved oxygen at this temperature. Some warm-water species have evolved ways to tolerate
low DO levels better than most cold-water species can. Question: Would you expect the
dissolved oxygen content of polluted water to increase or decrease if the water is heated?
Explain.
WATER POLLUTION PREVENTION
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How to solve water pollution? How can water pollution be prevented? Here’s a list of water pollution
solutions:
1. Wastewater treatment
Wastewater treatment consists of removing pollutants from wastewater through a physical, chemical
or biological process. The more efficient these processes are, the cleaner the water becomes.
2. Green agriculture
Globally, agriculture accounts for 70% of water resources, so it is essential to have climate-friendly
crops, efficient irrigation that reduces the need for water and energy-efficient food production. Green
agriculture is also crucial to limit the chemicals that enter the water.
3. Stormwater management
Stormwater management is the effort to reduce runoff of rainwater or melted snow into streets,
lawns and other sites and the improvement of water quality” according to the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). It is important to avoid pollutants from contaminating the water and helps
to use water more efficiently.
4. Air pollution prevention

Air pollution has a direct impact on water contamination as 25% of human induced CO2 emissions
are absorbed by oceans. This pollution causes a rapid acidification of our oceans, and threatens
marine life and corals. Preventing air pollution is the best way to prevent this from happening.
5. Plastic waste reduction

80% of plastic in our oceans is from land sources. In order to reduce the amount of plastic entering
our ocean, we need to both reduce our use of plastic globally, and to improve plastic waste
management.
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6. Water conservation
Without water conservation, we won’t go very far. It is central in making sure the world has better
access to clean water. It means being aware that water is a scarce resource, taking care of it
accordingly, and managing it responsibly.
SELF TEST
I. DIRECTIONS: Describe the following as to Point Source Pollution or Non-Point

Source Pollution. Write PS for point source and NS for non-point source on the
space provided for each number.
________ 1. Discharge from a sewage treatment plant.
________ 2. Leaching out of nitrogen compounds from agricultural land.
________ 3. Nutrient run-off in storm waste from sheet flow over a forest.
________ 4. A city sewerage system.
________ 5. Bacteria from livestock and food processing
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SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
1. Identify different categories of solid wastes.
2. Cite examples of different classification of solid as

classified by Environmental Management Bureau

nature
Solid Wastes
 useless and unwanted products in the solid state derived from the activities of and
discarded by society. It is produced either by-product of production processes or arise
from when objects or materials are discarded after use(Global Environment Center in
Malaysia, 2013).
 Includes solid or semi-solid domestic waste, sanitary waste, commercial waste,
institutional waste, catering and market waste and other non residential waste, street
sweepings, etc., generated in the area under the local authorities and other entities
( SWM,2016)
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 wide variety of materials which come in many forms that comprised of two major
components(MassDEP,2013).
a. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) – trash generated by residents, businesses,

institutions and municipalities, but not including hazardous waste or other industrial
by-products-is the first and largest component of the solid waste stream. MSW
typically contains a wide variety of discarded materials: food scraps, yard wastes,
paper and paperboard products, plastics, metal, rubber, leather, textiles, wood,
glass, and other miscellaneous materials.
b. Construction and Demolition Debris ( C&D)- generated from the construction,
renovation and demolition of buildings, roads, bridges and other structures. C&D
waste typically includes asphalt, brick, concrete, metal, wood, wallboard and plaster,
and roofing and siding materials (such as wood and asphalt shingles). Wood waste
can be painted or stained, unpainted or untreated, pressure-treated, or
“engineered” (particle board, for example), and also can take the form of discarded
pallets and crates.
There are other types of non-hazardous waste produced in our society, including
non-hazardous industrial waste and sludge, sewage sludge, junked cars,
contaminated soil, medical wastes, and dredge spoils. While these materials can be
produced in large quantities in a typical year, they are usually managed at specific
facilities and disposed of as municipal waste. For example, “ end of life” vehicles are
crushed and shredded; the resulting steel is shipped to Asia for recycling and
residual material is used for daily cover at landfills.
Other Classification of Solid Wastes and its Sources
Source Typical waste generators Types of solid waste

Residential Single and multifamily Food wastes, paper,
dwellings cardboard, plastics,
textiles, leather, yard
wastes, wood, glass
metals, ashes, special
wastes (e.g. bulky items,
consumer electronics,
white goods, batteries, oil
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tires), and household
hazardous wastes).
Industrial Light and heavy Housekeeping wastes,
manufacturing, packaging, food wastes,
fabrication, construction construction and
sites, power and chemical demolition materials,
plants. hazardous wastes, ashes,
special wastes.
Commercial Stores, hotels, Paper, cardboard,
restaurants, markets, plastics, wood, food
office building, etc. wastes, glass, metals,
special wastes, hazardous
wastes.
Institutional Schools, hospitals, Same as commercial
prisons, government
centers
Construction & New construction sites, Wood, steel, concrete,
Demolition road repair, renovation dirt, etc.
sites, demolition of
buildings
Municipal Services Street cleaning, Street sweepings;
landscaping, parks, landscape and tree
beaches, other trimmings; general
recreational areas, water wastes from parks,
and wastewater beaches, and other
treatment plants. recreational areas;
sludge.
Process (manufacturing, Heavy and light Industrial process, scrap
etc.) manufacturing, refineries, materials, off-
chemical plants, power specifications products,
plants, mineral extraction slay, tailings
and processing.
Agriculture Crops, orchards, Spoiled foods wastes,
vineyards, dairies, agricultural wastes,
feedlots, farms hazardous wastes
(e.g.,pesticides).
In the Philippines, the Ecological Management Bureau (EMB) of the Department of

Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) classified solid waste into the following:
a. Compostable Wastes. Compostable wastes are biodegradable waste such as food

waste, garden waste, animal waste and human waste. They undergo biological
degradation under controlled conditions and can be turned into compost (soil
conditioner or organic fertilizer) by mixing them with soil, water, air and biological
additives/activators (optional).
Examples are:
 Fruit and vegetable peeling
 Leftover foods
 Vegetable trims
 Fish/fowl/meat/animal entrails
 Soft shells
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 Seeds
 Leaves
 Flowers
 Twigs
 Branches
 Stems
b. Recyclable Wastes. Recyclable materials refer to any waste material retrieved from the
waste stream and free from contamination that can still be converted into suitable
beneficial use. These may be transformed into new products in such a manner that the
original products may lose their identity.
Examples are:
 Newspaper
 Ferrous scrap metal
 Non-ferrous scrap metal
 Corrugated cardboard
 Aluminum
 Glass
 Office paper
 Tin cans
c. Residual Wastes. Residual waste are solid waste materials that are non-compostable
and non-recyclable. It should be disposed ecologically through a long-term disposal
facility or sanitary landfill.
Examples are:
 Sanitary napkins
 Disposable diapers
 Worn-out rugs
d. Special Wastes. Special wastes refer to household hazardous wastes.
Examples are:
 Paints
 Thinners
 Household batteries
 Lead-acid batteries
 Spray canisters
 Bulky wastes such as
 Large worn-out or broken furniture
 Lamps
-Bookcases
 Filing cabinets
 Consumer electronics which refer to worn-out, broken and other discarded
items such as
 Radios
 Sterieos
 TV sets
 White goods which refer to large worn-out or broken household appliances such
as:
 Stoves
 Refrigerators
 Dishwashers
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 Clothes washers
 Dryers
 Oil
 Tires
Solid-waste management, the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is
discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of
municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead
to pollution of the environment and to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases
spread by rodents and insects.
4R Concept in Solid Waste

