Assessment Literacy for the 21st Century

Author(s): Richard J. Stiggins

Source: The Phi Delta Kappan , Nov., 1995, Vol. 77, No. 3 (Nov., 1995), pp. 238-245
Published by: Phi Delta Kappa International

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20405538

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Assessment Literacy
For the 21st Century

BY RICHARD J. STIGGINS

Without a clear vision of

the meaning of academic
success and without the
ability to effectively assess
student attainment of those
achievement targets at the
classroom, building, and
district levels, we will
remain unable to help
students attain higher levels
of academic achievement,
regardless of the instruc
tional methods we use or
how we organize our
schools, Mr. Stiggins warns.

S EVERAL years ago, in an article

titled "Assessment Literacy," I ex
pressed the view that the school
improvement efforts under way at
that time would not be productive
unless and until educators became mas at the classroom, building, and district lev ment. For example, the business commu
ters of the basic principles of sound class els, I contended, we would remain unable nity and other major segments of our so
room assessment. ' Without a crystal clear to assist students in attaining higher lev ciety have recognized that schools must
vision of the meaning of academic suc els of academic achievement. do more than rank students from the high
cess and without the ability to translate Since then, several important assess est to the lowest achievers. Rather, a grow
that vision into high-quality assessments ment-related developments have unfold ing demand for highly competent citizens
ed that bear on the evolution of our col has triggered the realization that schools
RICHARD J. STIGGINS is thefounderand
director of the Assessment Training Institute, lective assessment literacy. For this rea must help a larger proportion of our stu
Portland, Ore. He adapted this articlefrom his son, I believe it is time to review and eval dents meet high standards of academic ex
handbook for teachers, Student-Centered As uate our progress. cellence. Evidence of this revised mission
sessment (Merrill, 1994), which is distributed To begin with, we can identify positive of schools can be seen in the highly visi
to practitioners by theAssessment Training In trends that promise to increase our under ble lists of national, state, and local edu
stitute. Fax reprint inquiries to 503/228-3014. standing and use of high-quality assess cation goals. This demand for excellence

238 PHI DELTA KAPPAN Illustrationz by Jemn Sullivan

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 fuels an intense need for high-quality class and Virginia - because of concern about Thus several potentially positive assess
room and large-scale assessments. the nature of the outcomes used to define ment developments have been accompanied
The desire for higher achievement for the curriculum and the kinds of assess by difficulties and challenges that have kept
ever more students has forced us to define ments used to measure student achieve them from reaching their full potential.
the meaning of academic success in ever ment. Those problems have arisen at least partly
clearer terms. Specialists in the academic Our increasing reliance on alternative because many educators are not yet knowl
disciplines continue working to define aca methods of assessment has come under edgeable enough about assessment to avoid
demic success in reading, writing, math, close scrutiny as well. Two specific prob them. In many quarters, we remain near
science, and foreign language, among oth lems have arisen. First, accountability-ori ly as unschooled in the principles of sound
ers. These sharper definitions provide a far ented assessors followed tradition by fo assessment as we were when I first wrote
stronger focus for high-quality education cusing on large-scale standardized appli of this problem in 1991. Consider a few
al programs and assessments than we have cations of performance assessment. Pre examples.
ever had before. dictably, the attempt to replace or at least With a few notable exceptions, col
Yet another important positive devel supplement a relatively efficient, objective leges of education continue to produce
opment has seen performance assessment paper-and-pencil testing system with one new teachers and administrators who are
become an essential ingredient in a com that is far more labor intensive and expen poorly prepared to face the increasingly
plete school assessment program. We have sive has sensitized us to the real cost of al complex challenges of classroom assess
begun to understand how many of our most ternative assessments and has led some to ment. Over the past decade, the number of
