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Nanocolloids
A Meeting Point for Scientists and Technologists
Edited by
M. Sánchez-Domı́nguez
Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.),
Unidad Monterrey, GENES-Group of Embedded Nanomaterials for Energy
Scavenging, Apodaca, Nuevo León, México
C. Rodrı́guez-Abreu
International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory,
Braga, Portugal
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List of Contributors
J. Alvarez-Quintana Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad
Monterrey, GENES-Group of Embedded Nanomaterials for Energy Scavenging, Apodaca, Nuevo
León, México
M. Bañobre-López International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal
M. Boutonnet Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (KTH), School of Chemical Science and Engineering,
Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
P. Brown Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Cambridge, MA, United States
J. Cancino-Bernardi University of São Paulo, Physics Institute of São Carlos, Nanomedicine and
Nanotoxicology Group, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
E. Carbó-Argibay International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal
S. Carro Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Ingenierı́a y Tecnologı́a,
Apizaco, Tlaxcala, México
H.B. Eral Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Cambridge,
MA, United States
J. Esquena Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Nanotechnology, Spanish National Research Council (IQAC-CSIC) and CIBER on Bioengineering,
Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Barcelona, Spain
A. Fontes Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Biophysics and Radiobiology Department,
Recife, Brazil
M.J. Garcı́a-Celma University of Barcelona, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy and
Pharmaceutical Technology, and CIBER on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine
(CIBER-BBN), Barcelona, Spain
M. Homs Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
S. Jestin CANOE, Pessac, France
Y.V. Kolen’ko International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal
B. Laine JTT Composite, Merignac, France
Tania E. Lara-Ceniceros Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad
Monterrey, Polymer Science and Nanotechnology Lab, Apodaca, Nuevo León, México
xv
E.S. Leite Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Chemical Engineering, Recife,

Brazil
J.A. León-Gil Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad Monterrey,
GENES-Group of Embedded Nanomaterials for Energy Scavenging, Apodaca, Nuevo León, México
L. Licea-Jiménez Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad
León, México
V.S. Marangoni University of São Paulo, Physics Institute of São Carlos, Nanomedicine and
A. Marinas University of Córdoba, Organic Chemistry Department, Córdoba, Spain
C. Mercader CANOE, Pessac, France
V. Montes University of Córdoba, Organic Chemistry Department, Córdoba, Spain
D. Morales Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Nanotechnology, Spanish National Research Council (IQAC-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
S. Mourdikoudis Universidade de Vigo, Facultade de Quı́mica, Departamento de Quı́mica Fı́sica,
Vigo, Spain
J. Nestor Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
P.F.M. Nogueira University of São Paulo, Physics Institute of São Carlos, Nanomedicine and
M. Obiols-Rabasa Lund University, Department of Chemistry, Division of Physical Chemistry,
Lund, Sweden; CR Competence AB, Lund, Sweden
V.M. Ovando-Medina Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosı́, Coordinación Académica
Región Altiplano (COARA), Departamento de Ingenierı́a Quı́mica, Matehuala, San Luis Potosı́,
México
I.M.M. Paino University of São Paulo, Physics Institute of São Carlos, Nanomedicine and
I. Pastoriza-Santos Universidade de Vigo, Facultade de Quı́mica, Departamento de Quı́mica
Fı́sica, Vigo, Spain
M.G.C. Pereira Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Recife, Brazil
G.A.L. Pereira Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Fundamental Chemistry,
Recife, Brazil
S.A. Pérez-Garcı́a Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad
León, México
J. Pérez-Juste Universidade de Vigo, Facultade de Quı́mica, Departamento de Quı́mica Fı́sica,
Vigo, Spain
xvi
M. Rabelero-Velasco Universidad de Guadalajara, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e

Ingenierı́a, Departamento de Ingenierı́a Quı́mica, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
J. Rivas Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Department of Applied Physics, Technological
Research Institute, Nanotechnology and Magnetism Lab, Santiago de Compostela, Galicia,
Spain; International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal
C. Rodrı́guez-Abreu International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal
R. Rychwalski Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Materials and Manufacturing
Technology, Göteborg, Sweden
M. Sánchez-Domı́nguez Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad
León, México
B.S. Santos Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Recife, Brazil
C. Solans Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
J.P. Souza University of São Paulo, Physics Institute of São Carlos, Nanomedicine and
R. Suárez-Paris Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (KTH), School of Chemical Science and
Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
M.A. Velasco-Soto Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad
León, México
V. Zucolotto University of São Paulo, Physics Institute of São Carlos, Nanomedicine and
xvii
Preface
Over the last 30 years, there has been an increasing growth in valuable research dedicated to
nanoscience and nanotechnology on one hand. The study of colloids, on the other hand, has a
strong tradition dating back to centuries ago, and it continues to be of interest for both scienti-
fic and technological development. It has been recognized that colloid science provides a
strong foundation for the advancement of nanotechnology and nanoscience. The area at which
nanotechnology and colloid science overlap is the field of nanocolloids, which includes all
kinds of hard colloids, such as inorganic nanoparticles, as well as soft colloids, such as
nanoemulsions.