A number of waste prevention techniques are available, and they are commonly summarized as
popularly known as 4Rs: reduction, reuse, recycling and recovery. To overcome the problem of
solid waste, following steps need to be taken:
1. Wherever possible, waste reduction should be preferred.
2. Every effort should be made to reuse produced wastes.
3. Recycling should be the third option or the wastes.
4. There are several options for recycling. Such options should be selected taking in view
social and economical acceptability.
5. Attempts should be made to recover materials or energy from waste which cannot be
reduced, reused or recycled.
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SELF ASSESSMENT
DIRECTION: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it on the space provided before
each number.
_______ 1. Compostable waste can be turned into organic fertilizer. Which of the following
wastes is compostable?
a. Animal manure b. newspaper c. glass d. office paper
_______ 2. Recyclable wastes are materials which are free from contamination. The following
materials are recyclable EXCEPT
a. Tin cans b. aluminum c. corrugated cardboard d. soft shells
_______ 3. What kind of wastes are non-compostable and non-recyclable?
a. Recyclable waste c. compostable waste
b. Residual waste d. special waste
_______ 4. The waste that undergo biological degradation under controlled conditions is called
a. Residual b. recyclable c. compostable d. special waste
_______ 5. Household hazardous wastes such as paint, household batteries and thinners are
classified as _____.
_______ 6. Waste material that can still be converted into suitable beneficial use are called
_______ 7. White goods refer to large worn-out or broken household appliances. The following
are example of white goods EXCEPT
a. Radios b. tires c. stoves d. refrigerator
_______ 8. Stereos are worn-out, broken and discarded item which is categorized as ______
wastes.
a. White goods b. bulky c. consumer electronic d. residual
_______ 9. Which of the followings exemplifies bulky waste?
a. washing machine b. TV Set C. filing cabinet d. construction
_______ 10. Housekeeping wastes, packaging and food wastes are examples of
a. industrial wastes c. commercial wastes
b. institutional wastes d. constructions wastes
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II. DIRECTION: Identify the waste generated in the column “types of solid waste”.
Source Typical waste generators Types of solid waste

Residential Single and multifamily
dwellings
Industrial Light and heavy

manufacturing, fabrication,
construction sites, power
and chemical plants.
Commercial Stores, hotels, restaurants,

markets, office building,
etc.
Institutional Schools, hospitals, prisons,

government centers
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Construction & New construction sites,
Demolition road repair, renovation
sites, demolition of
buildings
Municipal Services Street cleaning,

landscaping, parks,
beaches, other recreational
areas, water and
wastewater treatment
plants.
Process Heavy and light

(manufacturing, manufacturing, refineries,
etc.) chemical plants, power
plants, mineral extraction
and processing.
Agriculture Crops, orchards, vineyards,

dairies, feedlots, farms
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L
OSS OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Explain correctly the concepts of biodiversity and

biodiversity loss
2. Describe the causes and effects of biodiversity loss
3. Design/participate in PAPS to help address

biodiversity loss

nature
Definition/important concepts
Biodiversity or Biological diversity
 A term used to describe the enormous variety of life on Earth and the interrelationships of these
life forms.
 All of the species in one region or ecosystem which work together to survive and maintain the
ecosystem.
 The total variety of life on the Earth including plants, fungi, protists, bacteria, animals, and
humans.
 It centers on living organisms called the biota.
 A common measure of biodiversity is species richness. Species richness is the number of species
in a given area.
 Scientists have estimated that there are around 8.7 million species of plants and animals in
existence. However, only around 1.2 million species have been identified and described so far,
most of which are insects. This means that millions of other organisms remain a complete
mystery.
 Biodiversity provide stability to the ecosystem and maintains the ecological balance. Plants and
animals in ecosystem are linked to each other through food chain and food web. The loss of one
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species in the ecosystem affects the survival of other species. Thus the ecosystem becomes
fragile.
Coral reefs
are one of
the most
diverse
ecosystems
Biodiversity Loss or Loss of Biodiversity

 A decrease in biodiversity within a species, an ecosystem, a given geographic area, or Earth as a
whole.
 Species loss from an ecosystem or even the entire biosphere.
 Decline in the number, genetic variability, and variety of species, and the biological communities
in a given area. This loss in the variety of life can lead to a breakdown in the functioning of the
ecosystem where the decline has happened.
Sea turtle swimming over

bleached coral reef
 Maybe natural or human-driven.