important achievement targets take the form conclude that performance assessment may states requiring competence in assessment
of skills and capabilities that require as be too costly. They urge a return to the as a condition to being licensed to teach
sessment by means of observation and the more traditional, less costly assessment has remained unacceptably low at 11.6
exercise of judgment. For this reason, we system, as if the two measurement meth Few districts or schools have revised their
have begun to conduct the research and de odologies were interchangeable. I will ex hiring standards or staff evaluation crite
velopment efforts required to learn how to plore that issue below. ria to reflect the expectation of assessment
use performance assessment effectively. Second, some users of performance as competence. In fact, few local or state agen
In addition, some major assessment sessments have failed to appreciate the cies have in place the personnel officers or
programs have acknowledged the impor complexity of this methodology and have building administrators who are capable
tance of involving teachers in their as either not prepared themselves adequate of evaluating job candidates on their as
sessment projects. For instance, Vermont, ly or failed to help their communities to sessment capabilities or performance.
Kentucky, and California, among others, understand the new assessment methods. For all of these reasons, our progress
have relied heavily on teachers as asses For example, some districts that had planned toward an assessment-literate school cul
sors. And a few states, such as Michigan, to base high school graduation on demon ture has been slow. As a result, we con
Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Washington, strated competence on performance as tinue to place our young people directly
and some school districts have begun to sessments have delayed implementation in harm's way as potential victims of the
recognize the critical role that classroom of such requirements because of commu ongoing mismeasurement of their achieve
assessment will play in the future of school nity concern over the outcomes involved ment in the classroom.
development. Many have begun to allo and the quality of the performance assess But wait, some might protest, doesn't
cate significant resources to professional ments used.4 In other cases, some perform the rapid emergence of intense interest in
development for teachers and administra ance assessment applications have been performance assessment over the past dec
tors. systematically evaluated from a technical ade represent evidence of a higher level of
Finally, the National Council on Meas perspective and found wanting in terms of assessment literacy? Indeed, many have
urement in Education (NCME) has joined the dependability of the results.5 engaged in professional development ac
the American Federation of Teachers and Finally, state and local investments in tivities designed to help teachers and oth
the National Education Association to iden professional development for teachers and er users understand how to adopt this at
tify and endorse a complete set of class in commitments to high-quality classroom tractive option. And this is a very positive
room assessment competencies for teach assessment remain rare. When they are development. However, after reviewing the
ers.2 Similar standards have been spelled made, the investors often fail to realize the depth and nature of much of this training
out for principals3 and are currently being full extent of resources needed to prepare and studying its translation into practice
developed for administrators in general teachers to fulfill their new assessment in many classrooms, I think that this sig
through the collaboration of NCME and roles. The result can be shallow profession nificant step forward with respect to one
the American Association of School Ad al development, often dealing only with methodology has not been accompanied
ministrators. the design and development of perform by a corresponding movement with respect
All of these positive developments sug ance assessments and portfolios -to the to all other assessment methods. Let me
gest that progress has been significant. total exclusion of other assessment for explain.
However, the path of progress has not al mats and communication systems. Such For decades, the dominant wisdom in
ways been smooth. For instance, the notion imbalance reveals a mistaken belief that assessment circles held that the multiple
that schools might pursue higher achieve one mode of assessment is by its nature choice test was the most dependable way
ment for more students has come under better than all others. The naivete of this to track student achievement. While the
fire in some locations -e.g., Pennsylvania belief is addressed below. assessment community may not have in