The aim of this book is to offer a multidisciplinary overview on several aspects of nano-
colloids in a way that is attractive for both scientists and technologists. The book has been
organized into 13 chapters.
Chapter 1 introduces basic concepts on nanocolloids. The dynamic behavior of nano-
colloids is discussed, and the different types of interactions involved are described; equa-
tions to estimate the interaction potentials are presented. The most used parameters and
methods to characterize colloidal stability are summarized.
Chapter 2 presents an overview on nanocolloidal noble metals. The main optical properties
of these nanomaterials are described, and modeling of those properties is explained.
Synthesis and preparation methods to obtain controlled morphology, shape, and surface
functionalization are summarized. Finally, the main applications of nanocolloidal noble
metals are discussed.
Chapter 3 is dedicated to magnetic nanocolloids. The principles of size-dependent
nanoscale magnetism (nanomagnetism) are first explained. Synthesis and preparation pro-
tocols of magnetic nanocolloids with controlled morphology and shape by chemical
methods are reviewed. Diverse applications of magnetic nanocolloids are presented.
Chapter 4 introduces the main properties of colloidal quantum dots. Wet chemistry-based
synthesis methods are discussed. Applications of these systems in biomedicine and other
technological fields are reviewed.
xix
Preface
Chapter 5 deals with silica and titania nanocolloids. Preparation methods are reviewed with
special attention to sol-gel chemistry and processing. The properties of silica and titania
nanocolloids and their relationship with several applications are addressed.
Chapter 6 provides an overview about the synthesis of nanocatalysts from surfactant-assisted
preparation methods and their potential applications in the energy and chemical production
industries. Preparation methods include the synthesis of nanoparticles in microemulsions, as
well as the use of templates for the preparation of metal oxides with structured pores.
Furthermore, strategies for the optimum deposition of catalysts onto supports are also
discussed.
Chapter 7 examines the chemical and physical methods to achieve dispersion of carbon
nanomaterials. Different approaches such as mechanical dispersion as well as surface
modification are presented. In addition, the role of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
(XPS) technique for understanding the relationship between structure-property-functionality
of the modified carbon nanostructures is discussed.
Chapter 8 is focused on carbon polymer nanocomposites. Methods of preparation including
different types of polymers and carbon nanostructures, surface and interface analysis on
carbon nanocomposites, and examples of the most promising industrial applications are
discussed.
Chapter 9 gives an introduction to scattering methods based on light, X-rays and neutrons,
and their application for noninvasive characterization of nanocolloids. The chapter is
focused on Dynamic and Static Light scattering, Small-Angle X-ray Scattering and Small-
Angle Neutron Scattering.
Chapter 10 gives an overview about polymerization using nanocolloids as reaction media.
The most important advances concerning polymerization in O/W, W/O and bicontinuous
microemulsions are discussed. Different approaches resulting in well-stabilized polymeric
nanoparticles, high polymer content, as well as the use of water as continuous phase are
presented, demonstrating an important advancement towards cost-effective industrial
processes.