Natural biodiversity loss. An area’s biodiversity increases and decreases with natural cycles.
Seasonal changes, such as the onset of spring, create opportunities for feeding and breeding,
increasing biodiversity as the populations of many species rise. In contrast, the onset of winter
temporarily decreases an area’s biodiversity, as warm-adapted insects die and migrating animals
leave. In addition, the seasonal rise and fall of plant and invertebrate populations (such as
insects and plankton), which serve as food for other forms of life, also determine an area’s
biodiversity.
Natural ecological disturbances, such as wildfire, floods, and volcanic eruptions, change
ecosystems drastically by eliminating local populations of some species and transforming whole
biological communities. Such disturbances are temporary, however, because natural
disturbances are common and ecosystems have adapted to their challenges.
Human-driven biodiversity loss. Biodiversity losses from disturbances caused by humans tend to
be more severe and longer-lasting. Humans, their crops, and their food animals take up an
increasing share of Earth’s land area. Half of the world’s habitable land (some 51 million square
km [19.7 million square miles]) has been converted to agriculture, and some 77 percent of
agricultural land (some 40 million square km [15.4 million square miles]) is used for grazing by
cattle, sheep, goats, and other livestock. This massive conversion of forests, wetlands,
grasslands, and other terrestrial ecosystems has produced a 60 percent decline (on average) in
the number of vertebrates worldwide since 1970, with the greatest losses in vertebrate
populations occurring in freshwater habitats (83 percent) and in South and Central America (89
percent). Between 1970 and 2014 the human population grew from about 3.7 billion to 7.3
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billion people. By 2018 the biomass of humans and their livestock (0.16 gigaton) greatly
outweighed the biomass of wild mammals (0.007 gigaton) and wild birds (0.002 gigaton).
Researchers estimate that the current rate of species loss varies between 100 and 10,000 times
the background extinction rate (which is roughly one to five species per year when the entire
fossil record is considered). In addition, a 2019 report by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services noted that up to one million plant and animal
species are facing extinction due to human activities.
Causes of Biodiversity Loss
 Forest clearing, wetland filling, stream channeling and rerouting, and road and building
construction are often part of a systematic effort that produces a substantial change in the
ecological trajectory of a landscape or a region. As human populations grow, the terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems they use may be transformed by the efforts of human beings to find and
produce food, adapt the landscape to human settlement, and create opportunities for trading
with other communities for the purposes of building wealth. Biodiversity losses typically
accompany these processes.
 Researchers have identified five important drivers of biodiversity loss:
1. Habitat loss and degradation—which is any thinning, fragmentation, or destruction of an
existing natural habitat—reduces or eliminates the food resources and living space for most
species. Species that cannot migrate are often wiped out.
2. Invasive species—which are non-native species that significantly modify or disrupt the
ecosystems they colonize—may outcompete native species for food and habitat, which
triggers population declines in native species. Invasive species may arrive in new areas
through natural migration or through human introduction.
3. Overexploitation—which is the harvesting of game animals, fish, or other organisms beyond
the capacity for surviving populations to replace their losses—results in some species being
depleted to very low numbers and others being driven to extinction.
4. Pollution—which is the addition of any substance or any form of energy to the environment
at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some
harmless form—contributes to biodiversity loss by creating health problems in exposed
organisms. In some cases, exposure may occur in doses high enough to kill outright or create
reproductive problems that threaten the species’ survival.
5. Climate change associated with global warming—which is the modification of Earth’s
climate caused by the burning of fossil fuels—is caused by industry and other human
activities. Fossil fuel combustion produces greenhouse gases that enhance the atmospheric
absorption of infrared radiation (heat energy) and trap the heat, influencing temperature
and precipitation patterns.
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 Ecologists emphasize that habitat loss (typically from the conversion of forests, wetlands,
grasslands, and other natural areas to urban and agricultural uses) and invasive species are the
primary drivers of biodiversity loss, but they acknowledge that climate change could become a
primary driver as the 21st century progresses. In an ecosystem, species tolerance limits and
nutrient cycling processes are adapted to existing temperature and precipitation patterns. Some
species may not able to cope with environmental changes from global warming. These changes
may also provide new opportunities for invasive species, which could further add to the stresses
on species struggling to adapt to changing environmental conditions. All five drivers are strongly
influenced by the continued growth of the human population and its consumption of natural
resources.
 Interactions between two or more of these drivers increase the pace of biodiversity loss.
Fragmented ecosystems are generally not as resilient as contiguous ones, and areas clear-cut for
farms, roads, and residences provide avenues for invasions by non-native species, which
contribute to further declines in native species. Habitat loss combined with hunting pressure is
hastening the decline of several well-known species, such as the Bornean orangutan (Pongo
pygmaeus), which could become extinct by the middle of the 21st century. Hunters killed 2,000–
3,000 Bornean orangutans every year between 1971 and 2011, and the clearing of large areas of
tropical forest in Indonesia and Malaysia for oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) cultivation became an
additional obstacle to the species’ survival. Palm oil production increased 900 percent in
Indonesia and Malaysia between 1980 and 2010, and, with large areas of Borneo’s tropical
forests cut, the Bornean orangutan and hundreds to thousands of other species have been
deprived of habitat.
Effects of Biodiversity Loss
A. Ecological Effects
 The weight of biodiversity loss is most pronounced on species whose populations are
decreasing. The loss of genes and individuals threatens the long-term survival of a species, as
mates become scarce and risks from inbreeding rise when closely related survivors mate. The
wholesale loss of populations also increases the risk that a particular species will become
extinct.
 Declining biodiversity lowers an ecosystem’s productivity (the amount of food energy that is
converted into the biomass) and lowers the quality of the ecosystem’s services which often
include maintaining the soil, purifying water that runs through it, and supplying food and shade,
etc.
 Biodiversity loss also threatens the structure and proper functioning of the ecosystem. Although
all ecosystems are able to adapt to the stresses associated with reductions in biodiversity to
some degree, biodiversity loss reduces an ecosystem’s complexity, as roles once played by
multiple interacting species or multiple interacting individuals are played by fewer or none. As
parts are lost, the ecosystem loses its ability to recover from a disturbance. Beyond a critical
point of species removal or diminishment, the ecosystem can become destabilized and collapse.
 Reduced biodiversity also creates a kind of “ecosystem homogenization” across regions as well
as throughout the biosphere. Specialist species (i.e., those adapted to narrow habitats, limited
food resources, or other specific environmental conditions) are often the most vulnerable to
dramatic population declines and extinction when conditions change. On the other hand,
generalist species (those adapted to a wide variety of habitats, food resources, and
environmental conditions) and species favoured by human beings (i.e., livestock, pets, crops,
and ornamental plants) become the major players in ecosystems vacated by specialist species.
As specialist species and unique species are lost across a broad area, each of the ecosystems in
the area loses some amount of complexity and distinctiveness, as the structure of their food
chains and nutrient-cycling processes become increasingly similar.
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B. Societal/Economic Effects
 Humans rely on various plants, animals, and other organisms for food, building materials, and
medicines, and their availability as commodities is important to many cultures. The loss of
biodiversity among these critical natural resources threatens global food security and the
development of new pharmaceuticals to deal with future diseases.
 Lack of biodiversity among crops threatens food security because varieties may be vulnerable to
disease and pests, invasive species, and climate change. Similar trends occur in livestock
production.
 Mainstream and traditional medicines can be derived from the chemicals in rare plants and
animals, and thus lost species represent lost opportunities to treat and cure. For example,
several species of fungi found on the hairs of three-toed sloths (Bradypus variegatus) produce
medicines effective against the parasites that cause malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) and
Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi) as well as against human breast cancer.
Solutions/Mitigation Practices
Dealing with biodiversity loss is tied directly to the conservation challenges posed by the underlying
drivers, and conservation biologists note that these problems could be solved using a mix of public
policy and economic solutions assisted by continued monitoring and education. Governments,
nongovernmental organizations, and the scientific community must work together to:
 Create incentives to conserve natural habitats and protect the species within them from
unnecessary harvesting, while disincentivizing behaviour that contributes to habitat loss and
degradation.
 Consider sustainable development (economic planning that seeks to foster growth while
preserving environmental quality) when creating new farmland and human living spaces.
 Improve/enforce laws that prevent poaching and the indiscriminate trade in wildlife. Shipping
materials at ports must be inspected for stowaway organisms.
Developing and implementing solutions for biodiversity loss will relieve the pressure on species and
ecosystems in their own way, but conservation biologists agree that the most effective way to prevent
continued biodiversity loss is to protect the remaining species from overhunting and overfishing and to
keep their habitats and the ecosystems they rely on intact and secure from species invasions and land
use conversion.
Philippine Biodiversity
 There are 25 regions in the world with super star status in terms of the high number of species,
uniqueness and endemicity, i.e., found nowhere else in the world. These areas, called
biodiversity hotspots, include Philippines.
 Philippines hotspot is identified as one of the world’s biologically richest countries. With 7,100
islands that fall within its borders, the country’s terrestrial and marine habitats contain some of
the richest biodiversity of flora and fauna.
 Philippines is also situated at the apex of the Coral Triangle which is the global center for marine
biodiversity.
 Despite being ecologically rich, the Philippines still ranks among the top 10 countries with the
largest number of species threatened with extinction.
 The services derived from biodiversity include water, food, pharmaceuticals, biomass fuels,
carbon sequestration and climate regulation, and crop pollination.
 The major threats to Philippine biodiversity are continuing habitat destruction and forestland
conversion and these are primarily due to indiscriminate logging, mining, rapidly increasing
human population, pollution, unsustainable production and consumption of medicinal and
ornamental plants and wild animals for trade and domestic use, over exploitation, introduction
of invasive alien species, degradation from climate change, and weak integration of biodiversity
concerns in landscape planning.
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 There are 228 identified key biodiversity areas (KBA) in the Philippines. These KBAs represent
the known habitat of 855 globally important species of plants, corals, molluscs, elasmobranchs,
fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the country.
SELF ASSESSMENT
I. Alternate Response Type
Directions: Read each statement. Write “YES!” if the statement is correct and “OH MY” if wrong.
1. Biodiversity loss is the richness and variety of life on Earth.

2. Each individual living thing in the ecosystem is a link in the chain of relationships where its
disappearance may unsettle the ecological balance.
3. Each country has a unique biodiversity.
4. Human beings can live without other life forms on earth.
5. Activities and technology of the exploding human population have not intruded in one way or
another into the functioning of ecosystems.
6. Loss of biodiversity means that humans are losing important natural resources.
7. At present, the most significant cause of biodiversity loss is climate change.
8. Philippines is one of the countries with fastest disappearing biodiversity.
9. Pursuit of a healthy and balanced ecology is a concern of biologists only.
10. Preserving biodiversity needs collaborative efforts of everybody.
II. Essay Type
Directions: Read and understand what is asked in each item. Organize and write your explanations.
(Note: You may answer using our dialect/Kinaray-a.)
1. In 2 or more paragraphs composed of at least 10 sentences each paragraph, explain why

preserving biodiversity is important? (20 pts)
2. Why does habitat loss/degradation/destruction lead to biodiversity loss? (10 pts)
3. In your own small ways, list at least 5 things/actions you can and will do to help conserve
biodiversity. (10 pts)
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GLOBAL WARMING
This graph illustrates the change in global surface temperature relative to 1951-1980 average temperatures (Source: NASA's
Goddard Institute for Space Studies). Learn more about global surface temperature here. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech)
1. Explain correctly the concepts of global

warming, greenhouse effect and greenhouse gas.
2. Describe the causes and effects of global

warming
3. Design/participate in PAPS to help address

global warming

nature
Greenhouse gas
 Gas molecules that absorb thermal infrared radiation that are in significant enough quantity and
can force the climate system.
 Gas which warms the Earth by absorbing energy and slowing the rate at which the energy
escapes to space.
 Act like a blanket insulating the Earth.
Greenhouse Gas Description