NOVEMBER 1995 239

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 tended it, the assessment message that prac Assessment Literacy Redefined locate resources. School boards evaluate
titioners heard was "translate all of your both programs of instruction and superin
achievement targets into multiple-choice Assessment literates know the differ tendents. State departments of education
test items for assessment. Any targets that ence between sound and unsound assess evaluate programs, as do citizens and leg
cannot be so translated are not worth teach ments. They are not intimidated by the islators.
ing, because they cannot be dependably sometimes mysterious and always daunt No single assessment method can serve
and scientifically assessed." ing technical world of assessment. all these purposes. Different purposes re
In the mid- 1980s, however, many prac Those schooled in the principles of sound quire different kinds of information and
titioners began to understand that this nar assessment know how to meet specific stan thus different kinds of assessments. Class
row vision of assessment was counterpro dards of quality. Those standards hold that room-level assessment requires powerful,
ductive, and they began to rebel against sound assessments 1) arise from and serve high-resolution microscopes focused on
long-standing assessment traditions. As clear purposes; 2) arise from and reflect individual students, while policy-level as
educators on the firing line began to em clear and appropriate achievement targets; sessment requires a wide-angle view of
brace the concept of an achievement-driv 3) rely on a proper assessment method, general indicators of achievement sum
en education system and to analyze their given the purpose and the target; 4) sam marized across large numbers of students.
achievement targets with new clarity, they ple student achievement appropriately; and Those who understand assessment under
began to understand that some of our most 5) control for all relevant sources of bias stand these differences and can choose as
valued targets - e.g., the ability to read and distortion. sessments that are appropriate for intend
fluently, write, speak, and reason - are In other words, assessment-literate ed ed purposes.
more complex than previously thought. ucators - be they teachers, principals, cur 2. Focusing on achievement targets.
They began to realize how few of these riculum directors, or superintendents - Those schooled in the basic principles of
could be translated into multiple-choice come to any assessment knowing what sound assessment understand that students
test items. they are assessing, why they are doing so, must hit a number of different kinds of in
And so in the late 1980s the education how best to assess the achievement of in terrelated achievement targets: mastering
community began to focus on perform terest, how to generate sound samples of content knowledge, developing reasoning
ance assessment - a methodology ap performance, what can go wrong, and how proficiencies, attaining performance skills,
parently capable of reflecting many of the to prevent those problems before they oc and developing a high-quality product.
complex and important achievement tar cur. Most important, those who are truly We continue to expect students to mas
gets that could not be tested in traditional sensitive to the potential negative conse ter substantive subject-matter knowledge.
ways. The stampede to embrace this form quences of inaccurate assessment never While it isn't trendy in these times of
of assessment has been wondrous to be permit students to be put in a situation process and transitional outcomes to speak
hold. where their achievement might be mis of this kind of achievement expectation,
The unfortunate result, however, has measured. To thoroughly understand the mastery of content knowledge still repre
been that many have become as obsessed concept of assessment literacy, let's study sents the foundation of all other levels of
with this methodology in the 1990s as oth these five standards of quality in greater competence. For example, foreign language
ers had been with the multiple-choice test detail. students can develop the complex skill of
from the 1940s through the 1980s. Many 1. Starting with clear purposes. Edu communicating effectively in a second lan
have become so caught up in the trendi cators at various levels assess for many guage only by learning the vocabulary and
ness of the times that they have begun to different reasons. At the instructional lev syntactic structure of that language. This
contend that the only method worth con el, teachers identify the needs of individ is a clear example of substantive subject
sidering for the future of assessments in ual students, identify the needs of a class, matter knowledge that underpins skill com
our schools is performance assessment. Any group students, grade them, evaluate in petence. It is always so. Foundational knowl
achievement targets that can't be translat struction, and evaluate themselves as teach edge is almost never sufficient for advanced
ed into this method, they maintain, are not ers. Students and parents represent impor competence, but it is always essential.
worth learning. Sound familiar? These ad tant users at this level too. As an advocate of knowledge targets,
vocates fail to understand that this, too, is At the level of instructional leadership however, I have been striving to stretch my
a counterproductive and extreme position and support, principals evaluate instruc own understanding of what it means to
- as damaging to our total assessment tional programs, allocate resources, and "master" subject-matter knowledge. Our
picture and to student well-being as was evaluate teachers. Support teachers (men collective mindset is to regard one as a mas
the obsession that preceded it. Such ex tors, lead teachers, department chairs) as ter of content only when one can retrieve
treme positions are roadblocks in the path sist new teachers, assist team members, it from memory as needed. However, the
of developing an assessment-literate school and provide instructional support based on world does not operate solely on the basis
culture, and for this reason I revisit the con assessment results. Counselors and psy of memorized information. As knowledge
cept of assessment literacy. chologists identify students with special continues to double every few years, we
Let me redefine the concept and ana needs and match them to special pro must recognize that there are two equally
lyze more completely the barriers that keep grams. And curriculum directors and spe valuable ways of being a master of sub
us from attaining new and more balanced cialists evaluate program quality. ject-matter knowledge. One is to master it
understandings of the basic principles of At the policy level, superintendents eval by making it part of our internally held
sound assessment. uate programs, evaluate principals, and al structure of knowledge and understand