Chapter 11 is dedicated to nano-emulsions as a class of soft nanocolloids. Nano-emulsion
preparation is discussed, with emphasis in low-energy methods. Nano-emulsion properties
and the methods to characterize them are described. Finally, relevant applications of nano-
emulsions in the pharmaceutical field are reviewed.
Chapter 12 reviews recent progress in smart and stimuli-responsive colloids. Colloidal con-
trol and manipulation over interfacial and bulk properties may be achieved predictably and
selectively using these systems. Common triggers such as pH, temperature and electrolyte
concentration, as well as more sophisticated stimuli, such as magnetic and electric fields,
xx
Preface
light, CO2, sonication and enzymes are discussed. A particular emphasis on future
directions and applications is also given.
Last but not least, chapter 13 deals with one of the biggest challenges to the commerciali-
zation of nanoproducts, which is related to the development of safety testing guidelines for
evaluating their toxicity, aiming at standardizing the process. Thus, the last chapter brings
a discussion on the potential toxic effects of nanocolloids, as well as on the actual state
and perspectives regarding regulatory procedures.
xxi
CHAPTER 1
Nanocolloids: Some Basic Concepts and

Principles of Their Stabilization
C. Rodrı́guez-Abreu
International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal
1.1 What Is a Nanocolloid?

The term nanocolloid comes from the greek-derived words nano and colloid. Nano derives
from nάno2 (“dwarf”) and is an established unit prefix standing for one billionth (109).
Colloid derives from kόlla (“glue”) and was coined by Thomas Graham1 in 1861,
although wider definitions of colloids closer to those accepted nowadays were given by
Weimarn, Ostwald, and Freundlich.2 Nevertheless, the use of the full term nanocolloid is
relatively recent and seems to have started, as far as the scientific literature is concerned,
in the mid-1980s,3 with the first mention in a patent in the mid-1990s.4
Herein we define a nanocolloid as a material having all of the following main features:
• It is in particulate form, that is, it is constituted by discrete entities of compounds in amor-
phous or crystalline state, either organic or inorganic. The entities can also be formed by
non-covalent molecular aggregates. The particles may show collective behavior.
• It is dispersed/suspended within a fluid medium (a liquid for most of the purposes of
this book) as a result of net repulsion forces that prevent a macroscopic phase separa-
tion (eg, sedimentation) during a non-negligible, “useful” period of time.
• The average size of particles of the material is smaller than 1 mm and typically in the
1e100 nm range. This results in a huge surface-to-volume ratio of nanocolloids, which
ensures contact of a large portion of the particle atoms with the surrounding liquid or
solution, almost as soluble macromolecules.5
This concept of nanocolloid is close to standard definitions of nanomaterials.6,7 Being
nanomaterials, many nanocolloids show size-dependent singular properties. Note that a
distribution of particle sizesdeven if very narrowdalways needs to be considered,
because it is inherent in nanocolloid fabrication processes.
From the conditions above, particles in a nanocolloid come always together with the fluid
in which they are dispersed, and therefore the properties of the whole product depend on
both the particles and the fluid. Moreover, in most cases an interfacial layer covering the
Nanocolloids. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801578-0.00001-1
Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 Chapter 1
particles must be considered, not only as an essential component to provide stability but
also for its effect on nanocolloids’ properties. This interfacial layer can be constituted by
adsorbed ions or by molecules designated as stabilizers, capping and surface ligands, or
passivating agents.
Another relevant factor mentioned in the definition presented here is the time scale.
Although there are thermodynamically stable, equilibrium colloids, in most cases the
existence of the colloidal states relies strongly on metastable, kinetically controlled
mechanisms.