Water vapor (H2O) The most abundant greenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts as a feedback to the climate. Water
vapor increases as the Earth's atmosphere warms, but so does the possibility of clouds and
precipitation, making these some of the most important feedback mechanisms to the greenhouse
effect.
Carbon dioxide A minor but very important component of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released through
(CO2) natural processes such as respiration and volcano eruptions and through human activities such as
deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric CO2
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concentration by more than a third since the Industrial Revolution began. This is the most important
long-lived "forcing" of climate change.
Methane (CH4) A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human activities, including the
decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice cultivation, as well as ruminant
digestion and manure management associated with domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule
basis, methane is a far more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but also one which is much
less abundant in the atmosphere.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial
and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.
Chlorofluorocarbons Synthetic compounds entirely of industrial origin used in a number of applications, but now largely
(CFCs). regulated in production and release to the atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to
contribute to destruction of the ozone layer. They are also greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse effect
 The exchange of incoming and outgoing radiation that warms the Earth is often referred to as
the greenhouse effect because a greenhouse works in much the same way. Incoming UV
radiation easily passes through the glass walls of a greenhouse and is absorbed by the plants
and hard surfaces inside. Weaker IR radiation, however, has difficulty passing through the glass
walls and is trapped inside, thus warming the greenhouse. This effect lets tropical plants thrive
inside a greenhouse, even during a cold winter.
 A similar phenomenon takes place in a car parked outside on a cold, sunny day. Incoming solar
radiation warms the car's interior, but outgoing thermal radiation is trapped inside the car's
closed windows.
 Gases in the atmosphere can reflect or trap heat energy, much like what happens in a
greenhouse for plants.
 The warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space.
 Sunlight reaches the Earth, some energy is reflected back into space, some is absorbed and re-
radiated as heat, and most of the heat is absorbed by greenhouse gases and reflected in all
directions warming the Earth.
Global warming
 The long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the pre-industrial period
(between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities which increase the levels of heat-trapping
greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.
 It is most commonly measured as the average increase in Earth’s global surface temperature.
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 A phenomenon characterized by a general increase in average temperatures of the Earth, which
modifies the weather balances and ecosystems for a long time. It is directly linked to the
increase of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, worsening the greenhouse effect.
 The average temperature of the planet has increased by 0.8º Celsius (33.4° Fahrenheit)
compared to the end of the 19th century. Each of the last three decades has been warmer than
all previous decades since the beginning of the statistical surveys in 1850.
 At the pace of current CO2 emissions, scientists expect an
increase of between 1.5° and 5.3°C (34.7° to 41.5°F) in
average temperature by 2100. If no action is taken, it
would have harmful consequences to humanity and the
biosphere.
Global warming potential (GWP)
 A measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of
time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2).
 Used to compare the global warming impacts of different gases. The larger the GWP, the more
that a given gas warms the Earth compared to CO2 over that time period.
 The time period usually used for GWPs is 100 years.
Greenhouse gas GWP Value Description

Carbon dioxide GWP 1 regardless of the CO2 remains in the climate system for a very long time. CO2
time period used because emissions cause increases in atmospheric concentrations of
it is the gas being used as CO2 that will last thousands of years.
the reference
Methane GWP of 28–36 over 100 CH4 emitted today lasts about a decade on average, which is
years much less time than CO2. But CH4 also absorbs much more
energy than CO2. The GWP also accounts for some indirect
effects, such as the fact that CH4 is a precursor to ozone, and
ozone is itself a GHG.
Nitrous oxide GWP of 265–298 times N2O emitted today remains in the atmosphere for more than
that of CO2 for a 100-year 100 years, on average.
timescale
Chlorofluorocarbons GWPs for these gases can Called high GWP gases because for a given amount of mass,
(CFCs). be in the thousands or tens they trap substantially more heat than CO2.
of thousands
Causes of Global warming
The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. However, the increase in greenhouse gases is linked to
human activities. Human activities that are changing the natural greenhouse are:
1. The massive use of fossil fuels is obviously the first source of global warming, as burning coal, oil
and gas produces carbon dioxide - the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
Burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil increased the concentration of atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2) because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to
make CO2.
2. The exploitation of forests has a major role in global warming. Trees help regulate the climate by
absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. When they are cut down, this positive effect is lost and the
carbon stored in the trees is released into the atmosphere.
3. Another cause of global warming is intensive farming, not only with the ever-increasing
livestock, but also with plant protection products and fertilizers. In fact, cattle and sheep
produce large amounts of methane when digesting their food, while fertilizers produce nitrous
oxide emissions.
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4. Waste disposal methods like landfills and incineration emit greenhouse and toxic gases,
including methane, that are released into the atmosphere, soil and waterways, contributing to
the increase of the greenhouse effect.
5. Modern life is highly dependent on the mining and metallurgical industry. Metals and minerals
are the raw materials used in the construction, transportation and manufacturing of goods.
From extraction to delivery, this market accounts for 5% of all greenhouse gas emissions.
6. Overconsumption is responsible for the overexploitation of natural resources and emissions
from international freight transport, which both contribute to global warming.
7. Clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other human activities also increased the
concentrations of greenhouse gases.
Effects of Global Warming
1. Melting of Glaciers. The melting of glaciers will create many problems for humankind and the
animals living on the earth. Due to increased global warming, the level of the sea will rise which
will lead to flooding and this will, in turn, create havoc in human life. Apart from raising the sea
levels, it will also endanger several species of animals and thus will hamper the balance of the
ecosystem. For example, areas in the Arctic are diminishing away and flowing into major oceans
creating a much-accelerated threat to wildlife and whole ecosystems in these regions. With
glaciers melting at vast rates, a chain of events is being set into motion that cannot be reversed.
2. Climate Change. Irregular weather patterns have already started showing results. Increased
precipitation in the form of rain has already been noticed in polar and sub-polar regions. More
global warming will lead to more evaporation which will cause more rains. Animals and plants
cannot easily adapt to increased rainfall. Plants may die and animals may migrate to other areas,
which can cause the entire ecosystem out of balance.
3. More Droughts. While it may be flooding in Savannah, severe drought is happening elsewhere in
the world. As temperatures warm, the presence of drought has increased in the western U.S.
Add on top of that heat waves and no precipitation, the whole forests have begun to disappear
including tens of millions of trees in Colorado’s Rockies.
Large scale evaporation will be the major cause of droughts in many places particularly Africa.
Although it is reeling under the huge pressure of water crisis, increased global warming would
further make the situation worse and will cause malnutrition.
4. Diseases. As the temperature becomes warmer, it can affect the health of humans and the
diseases they are exposed to. With the increase in the rainfall, water-borne diseases are likely to
spread like malaria. The earth will become warmer and as result heat waves are likely to
increase that can cause a major blow to the people.
5. Stronger storms and hurricanes. As the temperature of the oceans rises, hurricanes and other
storms are likely to become stronger. With the increase in global warming, the water in the
ocean warms up and it heats up the surrounding air, creating hurricanes.
6. Rising Sea Levels. The melting of polar ice-caps and less water evaporating into the atmosphere
are causing increased sea levels. In a century, the increase reached 18 cm (including 6 cm in the
last 20 years). The worst case scenario is a rise of up to 1m by 2100.
7. Effect on Agriculture. Global warming can affect agriculture. Although the results are not visible
yet, it may show the effects in years to come. As the global temperature will increase, plants will
find it harder to survive and will die. Plants are the major source of food for human beings and
as a result food shortage may occur. The shortage of food may lead to war and conflicts in some
countries.
8. Unexpected Heat Waves. Heat waves cause dangerously hot weather and in recent years, more
deaths have occurred due to heat waves than in the last sixty years.
9. Frequent Wildfires. While wildfires are a natural occurrence, with the added carbon dioxide in
the air, and hotter summers, more frequent wildfires continue to surface in vast amounts each
year. The rate at which they burn is longer than the last, and with the release of carbon dioxide
into the air, not only are people’s lives in danger, but wildlife severely suffers. Each time a
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wildfire burns, the less oxygen there is to combat the dangerous amounts of carbon dioxide
being released into the atmosphere.
10. Severe Precipitation. Extreme precipitation is also on the rise causing cities and towns on the
coast, where sea levels are already rising, face even more challenges as precipitation poses
severe flooding.
11. Effect on Crops. If seasons are changing, weather patterns are going unusual, and flooding is
occurring due to rising sea levels, most crops are barely getting a fighting chance. Once the food
processing industry goes out of order, the economy will really start getting interesting. The price
of staple crops could skyrocket causing major inflation and more economic woes.
12. Increasing Ocean’s Temperature. Reports showed that coral reefs are continuing to see the
diminished presence in the ocean due to global warming. Once coral reefs are affected, entire
ecosystems that thrive become obsolete.
13. Health Risks. As more carbon dioxide is trapped in the atmosphere, breathable air becomes
harder to come by. If global warming continues, respiratory diseases and symptoms will be
rampant.
14. Extinction. Worse scenario is when populations can no longer adapt to changes and can no
longer thrive. There are evidences of disappearance of many species - including endemic species
- or, conversely, the intrusion of invasive species that threaten crops and other animals.
According to the IPCC, a 1.5°C (34.7°F) average rise in global temperature might put 20-30% of
species at risk of extinction. If the planet warms by more than 2°C, most ecosystems will
struggle.
15. Quality of Life. If doing simple things like taking a walk outside or working in the garden become
unenjoyable due to severe heat waves, think of the quality of life on a much larger scale. With
rising global temperature, even the smallest things that are taken for granted will be deeply
missed. Moreover, rising sea levels and floods are causing population migration. Small island
states are in the front line. The estimated number of climate refugees by 2050 is 250 million
people.
16. Economic Collapse. Who knows how bad the economy could get with decreased vitality of crops,
productions, and manufacturing items. Without having nature on our side, the food industry will
fall apart. Without the resources to feed the world, manufacturing will collapse. Hunger will be
the biggest battle.
17. Poor Air Quality. As more chain of events is set in motion, air quality will continue to get worse.
As bad as it is now in some areas in the world, multiply that by a million.
18. Decreased Population. With the increasing severity of storms, floods, earthquakes, and wildfires,
natural disasters would decrease the earth’s population. Add to these the effects of air-related
illnesses, starvation, and poverty.
19. Disappearing Countries. Countries like Greenland are deteriorating at a highly elevated rate.
Beautiful cities, even continents could one day be part of a vast sea.
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Solutions/Mitigation Practices
By being just a little more mindful, we