240 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

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ing; the other is to master it by knowing by learning to use reference materials to A third option is performance assess
where and how to find it when we need it. retrieve it when needed. ment. Here, the student is asked to demon
The former is assessed using traditional Moreover, our expectations don't stop strate a skill or to create a multidimen
closed-book assessments, while the latter with the mastery of content and the abili sional product that is observed by the eval
encourages the use of open-book and take ty to reason. We also expect students to be uator, who applies a set of criteria to de
home assessments. able to develop and demonstrate impor termine the level of proficiency demon
Now, having argued strongly for a rec tant skills, such as the ability to read, to strated. In performance assessment, the
ognition of the continued importance of communicate in a second language, to car criteria address issues of form as well as
knowledge as a valued achievement tar ry out proper procedures in a science lab, content.
get, it seems paradoxical to assert that the to work effectively on a team, and so on. A fourth and final set of assessment al
idea of having students learn content pure In each of these cases, we expect our stu ternatives falls into a category I call person
ly and solely for the sake of knowing it is dents to (note the building relationship here) al communication. In this case, a teacher
a waste of time. Instead, we hope that stu access procedural knowledge, use it to gathers information about student achieve
dents will master factual and procedural reason productively, and demonstrate that ment by asking questions and listening to
knowledge so that they can use their knowl they can do certain things. In these cases, answers, listening to discussions, interview
edge to reason and solve problems. Pro it is the "doing" that is critical to academ ing students in conferences, or perhaps talk
ductive problem solvers know how to take ic success. And beyond this, we some ing with parents or other teachers about
maximum advantage of the knowledge they times expect students to use their skills to particular students.
possess. While our students come to us as create high-quality products, such as term Given these choices, the classroom as
natural thinkers, our challenge is to help papers, research reports, artistic creations, sessment challenge becomes clear: How
them learn to pattern their thinking in pro craft products, and the like. With these, ev should one select from these assessment
ductive ways. idence of knowledge, reasoning, and skill options when faced with the need to de
Our professional literature is full of con is found in the student's creation. termine whether students have attained a
ceptual frameworks defining productive Assessment-literate educators know the particular achievement target? The answer
ways to reason. Decades ago, Benjamin differences and understand the interdepend forms the foundation of assessment liter
Bloom offered a taxonomy of cognitive ent relations between these different kinds acy.
operations. Robert Marzano details his pat of valued targets. They also know how and When assessing mastery of knowledge
terns of reasoning in terms of analysis, why this way of thinking about achieve whether students know and understand
classification, inductive reasoning, and de ment expectations is the key to sound as or not - we have three solid assessment
ductive reasoning. Edys Quellmalz defines sessment practices. Let's explore that top options. From the most to the least effi
analytical, comparative, inferential, and ic next. cient, they are selected response, essay, and
evaluative thinking as productive ways to 3. Selecting proper assessment meth personal communication. Performance as
use knowledge to solve problems.7 These ods. Given the diversity of achievement sessment is a much less attractive option,
and many other definitions provide an ex targets outlined above, it becomes obvi because the demonstration of complex per
cellent foundation for teaching and assess ous that no single assessment method is formances requires more than just mastery
ing reasoning. Assessment literacy involves capable of reflecting them all. Fortunate of prerequisite knowledge, thus confound
being prepared to define, teach, and assess ly, we don't have to rely on one assess ing several different kinds of achievement
these kinds of capabilities. ment method, current or past trends to the in the same assessment. Let me explain
Note the relationship that exists between contrary notwithstanding. We have sever why this is important.
mastery of knowledge and mastery of rea al at our disposal. They, too, fall into four If a student does an outstanding job
soning. They are unalterably bonded. One categories. Assessment-literate educators with a performance task that requires the
is meaningless without the other. For this know how and when to use the specific as creation of a complex product, then I have
reason I no longer use the phrase "higher sessment methods within each of the cat in hand compelling evidence that the stu
order thinking," which implies that there egories. dent has mastered the prerequisite knowl
must be something called "lower-order" One set of assessment options falls in edge, reasoned productively, and performed
thinking too. In recent years we have come to the selected-response category, includ skillfully - all building blocks of the par
to attach the "lower-order" label to the ing multiple-choice, true/false, matching, ticular competence demonstrated. Doesn't
mastery of content knowledge, causing it and fill-in-the-blank tests, quizzes, and as that mean, therefore, that there is a strong
to become deemphasized, thus depriving signments. In this case, students read the match between assessing knowledge and
our students of access to the very knowl exercise and select the best response from performance assessment? But not so quick.
edge needed to solve the problems we pose among a small array of possibilities. The problem with assessing knowledge
for them. Another option is essay assessment, in mastery in this way arises when the stu
As we define academic success in terms which students are given a brief writing dent fails to perform adequately on the
that keep knowledge and reasoning bond exercise that requires the creation of orig performance assessment. When this hap
ed, we reaffirm that material is most ef inal text that is read and evaluated accord pens, all I can see is the inadequate prod
fectively internalized when it is learned in ing to a set of scoring criteria or standards. uct, but I don't know why the performer
a way that connects it to a relevant use. In essay assessment, the criteria typically failed. Was it due to a lack of knowledge,
And good use can be made of knowledge focus on the presentation of content with a failure to reason, or a failure to skillful
mastered either by learning it outright or in the written response. ly carry out appropriate steps? I cannot