1.2 Nanocolloids As Dynamic Systems

Nanoparticles in a nanocolloid experience Brownian motion, that is, they move
spontaneously and randomly in the dispersing medium. Such a movement is associated to
a kinetic energy hEk i:
1 2 3
hEk i ¼ mv ¼ kB T [1.1]
2 2
where kB is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. This expression tells us that
Brownian motion, or in turn diffusion, is a thermal transport mechanism not only for the
particles but also for the molecules inthe medium. Diffusion is a stochastic process, in
which the mean square displacement r 2 of diffusing particles during time t can be
expressed as
2
r ¼ 6Dt [1.2]
where D is the diffusion coefficient. The free diffusion coefficient of a single,
noninteracting particle in a liquid is given by the Einstein equation:
kB T
D¼ [1.3]
f
where f is the friction coefficient.
Diffusion can be translational or rotational. For translational diffusion of a sphere with

radius Rh in a liquid of viscosity h, f ¼ 6phRh; then the translational diffusion coefficient
is given by
kB T
Dt ¼ [1.4]
6phRh
Rh is also known as the hydrodynamic radius. For rotation diffusion, f ¼ 8phR3h , so that
the rotational diffusion coefficient can be expressed as
kB T
Dr ¼ [1.5]
8phR3h
Nanocolloids: Some Basic Concepts and Principles 3
One implication of diffusion is that, as the particles randomly move, they tend to approach
each other and eventually collide. Considering a sphere with radius R diffusing in a
dispersion with a number density of particles r, the collision time would be
1
tc ¼ [1.6]
rDR
The time scale tc is one factor determining flocculation kinetics, with flocculation defined
(according to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) as “a process of
contact and adhesion whereby the particles of a dispersion form larger-size clusters.”
Other factors determining flocculation are related to interparticle interactions, which are
described in the next section.
1.3 There Are Different Kinds of Interactions in Nanocolloids

Nanocolloids can be lyophobic (solvent-hating) or lyophilic (solvent-loving) depending on
their affinity toward the dispersing medium, that is, the liquid solvent. This discussion is
centered on lyophobic colloids because they are the main subject of subsequent chapters in
this book.
The surface free energy of a lyophobic colloidal system is proportional to the specific
surface area per unit volume, S. For spherical particles, S ¼ 3/R, meaning that the formation
of small particles with a very large surface area implies a large energy penalty. The natural
tendency, then, would be to reduce the free energy of the system by decreasing S. That is,
the system should spontaneously evolve from a dispersed state toward phase separation into
two bulk phases; lyophobic colloids are then thermodynamically unstable. That said, it is
possible to kinetically stabilize lyophobic colloids to obtain metastable systems along a
certain time scale that can actually be very large.
The evolution toward phase separation can proceed through various mechanisms of
aggregation. For solid particles, flocculation is the main class of aggregation. The
occurrence of aggregation depends on the net effect of interactions among particles, and
accordingly, there is an associated energy barrier for kinetic stability against flocculation.
For nanoparticles of w20 nm in water, gravitational potential is three orders of magnitude
smaller than the thermal energy inducing Brownian motion; viscous forces are two orders
of magnitude smaller. In other words, both viscous and gravitational forces are negligible
in the nanocolloidal domain. On the other hand, electrostatic and interparticle attractive
forces are 10 times larger than the thermal energy; therefore they are both fundamental in
determining nanoparticle interactions and the resulting aggregation.8
The following sections describe in more detail the types of interactions present in colloid
systems and provide formulae for their estimation. For complete derivation of equations,
4 Chapter 1
readers may refer to the cited literature. By convention, attractive interactions are defined
as negative and repulsive interactions are defined as positive. The interactions are
expressed in terms of an interactions potential U:
Z h
U¼ Fdh [1.7]
o
where F is the interaction force and h is the distance between particles.
Multiparticle interactions are also responsible for the emergence of collective properties
that are not present in individual nanoparticles.