all can play our part in combating global
warming. These common yet practical
and easy tips will help preserve the
planet for future generations.
1. Replace regular incandescent light bulb with compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs. They
consume 70% less energy than ordinary bulbs and have a longer lifetime.
2. Driving less not only save fuel but also help in reducing global warming. If you have colleagues
who live in the same area then you can combine trips. If you need to go to a local market then
either walk or go by cycle. Both of them are a great form of exercise. The biggest pollution
emitting fumes are caused by oil and gasoline. Cutting down consumption is a huge step to
reducing energy wastes.
3. Reduce, reuse, and recycle. Reduce your need to buy new products resulting in a smaller
amount of waste. Even if you need to buy, consider buying eco-friendly products. It is most
effective of the three R’s. In other words, cut back from where are you now. Reuse bottles,
plastic containers, and other items bought at the grocery store. Reusing water bottles, yogurt
cups, bread ties, and other items is being conscious about what is already out there. It will
lessen having to purchase other items that would fulfill the same function. Try to use disposable
products into some other form. Just don’t throw them away. Recycling unwanted paper, bottles,
etc. is a great earth saving tip. If possible, upcycle tables, furniture, and other outdated items to
keep landfills clean. You can recycle almost anything for e.g.: paper, aluminum foils, cans,
newspapers. By recycling, you can help in reducing landfills.
4. Go solar. Many people have caught the energy efficient bandwagon of solar energy by using
solar panels.
5. Buy energy-efficient appliances. Always buy products that are energy efficient as they can help
save a good amount of money on the energy bill. Energy-efficient products can help save
energy, save money and reduce the carbon footprint.
6. Reduce waste. Landfills are the major contributor of methane and other greenhouse gases.
When the waste is burnt, it releases toxic gases in the atmosphere which result in global
warming. Reusing and recycling old items can significantly reduce your carbon footprint as it
takes far less energy to recycle old items than to produce items from scratch.
7. Use less hot water. Avoid washing clothes in hot water. Just wash them in cold or warm water.
Avoid taking frequent showers and use less hot water. It will help in saving the energy required
to produce that energy.
8. Avoid products with lots of packaging. Just don’t buy products with a lot of packaging. When you
buy such products you will end up in throwing the waste material in the garbage, which then will
help in filling landfill sites and pollute the environment. Also, discourage others from buying
such products.
9. Turn Off the lights. If you’re not using a room, there’s no need for the light to be on.
10. Turn off electronic devices when you are moving out for a couple of days or more. Unnecessary
usage of electronic appliances will not only save fuel i.e. coal by which we get electricity but also
increase the lifetime of your gadgets.
11. Planting trees can help much in reducing global warming than any other method. They not only
give oxygen but also take in carbon dioxide, during the process of photosynthesis, which is the
main source of global warming.
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12. Replace filters on air conditioners. If you haven’t, not only are you wasting energy but breathing
in dirty air. Cleaning a dirty air filter can save several pounds of carbon dioxide a year.
13. Conserve water. It takes energy to draw and filter water from underground.
14. Taking a quick 5-minute shower will greatly conserve energy. The type of shower head used, will
also aid in combating global warming. Take showers instead of baths. Showers use less water
than baths by 25%. Over the course of a year that’s hundreds of gallons saved.
15. Use clothesline to dry your clothes; most clothes shouldn’t be put in the dryer anyway.
16. Eat less processed foods. It cuts down the energy costs used by factories who produce
processed foods.
17. Bike riding is not only a healthy activity; it also reduces the amount of CO2 released into the air.
Walking is another easy way to reduce global warming.
18. Use a kitchen cloth instead of paper towels. Paper towels produce nothing but wasted energy.
Think of factory pollution, as well as tree consumption.
19. Take lunch in a Tupperware. Each time you throw away that brown paper sack, more brown
paper sacks are being produced in a factory.
20. Spread the awareness. Always try your best to educate people about global warming and its
causes and after effects. Tell them how they can contribute their part by saving energy that will
be good for the environment. Gather opportunities and establish programs that will help you to
share information with friends, relatives, and neighbors.
SELF ASSESSMENT
A. Review the notes in the module and complete the table below by listing the different sources of
greenhouse gases in the column provided. (Note: There are 16 answers.)
Table 1: Sources of Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gas Sources
CH4
CO2
H2O vapor
CFCs
N2O
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B. List 2 activities that people in your community are doing which contribute to global warming.
Write your answers in the table below.
Table 2: Human Activities that Cause Global Warming
Activities in the community How/Why the activities contribute to global warming
1.
2.
C. From the 20 mitigation practices mentioned in the module, choose at least 5 which you
promised to do to help address the environmental problem called global warming. Write your
answers in the space provided.
As a student of GEE 17, I promise to do these

effective and relevant solutions to global
warming:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Signed: ____________________________
Name & Signature
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CLIMATE
CHANGE
1. Explain correctly the concepts of weather, climate and

climate change.
2. Describe the causes and effects of climate change.
3. Design/participate in PAPS to help mitigate climate

change
4. Develop favorable attitude as good stewards of nature
Definitions/Important Concepts
Weather
 Weather is the mix of events that happen each day in our atmosphere. Even though there’s only
one atmosphere on Earth, the weather isn’t the same all around the world. Weather is different
in different parts of the world and changes over minutes, hours, days, and weeks.
 There are many different factors that can change the atmosphere in a certain area like air
pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, and lots of other things. Together,
they determine what the weather is like at a given time and location.
 Weather refers to short-term changes in the atmosphere.
Climate
 The average weather at a particular place, incorporating such features as temperature,

precipitation, humidity, and windiness or the mean state and variability of these features over
some extended time period.
 Describes what the weather is like over a long period of time in a specific area. Different regions
can have different climates. To describe the climate of a place, the report includes what the
temperatures are like during different seasons, how windy it usually is, or how much rain or
snow typically falls.
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 The averages of precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind, and other measures of
weather that occur over a long period in a particular place. Three-decade averages of weather
observations are called Climate Normals.
 Climate Normals can help describe whether the summers are hot and humid and whether the
winters are cold and snowy at a particular place. They can also tell when to expect the warmest
day of the year or the coldest day of the year at that location.
Figure below visualizes the difference between weather and climate.
Climate Change
 Periodic modification of Earth’s climate brought about as a result of changes in the atmosphere
as well as interactions between the atmosphere and various other geologic, chemical,
biological, and geographic factors within the Earth system.
Climate
change is
REAL.
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 These are the compelling evidences of climate change…
Causes of Climate Change
1. Fossil-fuel combustion, deforestation, rice cultivation, livestock ranching, industrial production,