NOVEMBER 1995 241

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know why the student failed until I follow are always constrained in terms of the time achievement. A student's reading or writ
up with one of the other three assessment available to assess, one key to quality is to ing skills, language skills, health or emo
methods to determine if the prerequisite include enough questions to make the as tional state, peer pressure, and the like can
knowledge is present or absent. So if all I sessment representative of all those pos interfere with accurate assessment. Prob
really want to assess is knowledge mas sibilities. lems can also arise from within the assess
tery, why not just turn to one of the other The manner in which we sample stu ment environment, if examinees are dis
options to begin with? dent achievement depends on several fac tracted, uncomfortable, or ill-equipped for
Now suppose we wish to assess a com tors. One is the assessment method we the assessment. When these factors inter
plex skill, such as the ability to commu select in any particular situation. For in fere, scores on assessments may misrep
nicate orally in a second language. Can I stance, if the target requires a selected-re resent real student achievement. This mis
assess such a skill with a multiple-choice sponse format, we must sample all possi information can prevent us from drawing
or essay test? I think not. This target calls ble test questions in a manner that permits proper conclusions.
for a completely different mode of assess us to conclude that a student who answered Furthermore, problems can arise with
ment. In this case, I need to use perform 80% of these items correctly would prob in the assessment itself. Selected-response
ance assessments, requesting that students ably answer 80% of all possible questions questions may be poorly written, response
communicate in the language so that I can correctly. If we use the essay format, we options may be inappropriate, and scoring
observe and evaluate their skill. Or I might need enough essay exercises to generalize may be inaccurate. Essay exercises may
rely on personal communication between confidently about how the student might be poorly written, unfocused, or too nar
the student and a language-proficient teach perform if we could administer all possi row or broad in their focus. In addition,
er. But this does not mean that there is no ble exercises. The same with performance scoring criteria may be poorly or inap
role for selected-response and essay assess assessments. The performance tasks we se propriately focused or poorly applied by
ments in foreign language classrooms. lect must be representative of the instances the evaluator. Similar sources of bias and
These methods can tap student mastery of within which such performance might be distortion can arise in performance assess
the knowledge that forms the foundation expected. ments or in personal communication as
for communicating in a second language. A proper sample is also a function of the sessments. In becoming assessment liter
Or suppose we wish to assess reasoning. scope of the target. Generally, the broad ate, educators must know what problems
All modes of assessment can be used to er the scope of the target, the larger our can arise and how to counter them with
provide information about some aspect of sample will need to be. For example, if the specific strategies that lead to sound as
a student's ability to use available knowl target is the ability to solve third-grade ad sessments.
edge to reason and solve problems. How dition problems, we will need fewer exer Taken together, then, these five stan
ever, not all assessment approaches can ef cises than we would need to evaluate a stu dards of quality form the foundation of ef
fectively reflect all patterns of reasoning. dent's overall proficiency at solving math fective assessments. Sound assessments
The challenge is to start with a crystal clear problems prior to graduation from high arise from and serve clearly articulated
and highly refined vision of the achieve school. More specific and focused targets purposes, arise from and reflect clearly de
ment target and to know which kinds of permit more focused sampling. fined achievement targets, rely on proper
reasoning fit with which assessment modes. The more serious the purpose of the as assessment methods, sample performance
Finally, the only way to determine sessment or the more important the deci effectively, and head off bias and distor
whether our students can create complex, sions to be made on the basis of the re tion before they occur.
achievement-related products is to have sults, the more confident we must be in the
them create such products and to apply ac inferences we draw from the sample. For
Understanding the Barriers
cepted standards of quality in evaluating high-stakes assessments, we generally need
them. If we wish to check in advance to a larger, more sharply focused assessment.
To Assessment Literacy
be sure they are acquiring the foundation Finally, the manner in which we sam These standards of assessment quality
al knowledge needed to create quality prod ple is a function of the amount of infor are not negotiable, nor is the expectation
ucts, we can turn to the other three assess mation provided by the student's response that assessors will meet them every time
ment options. The key point is that only to any one exercise. If one speaking task they assess student achievement. Yet dec
after I have clarified my target can I select in a foreign language provides an extend ades of research on the quality of class
my assessment method. I must be balanced ed sample of the student's proficiency, room assessments show us that these stan
in making this choice. Sometimes my choice demanding that the student demonstrate a dards are seldom met.8
will reflect the currently popular trends. wide range of skills within one response, What keeps us from meeting them?
Other times I must turn to traditional test then we will not need many such exercis Why is it that assessment literacy has re
ing methods. And only after I have select es to bring us to confildent generalizations mained so elusive for so long?
ed my method can I plan to sample stu about a student's proficiency in the lan The answers to these questions are com
dent achievement in an appropriate man guage. plex. This is why the bafflers to improv
ner. 5. Avoiding bias and distortion. In ad ing classroom assessment have been so
4. Sampling student achievement. Any dition to sampling issues, we must remain difficult to overcome. But the need for
assessment is necessarily a sample of all constantly aware of a number of other more high-quality assessment continues to grow
the questions we could have asked if the specific technical and practical problems as our assigned mission of helping more
assessment were infinitely long. Since we that can cause us to mismeasure student students than ever before to attain higher