and other human activities have increased since the development of agriculture and especially
since the start of the Industrial Revolution.
2. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide,
methane, and water vapour, absorb infrared radiation emitted from
Earth's surface and reradiate it back, thus contributing to the
greenhouse effect.
3. Ice sheets, sea ice, terrestrial vegetation, ocean temperatures, weathering rates, ocean
circulation, and GHG concentrations are influenced either directly or indirectly by the
atmosphere; however, they also all feed back into the atmosphere and influence it in important
ways.
4. Periodic changes in Earth's orbit and axial tilt with respect to the Sun (which occur over tens of
thousands to hundreds of thousands of years) affect how solar radiation is distributed on Earth's
surface.
5. Tectonic movements, which change the shape, size, position, and elevation of the continental
masses and the bathymetry of the oceans, have had strong effects on the circulation of both the
atmosphere and the oceans.
6. The brightness of the Sun continues to increase as the star ages and it passes on an increasing
amount of this energy to Earth's atmosphere over time.
Potential Future Effects of Climate Change
Temperatures will
continue to rise
1.
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Increased heavy
precipitation events
will continue.
2.
Summer temperatures are

projected to continue rising,
and a reduction of soil
moisture
3.
Hurricane-associated storm
intensity and rainfall rates are
projected to increase as the
climate continues to warm.
4. Sea level will rise 1 to 4 feet by

2100. This is the result of added
water from melting land ice and
the expansion of seawater as it
warms. In the next several
decades, storm surges and high
tides could combine with sea level
rise and land subsidence to further
increase flooding in many regions.
5.
Climate change is affecting the global economy. It is already shaking up social, health and
geopolitical balances in many parts of the world. The scarcity of resources like food and energy gives
rise to new conflicts.
Mitigation and Adaptation
Climate change is one of the most complex issues today. It involves many dimensions – science,
economics, society, politics and moral and ethical questions – and is a global problem, felt on local scales
and will be around for decades and centuries to come. Carbon dioxide, the heat-trapping greenhouse
gas that has driven recent global warming, lingers in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, and the
planet (especially the oceans) takes a while to respond to warming. So even if nations stopped emitting
all greenhouse gases today, global warming and climate change will continue to affect future
generations. In this way, humanity is “committed” to some level of climate change.
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Because humans are already committed to some level of climate change, responding to climate change
involves a two-pronged approach:
1. Mitigation
 Reducing climate change
 Reducing emissions of and stabilizing the levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere by reducing sources of these gases (for example, the burning of fossil
fuels for electricity, heat or transport) or enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and
store these gases (such as the oceans, forests and soil).
 The goal of mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with the climate
system, and “stabilize greenhouse gas levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow
ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, ensure that food production is not
threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner”
2. Adaptation
 Adapting to the climate change which is already in the pipeline
 Adapting to life in a changing climate which involves adjusting to actual or expected
future climate.
 The goal of adaptation is to reduce the vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate
change (like sea-level encroachment, more intense extreme weather events or food
insecurity).
 It also encompasses making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities
associated with climate change (for example, longer growing seasons or increased yields
in some regions).
While climate change is a global issue, it is felt on a local scale hence, municipalities or LGUs are
at the frontline of adaptation. Some initiatives on solving their own climate problems include
working to build flood defenses, plan for heatwaves and higher temperatures, install water-
permeable pavements to better deal with floods and storm water and improve water storage
and use.
Moreover, climate change is starting to be factored into a variety of development plans of the
governments in various levels - how to manage the increasingly extreme disasters they are
seeing and their associated risks, how to protect coastlines and deal with sea-level
encroachment, how to best manage land and forests, how to deal with and plan for reduced
water availability, how to develop resilient crop varieties and how to protect energy and public
infrastructure, among others.
Many scientists agree that the

damage to the Earth's atmosphere
and climate is past the point of no
return or that the damage is near
the point of no return…
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…..and we are left with these 3 options:

1. Do nothing and live with the
consequences;
2. Adapt to the changing climate (which
includes things like rising sea level and
related flooding); or
3 .Mitigate the impact of climate change by
aggressively enacting policies that actually
reduce the concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere
SELF
ASSESSMENT
Task: Develop a 2-stanza binalaybay in Kinaray-a about Climate Change. Let the title be:
“ANO ANG CLIMATE CHANGE?”
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CONSERVATION BIOLOGY
1. Explain briefly and correctly the importance of the

study of Conservation Biology.
2. State some important biological concepts
3. State some ways to help protect and/or conserve

the natural resources.

nature
In an influential article published BioScience in 1985, biologist Michael Soulé publicized the emergence
of a new biological science called Conservation Biology. According to Soule, Conservation Biology
addresses the biology of species, communities and ecosystems that are perturbed, either directly or
indirectly, by human activities or other agents. Its goal is to provide principles and tools for preserving
biological biodiversity.
Principles of Conservation Biology
Themes Primary Principles Secondary Principles

Goals: The goals of Conservation biologists seek Biological diversity is a measure of the diversity of all
conservation biology to maintain three important life at all levels of organization.
aspects of life on Earth: Ecological integrity is a measure of the composition,
biological diversity, ecological structure, and function of biological systems.
integrity, and ecological Ecological health is a measure of a biological
health. system’s resiliency and ability to maintain itself over
time
Values: Why biological The conservation of nature is Value systems determine how we view nature, and
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diversity, ecological important for nature’s this may vary within and among cultures.
integrity, and intrinsic values, its Intrinsic values are those of nature itself, separate
ecological health are instrumental values, and its from its usefulness to humans.
important psychological values. Instrumental values are based on the usefulness of
nature to humans.
Psychological values are those that contribute to the
psychological well-being of humans.
Concepts: Concepts for An understanding of All organisms are related to one another.
understanding conservation is based on key The components of nature are grouped together in
biological concepts in taxonomy, sets of levels of organization, from small (genes) to
diversity, ecological ecology, genetics, Geography, large (landscapes).
integrity, and and evolution. Genes contain the information for making an
ecological health organism, and this information varies from one
organism to another.
The basic unit of biological organization is the
species.
Populations grow exponentially unless limited by the
environment; small populations are more at risk
than large ones.
Species are distributed in different patterns over the
Earth based on individual histories, characteristics,
and responses to human action.
Communities and ecosystems are collections of
interacting species and the components of their
physical environment.
Nature may behave stochastically, in that conditions
and outcomes may be unpredictable.
Extinction is the termination of an evolutionary line
and can occur as a result of both human and
nonhuman causes.
Threats: Threats to Nature has faced and Human societies have a long history of causing
biological diversity, continues to face numerous extinctions and making major changes to
ecological integrity, threats from humans, ecosystems.
and ecological health including direct harvesting, Human actions affect nature through their
habitat destruction, and frequency, intensity, and spatial extent.
introduction of non-native Species are currently going extinct at a rate faster
species. than at any time in human history and at a rate
comparable to mass extinction events seen only in
the fossil record.
Humans cause extinction through habitat
destruction and modification, overexploitation, and
introduction of non-native species.
Humans are currently causing the Earth’s climate to
warm, which will have severe consequences for
natural systems.
Extinction of a species can cause extinctions of other
species.
The present condition of most natural systems is
changed from the past as a result of human actions.
Ideas about the “normal” condition of nature are
influenced by what a person experiences in his or
her own lifetime.
Actions: Protection and Conservation requires a Protect species at risk of extinction.
restoration of combination of many Designate ecological reserves.
biological diversity, different strategies. Lessen the magnitude of human impacts on natural
ecological integrity, systems.
and ecological health Restore ecosystems that have been degraded.
Augment populations with individuals raised in
cultivation or captivity.
Control the number of individuals harvested in
nature.
Prevent the establishment of non-native species,
and eliminate non-native species that have become
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established.
Understand and participate in the policy-making
process.
Educate others about the importance of
conservation.
SELF
ASSESSMENT
Answer the following question:
Why is Conservation Biology important?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
AND POLICIES
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1. Explain briefly and correctly the importance of

environmental laws and policies
2. List some environment-related laws/policies and

briefly describe what each is all about

nature
 Environmental laws regularly operate in areas complicated by high levels of scientific

uncertainty.
 The design and application of modern environmental laws have been shaped by a set of
principles and concepts.
 The precautionary principle stipulates that if there is a strong suspicion that a certain activity
may have environmentally harmful consequences, it is better to control that activity now rather
than to wait for incontrovertible scientific evidence and that where there are threats of serious
or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for
postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
 The prevention principle has the fundamental notion that preventing environmental harm is
cheaper, easier, and less environmentally dangerous than reacting to environmental harm that
already has taken place. This is the principle behind laws regulating the generation,
transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste and laws regulating the use
of pesticides in order to combat illegal dumping.
 The “polluter pays” principle was based on the claim of many economists that much
environmental harm is caused by producers who “externalize” the costs of their activities, so the
purpose of many environmental regulations is to force polluters to bear the real costs of their
pollution. Such measures encourage producers of pollution to make cleaner products or to use
cleaner technologies.
 The integration principle emphasizes that policy makers should integrate environmental
considerations into their decision-making processes through environmental-impact-assessment
mandates and other provisions.
 The public participation principle poses that decisions about environmental protection often
formally integrate the views of the public.
The following table summarizes the laws/policies in the Philippines that aim to protect the environment
and guide its people in their pursuit of a balanced and healthy ecology.
Policy Pertinent Provisions/Description

Philippine Article 2, Section 16. The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and
Constitution healthful ecology in ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
Article12, Section 5. The State, subject to the provisions of this Constitution and national
development policies and programs, shall protect the rights of indigenous cultural communities to
their ancestral lands to ensure their economic, social and cultural well-being
NIPAS Act of 1992 It provides the legal framework for the establishment and management of protected areas in the
(RA 7586) Philippines. It identifies 202 initial components comprising of proclaimed national parks, game refuge
and wildlife sanctuaries, nature reserves, wilderness areas, mangrove reserves, watershed
reservations, fish sanctuaries, protected landscapes and seascapes.
Wildlife Resources This law aims to protect and conserve wildlife species and their habitats for their sustainability. It
Conservation and provides conditionalities for the collection, possession, transport, export and/or import, registration,
Protection Act of and introduction, reintroduction or restocking of wildlife species. It also lays down the basic
2001 requirements for the use of wildlife resources for bioprospecting, scientific researches, and
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(RA 9147) commercial undertakings as well as for botanical and zoological park purposes. It establishes the
Wildlife Management Fund; requires the establishment of National Wildlife Research Centers and
Wildlife Rescue Centers; and mandates the creation of Wildlife Traffic Monitoring Units and the
deputation /designation of Wildlife Enforcement Officers who shall have full authority to seize
illegally traded wildlife and to arrest violators of the Act in conformity with existing laws, rules and
regulations on arrest and detention.
The Act is also enabling legislations for implementation of the rules and regulations of the CITES in
the country.
National Caves and Caves and cave resources are part of the country’s natural wealth. It mandates the DENR to
Cave Resources formulate, develop, and implement a national program for the management, protection, and
Management and conservation of caves and cave resources. The National and Regional Cave Committees oversee the
Protection Act of implementation of the Act and its support policies.
2001
(RA 9072)
An Act to Prevent, The State shall ensure the attainment of the following objectives of the fishery sector:
Deter and Eliminate  Conservation, protection, and sustained management of the country’s fishery and aquatic
Illegal, Unreported, resources.
and Unregulated  Poverty alleviation and provision of supplementary livelihood among municipal fisherfolk;
Fishing, Amending  Improvement of productivity of aquaculture within ecological limits;
RA 8550 or the  Optional utilization of offshore and deep-sea resources; and
Philippine Fisheries  Upgrading of post-harvest technology.
Code of 1998
(RA 10654 of 2015)
The IPRA of 1997 It recognizes and promotes of the rights of ICCs/IPs of the Philippines. This law recognizes the
(RA 8371) ancestral land rights of the IPs
Philippine Mining All mineral resources in private and public lands within territory and EEZ of the Republic of the
Act of 1995 Philippines are owned by the State. It shall be the responsibility of the State to promote their rational
(RA 7942) exploration, development, utilization, and conservation through the combine efforts of the
government and the private sector in order to enhance national growth in a way that effectively
safeguards the environment and protects the rights of affected communities.
Institutionalizing This produced the “No-go zone” map which states that mineral contracts, concessions, and
and Implementing agreements shall not be allowed in the following: a) areas expressly enumerated under Section 19 of
Reforms in the RA 7942; b) protected areas categorized and established under RA 7586; c) prime agricultural lands,
Philippine Mining in addition to lands covered by RA 6657 or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1998, as
Sector (EO 79, s. amended, including plantations and areas devoted to valuable crops and strategic agriculture and
2012) fisheries development zones and fish refuge and sanctuaries declared as such by the National
Tourism Development Plan; and e) other critical areas, island ecosystems, and impact areas of mining
as determined by the current and existing mapping technologies that the DENR may hereafter
identify pursuant to existing laws, rules and regulations, such as, but not limited to, the NIPAS Act.
National Policy This recognizes that remediation and rehabilitation of abandoned mines shall be accorded as top
Agenda on priority to address the negative impacts of past mining in the country.
Revitalizing Mining
in the Philippines of
2004
(EO 270, s. 2004)
Philippine Clean The law aims to protect the country’s water bodies from land-based pollution sources (Industries and
Water Act of 2004 commercial establishments, agriculture, and community/household activities.). It provides for
(RA 9275) comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral
and particularly approach involving all the stakeholders.
Anyone discharging wastewater into a water body will have to pay a wastewater charge. This
economic instrument will encourage investments in cleaner production and pollution control
technologies to reduce the amount of pollutants generated and discharged.
Philippine It provides the legal framework for the country’s systematic, comprehensive, and ecological solid
Ecological Solid waste management program that shall ensure protection of public health and the environment.
Waste
Management Act of
2000
(RA 9003)
Revised Forestry This Act lays down the basic principle of forest management and conservation, makes provisions for
Code of 1975 proper classification, management and utilization of public domain lands to maximize their
(PD 705) productivity, and meet the demands of the country’s increasing population. The Revised Forestry
Code of the Philippines also covers management of industrial tree plantations, tree farms, and argo-
forestry farms, and forest protection of swamplands and mangrove forest.
The Act also covers the special use of forest resources, such as grazing, wildlife, and recreation and
prescribes criminal offences, including unlawful occupation or destruction of forestlands and grazing
lands.
Moratorium on the Apart from a number of exemptions to the moratorium on the cutting and harvesting of timber in
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Cutting and natural forests, it provides for the implementation of a forest certification system in accordance with
Harvesting of UN standards and a convergence program with other national agencies and the private sector to
Timber in the increase awareness, improve livelihoods, and mobilize resources.
Natural and
Residual Forests
and Creating the
Anti-Illegal Logging
Task Force
(EO 23, s. 2011)
National Greening This implements a National Greening Program as a government priority which aims to plant 1.5
Program billion tree covering 1.5 million hectares, from 2011-2016 in forestlands, mangroves and protected
(EO 26, s. 2011) areas, ancestral domains, civil and military reservations, urban areas, inactive and abandoned mine
sites, and other suitable lands. This Order also enjoins participation of other government agencies,
the private sector, and the civil society.
Sustainable Forest This pursues the sustainable management of forests and forestlands in watersheds. It adopts
Management Community-Based, Forest Management (CBFM) as the primary strategy in all forest conservation and
(EO 318, s. 2004) development and related activities including joint ventures, production sharing, and co-production. It
also provides for the proper valuation and pricing of forestry resources and financing sustainable
forest management.
Delineation and The objective of this bulletin is to provide reliable information on the relative locations of all
Mapping of production and protection forest areas in the country to help in the planning and application of
Protection and appropriate management systems which are ecologically compatible, ecologically feasible, and
Production Forests socially acceptable based on thematic maps and existing/related laws, rules and regulation.
(FMB Technical Moreover, it will determine the relative locations of the protection and production forests on the
Bulletin No. 5, April ground that can be integrated, with environment and development planning activities.
2014)
The Balance This gives emphasis on management of crop residues, farm water recycling and an optimum
Fertilization combination of organic and inorganic.
Strategy of 1997
(Proclamation No.
1071)
Organic Agriculture This Act provides for the following: 1) policy formulation on regulation, registration, accreditation,
Act of 2010 certification, and labeling on organic agriculture; 20 research, development, and extension of
(RA 10068) appropriate sustainable environment and gender-friendly organic agriculture; 3) promotion and
encouragement of the establishment of facilities, equipment, and processing plants that would
accelerate the production and commercialization of organic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and
other appropriate farm inputs; and 4) implementation of organic agricultural programs, projects, and
activities, including the provision and delivery support services with focus on the farmers and other
stakeholders.
Amended Animal The purpose is to protect and promote the welfare of all terrestrial, aquatic, and marine animals in
Welfare Act of 2013 the Philippines by supervising and regulating the establishment and operations of all facilities utilized
(RA 8485/10631) for breeding, maintaining, keeping, treating or training of all animals either as objects of trade or as
household pets including birds.
Climate Change Act The Act aims to systematically integrate the concept of climate change in the policy formulation and
of 2009 (RA 9279) development plans of all government agencies and units, to the end that the government will be
as amended by the prepared for the impact of climate change. It provides long-term finance streams to enable the
People’s Survival government to effectively address the problem of climate change.
Fund (RA 101974 of
2012)
Philippine Disaster The Act mainstreams disaster risk reduction and climate change in development processes such as
and Risk Reduction policy formulation, socioeconomic development planning, budgeting, and governance, particularly in
Management Act of the areas of environment, agriculture, water, energy, health, education, poverty reduction, land use
2010 ((RA 10121) and urban planning, and public infrastructure and housing.policy formulation, socioeconomic
development planning, budgeting, and governance, particularly in the areas of environment,
agriculture, water, energy, health, education, poverty reduction, land use and urban planning, and
public infrastructure and housing.
Environmental The Act promotes environmental awareness through environmental education and covers the
Awareness and integration of such in the school curricula at all levels, be it public or private, including day care,
Education Act of preschool, non-formal, technical, vocational, indigenous learning, and out-of-school youth courses or
2008 programs. It also declares November as the Environmental Awareness Month in the Philippines.
(RA 9521)
Local Government Section 17 states that provinces can enforce forestry laws limited to community-based forestry
Code of 1991 projects, pollution control law, small-scale mining law, and other laws on the protection of the
(RA 7160) environment; the mini-hydro electric projects for local purposes.
Urban In relation to urban biodiversity, this Act provides for the rational use and development of urban land
Development and to bring about reduction in urban dysfunction particularly those that adversely affect public health,
Housing Act of 1992 safety, and ecology.
(RA 7279)
96
Sibalom, Antique
Toxic Substances The Act provides the legal framework to regulate, restrict or prohibit the importation, manufacture,
and Hazardous and processing, sale, distribution, use, and disposal of chemical substances and mixtures that present
Nuclear Waste unreasonable risk and/or injury to health or the environment; to prohibit the entry, even in transit, of
Control Act of 1990 hazardous and nuclear wastes and their disposal into the Philippine territorial limits for whatever
(RA 6969) purpose; and to provide advancement and facilitate research and studies on toxic chemicals.
Rules of Procedure In April 2010, the Philippines legislature promulgated the Rules of Procedure of the Environmental
for Environmental Cases, a landmark instrument representing a significant reform in environmental litigation and
Cases protection. This laid down procedures governing the civil, criminal, and special civil actions in all trial
courts regarding environmental cases, with a view of protecting and advancing the constitutional
rights of the people to health and to a balanced and healthful ecology, and providing a simplified,
speedy, and inexpensive procedure for the enforcement of environmental rights under Philippine
law.
The Rules of Procedure for Environmental Cases empowers the court to issue environmental
protection orders as an immediate action to protect the environment and the communities affected.
This also enables communities to petition for the suspension or stoppage of destructive,
environmental, and development activities through the Citizen’s Suit provision.
SELF
ASSESSMENT
“My Kap, My Hero”