242 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

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 levels of academic excellence becomes in
creasingly pressing. As the need for high
quality assessment increases, so does the
urgency associated with the removal of the
following barriers.
1. Fear of assessment and evaluation.
Many educators are intensely anxious about
the systematic assessment and evaluation
of performance, whether theirs or that of
their students. This fear arises out of a
sense of personal vulnerability that must
be addressed to remove this barrier. Let
me explain.
For most practicing educators, this fear
of assessment has been cultivated over
many years as a direct result of many lev
els of unpleasant assessment experiences.
The foundation of our fear was laid dur
ing our youth, when our own teachers of
ten left us wondering what would be on
the test and how to prepare for it. In our
youth, assessment was frequently used to
gain compliance rather than to promote im
provement.
Furthermore, we grew up in an educa
tional environment in which an artificial
scarcity of success said to us, "You suc
ceed only if you finish high in the rank or
der." This left some in the position of hav
ing learned a great deal of the required ma
terial, but still finishing relatively low in
the ranking. As a result, some may have
defined themselves as failures. Any time
there was confusion about who was in
charge in the classroom, tests were the de
vices that determined who won. These ex
periences continued through college and
"roterAedtnwtednfeanrsai-c
" Turns out the Iron Age didn 't end with the advent
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often left behind strong negative associa
tions.
Please understand that I am not con
tending that these were necessarily coun
terproductive emotions. They may well have
caused some of us to behave in academi
cally productive ways. I contend only that
for many of us the emotions associated
with assessment are negative. As a result,
when we adults in the U.S. (not just teach
ers) look back on our school years and our
testing, evaluation, and grading experiences,
many of us recall the anxiety and stress
that we endured because we had no choice.
Few of us would choose to relive such ex
periences.
But for many professional educators, the
negative emotions associated with assess
ment didn't stop with high school gradu
ation. As we prepared to become teachers,
we experienced our first course in educa
tional testing and measurement. About one
half of currently practicing teachers took
such a course, and only a few of them found
the course helpful as a way of preparing
for the realities of classroom life. Often,
it was a technical treatment of psychomet
ric issues, the relevance of which remained
unclear. Very often professors had diffi
culty helping prospective teachers connect
the course content to day-to-day classroom
reality. Consequently, this experience laid
down one more layer of negative associa
tions.
And to finish the job, most teachers
came out of college into their own class
rooms only to find themselves and their
the curriculum, using assessment methods
with maximum efficiency, spreading the
assessment work over more shoulders, or
ganizing and using school time different
ly, and taking maximum advantage of in
formation management technologies. But
none of
ofthis can be accomplished
permanent if teachfabric."
press
ers are not provided with the necessary
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students being evaluated in terms
dardized test scores whose connec
reality they didn't really underst
though these tests seemed to cove
small part of what was being tau
learned in classrooms, they non
seemed to command much atte
leaving teachers feeling victimize
sessment once again.
The accumulation of layers of n
associations represents a promine
er to assessment literacy, because
es many educators off from even
ing their own assessment compet
also keeps many teachers from ta
vantage of opportunities to lea
about the assessment process and
ductive integration into the classroo
with the prospect of learning mo
assessment, many simply beat a h
treat.
2. Insufficient time to assess well. With
all the changes happening in schools
e.g., the new assignments given to teach
ers, the expansion of the school curriculum,
and the new kinds of instructional strate
gies being bandied about - most teach
ers feel overworked. Now here come the
assessment experts telling them that, on
top of everything else, they must do a new
assessment job as well, using time-con
suming assessment methods.
There are two time issues to be ad
dressed if we are to attain sufficiently high
levels of assessment literacy: time for pro
fessional development and time to integrate
the ideas learned into instruction. Depend
ing on the background and teaching re
sponsibilities of the teacher, the former
can take years of training and experimenta
tion. A few after-school workshops won't
suffice. Successful professional develop
ment in assessment will require changes
in the deep infrastructure of American ed
ucation that will take several years to ef
fect. We must face this reality and deal
with it.
The second issue - time to integrate
sound assessment practices into instruc
tion can be managed within currently
available instructional time by focusing
NOVEMBER 1995 243
training to do so. Thus all attempts to at ate the curriculum, and continuous prog going public seems like a very risky choice,
tain higher levels of assessment literacy ress remains a dream to which we aspire. especially during times when our society
will have to include concrete suggestions Yet, without a continuous curriculum, we seems bent on blaming educators and crit
for finding the time and support teachers cannot help students make a smooth tran icizing schools.
need to learn about and implement high sition from no competence to advanced
quality assessments. competence. We can fix this problem on
3. Public perceptions of the state of as ly if teachers have time to integrate the cur
Removing the Barriers
sessment practices. Over the past several riculum. But our communities are not like If the goal is quality assessment that