Using the template below, interview your Barangay Captain about the different environmental policies
/laws:
Environmental laws/policies “May naman-an ikaw “If YES, ti ano ang mga aktibidades ridya sa Barangay kaangut sa
parti sa layi nga dya , layi nga dya, Kap?”
Kap?”
YES NO
Philippine Constitution
RA 7586
(RA 9147)
(RA 9072)
(RA 10654 of 2015)
97
Sibalom, Antique
(RA 8371)
(RA 7942)
(EO 79, s. 2012)
(EO 270, s. 2004)
(RA 9275)
(RA 9003)
(PD 705)
(EO 23, s. 2011)
(EO 26, s. 2011)
(EO 318, s. 2004)
(FMB Technical Bulletin No.

5, April 2014)
(Proclamation No. 1071)
(RA 10068)
(RA 8485/10631)
98
Sibalom, Antique
(RA 9279)
((RA 10121)
(RA 9521)
(RA 7160)
(RA 7279)
(RA 6969)
Rules of Procedure for

Environmental Cases
_______________________________________
Name of Barangay Captain
99

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LEARNING GUIDE in GE

Understanding Environmental Science requires

These are the learning objectives in this chapter:

1. Define environmental science and its related disciplines

2. Explain briefly the various environmental principles

3. To appreciate the study of environmental science by

Lesson 1: Environmental Science as a Field of Study

Definitions/Important Concepts about Environmental Science

UNITY: All living organisms, regardless of their uniqueness,

EVOLUTION: Evolution refers to all the changes that

DIVERSITY: Total diversity of life is

BEHAVIOUR AND INTERRELATIONSHIPS: Each

CONTINUITY: Whether an organism is a

b. Chemistry is the scientific study of matter. Important relevant, basic concepts

Figure 1. Classification of Matter opentextbc.c

Figure 2. Phases and Phase Changes in Matter

 Matter may undergo physical/phase changes or chemical changes.

Melting is a physical change.

Burning of wood and

Figure 3. Sub-atomic Particles

c. Agriculture is the science, art and practice

g. Ecology- study of relationships between organism and their environment. The

 An ecosystem is a community or group

Importance of Environmental Science

Lesson 2: Environmental Ethics and Attitudes

How one interacts

 rules of behavior based on ideas of what is good or bad

3 ethical perspectives towards environment/natural resources:

1. Anthropocentric/human-centered – mainly concerned with human interests/well-being at

3 Types of Environmental Attitudes (Enger & Smith, 2004):

Lesson 3: Environmental Principles

1. Everything is connected to everything else.

2. All forms of life are important.

3. Everything must go somewhere.

4. Ours is a finite earth.

5. Nature knows best.

6. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation.

8. The amount of life nature can support is limited.

9. Human progress must consider its effect on nature.

Lesson 4: Environmental Organizations in the Philippines

ABS-CBN Bantay Kalikasan

Bantay Kalikasan (BK), the environmental arm of ABS-CBN Lingkod

Center for Environmental Concerns – Philippines (CEC-Phils)

The Center for Environmental Concerns–Philippines (CEC-Phils) is a non-

Global Environment and Nature Ecosystems Society-Philippines Foundation, Inc (GENESYS)

The Global Environment and Nature Ecosystems Society (Phil.)

Philippine Tropical Forest Conservation Foundation, Inc. (PTCF)

2. Focused Grants Program

Eco-Link Women’s Network

Foundations for the Philippine Environment

If accredited, the FPE can undertake work in these areas:

Building resilient communities through ecosystems-based approach to natural resources rehabilitation

Philippine Ocean Heritage

Quiz 1 Introduction to the Course

The different levels of organization of living things are:

Large biologically important

Biotic and Abiotic Factors in Ecosystem

The abiotic factors determine the type of

Factors Influencing the Distribution of Plants & Animals

• Hibernation is winter dormancy.

• Estivation is summer dormancy.

Plants obviously cannot move to escape high or low temperatures.

Some examples of Xerophytes

o Diptheria bacilli secrete a toxin that inhibits protein synthesis by ribosomes.