decades, we have permitted our commu ly to allocate time for integration if they promotes higher levels of achievement for
nities to believe in a set of assumptions don't know there's a problem. These are greater numbers of students, I think our
about the nature and quality of assessment just a few of the assumptions we have en choice is clear. We can attain assessment
in schools. We encouraged those mistak couraged that bear on the state of assess competence only through professional de
en beliefs because of the shelter they pro ment in schools. Other such mispercep velopment. That competence is the key to
vided. Now, given our need for assess tions that we have encouraged hold: removing all three barriers. We replace our
ments of real quality - not just the ap * that norm-referenced standardized test negative associations with a new confidence
pearance of quality - many of those con scores are all that communities or admin about assessment and its role in achieving
venient misunderstandings that previous istrators need in order to evaluate the qual academic excellence; we find new ways
ly had proven so useful have become coun ity of their schools, even though we know to evaluate student performance with great
terproductive. Let me illustrate. that these tests cover less than half of our er efficiency, thus addressing the time bar
We have permitted our communities to valued achievement targets; rier; and we build new partnerships with
believe that all teachers in all classrooms * that report-card grades represent ac our communities when we approach these
are confident and competent masters of curate and dependable information about challenges as assessment literates.
the achievement targets that their students student achievement, even though we know How do we go about building a foun
are expected to hit. But the reality is that that grades provide only a very limited pic dation of assessment literacy? Higher ed
many who are given responsibility for teach ture of achievement and may say more about ucation has an obvious and critically im
ing students to write have little idea of what student compliance than about learning; portant role to play, and leadership is need
good writing looks like or of how to judge and ed here most of all. We need faculty mem
it. We have a long history of asking young * that the SAT represents standards of bers in colleges of education who possess
elementary teachers to teach scientific prin educational excellence to which we aspire sufficiently high levels of assessment lit
ciples that they themselves were never giv because SAT scores predict later academic eracy to be able to model sound assess
en the opportunity to master. And these success, when the reality is that few teach ment practices for their students, and we
cases represent just the tip of the iceberg. ers know what is tested or how these tests need a visible expectation of assessment
The fact is that teachers cannot assess relate to their school's curriculum. competence as a condition of graduation
achievement that they have not attained In short, we have permitted our com from their training programs. High-qual
themselves. The only way to remedy this munities to believe that teachers and ad ity assessment training that reflects an un
is to provide training about those achieve ministrators are confident, competent mas derstanding of the reality of life in class
ment targets. But if our communities think ters of the principles of sound assessment rooms is an absolute must in all such pro
that all teachers are masters of their disci - that we have always been assessment grams. That training must teach assess
plines and don't realize there is a problem, literate when the reality is that the vast ment competence in the context of the
they are not likely to be willing to allocate majority of professional educators are se school subjects to be assessed and must
resources for this kind of development. verely challenged by the assessment de provide specific guidance on the develop
Furthermore, we have permitted our mands emerging in the 1990s. The most ment and use of all assessment methods
communities to believe that our achieve serious of all barriers to high-quality as not just the currently popular methods.
ment targets are thoughtfully integrated sessment is the assumption that the teach At the state level, licensing boards must
across grades - that math, science, and ers and administrators in our schools al be explicit in setting standards that recog
social studies, for example, unfold in a nat ready use high-quality assessments to meas nize the importance of assessment com
ural and ordered progression from kinder ure student achievement and to promote petence and demand such competence as
garten through high school. Indeed, we academic success. a condition of certification to teach or to
have let our communities believe that there Thus we find ourselves on the horns of be an administrator. State departments of
is something called "sixth-grade science" a painful dilemma. Do we stonewall and education can provide leadership by hold
and that we all know what it covers and hope that the need for high-quality assess ing a public and very visible expectation of
how it differs from fifth- and seventh-grade ment will evaporate before anyone notices assessment competence and by offering
science. In other words, members of the our lack of competence? Or do we go to relevant opportunities for professional de
community think that their children's teach our communities with the truth about the velopment. State-level professional asso
ers communicate with one another, coor critical need for greater assessment liter ciations of teachers and administrators can
dinate the focus of instruction, and carry acy and seek the resources required to ad likewise provide leadership and profes
out a continuous assessment of progress. dress it? The need for quality is likely to sional development opportunities. State as
The reality is that we rarely talk with increase rather than decrease. Moreover, sociations of school boards and other cit
one another, redundancy and gaps perme avoiding this problem seems unethical. But izens can advocate on behalf of higher

244 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

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levels of assessment literacy. Finally,
then can each teacher understand each
and comschool district
Accrediting agencies can provide lead mit to a set of achievement
swer expectations
a critical public relations q
ership by setting accrediting standards that that will be the focus of What
her oractivities
his assessmust we carry
reflect an expectation of high-quality as ment responsibilities. From operation with our community
an assessment
sessment. Intermediate or educational ser planning perspective, each to district
develop needs
an expectation of hig
vice districts, regional laboratories, and oth assessment
to ask: What is our plan for creating aand an understanding
thor
high-quality
er centers of service to districts and schools oughly articulated and integrated assessment really m
curricu
can offer professional development oppor lum across all levels? And where
shall will the
we educate our parents and
tunities in assessment. leadership and resources come
izens from to
regarding the important
Finally, individual teachers and admin make this happen? related to assessment literacy?
All these efforts can m
us toward higher levels o
sessment literacy and a m
* Leaders must make public a clear positive environment for
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~ sessment and learning.
* 4 expectation of competence in
school improvement effo
under way today will not
0 assessment and must allocate
productive unless and u
the educators leading
0 the necessary resources. contributing to those eff
become confident, co
tent masters of the princ
istrators can make a personalForcommitment
districts, professional of sound classroom assessment
development
issues center
to invest in their own professional on leadership,
develop ly resources
we must (time ask: What is our pla
ment efforts on behalf of and expertise),
high-quality asand incentives.
vancing the Each re of our collect
state
quires
sessments in their classrooms some
and schools. ment
soul searching. Who literacy?
will risk
demanding assessment competence? Who
will risk allocating time to achieve it? Who
A Four-Part Plan 1. Richard J.to
Stiggins, "Assessment Lit
is willing to become expert enough help
For School Districtsothers? And why should Delta Kappan, March 1991, pp. 534-39
anxious and over
2. Standards for Teacher Competence i
Given this list of general contributions
burdened faculty members invest? In fact,
al Assessment of Students (Washington,
withouthow
by the various interested parties, theshould
willingness to risk
ican at all these
Federation of Teachers, National
a school district proceed levels,
to lay a a school
foundaculture steeped
Measurementin assess
in Education, and Nation
ment
tion for assessment literacy andliteracy Association,
and the accurate
build a pos 1990).
monitoring
3. Judy Arter et al., "Domain 12: Measur
of student To
itive environment for assessment? achievement
be will remain be
Evaluation," in Scott D. Thomson, ed.
yond our
gin with, those in the highest reach.
positions of for Our Changing Schools (Reston, V
The policy
authority must provide leadership by environment
mak is also
Policy Board critical
for Educational Administra
because
ing public a clear expectation of of the guidance
compe it 12.1-12.19.
pp. provides for
tence in assessment and by sound practice.
allocating 4. Alan Davis
theSeveral categories ofand Catherine Felknor, "
pol
of Performance-Based Graduation in Lit
resources needed to meet icysuch need to be reconsidered as we shape
a standard.
ucational Leadership, March 1994, pp.
a positive
I suggest a plan that includes and constructive
four parts: assessment
5. Daniel Koretz et al., "The Vermont P
1) articulating clear and and learning
specific achieve environment.sessmentCurriculum
Program: Findings and Impli
policiesprofession
ment expectations, 2) providing need to spell outucational
that final vision
Measurement: Issues and Pr
al development, 3) setting ofpolicies
success andde
that 13, 1994,
the divisions of pp. 5-16.
responsi
bility assessment,
mand and support high-quality across levels. Staffing6. Peter Wolmut,
policies need"Assessment Compe
Teachers: What Do Licensing Laws De
to spell
and 4) planning and conducting a commu out hiring, evaluation, and ongo
per presented at a conference on "Cl
nity relations campaign in ing supervision
support of high criteria sessment:
that relate The to
Keyasto Unlocking Stude
quality assessment. sessment competence. ment,"Policies on com
Portland, Ore., 1994.
municating
With respect to expectations for information
stu about student
7. Benjamin S. Bloom et al., eds., Taxon
achievement
dent achievement, the work ucational
(i.e., grading
starts with the Objectives:
policies, poli Handbook I, Co
main (New York: McKay, 1956); Robert
cies related
articulation of detailed visions of the to the use of
final portfolios, and
A Different Kind of Classroom (Alexand
so on) must
product to be attained. Specifically, aim toward
what effective and
sociation for Supervision and Curricul
is the successful graduate timely
to knowcommunication
and be of accurate infor Quellmalz, "Deve
ment, 1992); andEdys
mationin
able to do? Then those steeped tothe
all K
who might use Skills,"
soning that infor
in Joan B. Baron and Rob
12 curriculum must meet mation. The key
and work to planning
berg, question is: Thinking Skills: T
eds., Teaching
Practice (New York: Freeman, 1987).
What policies
gether across levels to incorporate that will
vi need to be changed or
8. Richard J. Stiggins and Nancy F.
sion into the curriculum added toteachers
so that our district's policy manual to
Teachers' Hands: Investigating the Pract
support a positive
planfully divide up the responsibility for assessment and learn
room Assessment (Albany: State Univers
ing environment?
helping students attain competency. Only York Press, 1992). K

NOVEMBER 1995 2

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