1.3.1 Van der Waals Interactions
Van der Waals forces are originated by permanent or induced dipoles. In most cases these
forces are attractive between identical materials, but they can be repulsive between
dissimilar materials in a third (usually liquid) medium. Uncoated nanoparticles of metals,
metal oxides, ceramic materials, and chalcogenides experience strong van der Waals forces
and tend to aggregate when in inert nonpolar (eg, hydrocarbon) liquids.9
The van der Waals interaction potential (UVdW) between two particles (see Fig. 1.1) is
commonly calculated using the Hamaker theory10 simplified by the Derjaguin
approximation (DA):11
" #
A 2R1 R2 2R1 R2 c2 ðR1 þ R2 Þ2
UVdW ¼ þ þ ln [1.8]
6 c2 ðR1 þ R2 Þ2 c2 ðR1 R2 Þ2 c2 ðR1 R2 Þ2
where c ¼ R1 þ R2 þ h and is the center-to-center distance, h is the distance of separation
(see Fig. 1.1), and A is the Hamaker constant.
Figure 1.1
Scheme of two interacting spherical particles.
For R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R,
" !#
A 2R2 2R2 4R2
UVdW ¼ þ þ ln 1 [1.9]
6 h2 þ 4Rh ðh þ 2RÞ2 ðh þ 2RÞ2
For h « R,
RA
UVdW ¼ [1.10]
12h
Eq. [1.10] indicates that the van der Waals potential increases with the particle size and
with the Hamaker constant A (neglecting size effects on A).
The Hamaker constant can be estimated as
1 1 2
A ¼ A21 A22 [1.11]
where A1 and A2 are the Hamaker constants of the particle and medium, respectively,
across a vacuum. When the separation between colloidal particles exceeds the
characteristic wavelength of radiation emitted as a result of dipolar transitions12 (distances
larger than w5 nm), the effects of retardation on the Hamaker constant must be
considered.13
Particles with a high Hamaker constant have a greater tendency to aggregate compared
with particles with a low Hamaker constant for the same solvent and surface chemistry.14
Values of the Hamaker constant for selected materials are shown in Table 1.1.
The Hamaker constant has so far been considered as a morphology- and size-independent
constant that depends only on the dielectric properties and refractive index of the
Table 1.1: Hamaker constants of representative materials

across a vacuum (air).9,15e17
Material Ai 3 1020 ( J)
Gold 45
Silver 15e40
Magnetite (Fe3O4) 21
Poly(styrene) 6.6
Poly(methylmethacrylate) 7.1
Fused silica 6.6
Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) 3.8
Acetone 4.1
Cyclohexane 5.2
Hexane 4.1
Ethanol 4.2
Water 3.7
6 Chapter 1
constituent materials.18 The Hamaker constant is usually calculated using the Lifshitz
theory,19 where the particles are treated as a continuum, neglecting their atomic structure.
The particle size effect leads to modification of the dielectric permittivity of the
nanoparticles, so other formulations have been proposed to predict van der Waals forces.20
The Hamaker constant is intrinsically connected to the absorption properties of the
interacting nanoparticles, and thus it depends on their size and morphology.18 As can be
seen in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3A, the Hamaker constant is higher for a material in a nano-sized
state compared with the bulk. Fig. 1.3B shows that the van der Waals attractive potential is
negative and rapidly increases in magnitude as the separation distance (h) decreases.
Taking gold nanoparticles as an example, the effect of a size-dependent Hamaker constant
is that larger attractive interactions between smaller nanoparticles persist at longer
separation distances compared with those between nanoparticles with radii larger than
50 nm.21
Van der Waals interaction forces are also affected by changes in shape; the attraction
between anisotropic particles such as plates, rectangular rods, and cylinders is larger than
for spherical particles of equal volume because a larger number of atoms are in close
proximity. The attraction between spheres, rods (and cylinders), and platelets varies as
h1, h2, and h3, respectively. The effect of shape on the magnitude of the van der
Waals interaction energies is illustrated in Table 1.2.22
25
20
A x 1019 (J)
15
Ag-vacuum
10
Ag-water
0
1 10 100
R (nm)
Figure 1.2
Calculated Hamaker constant values for silver (Ag) nanoparticles in a vacuum and water as a
function of the particle radius. The dashed lines indicate values calculated for the bulk material
(neglecting size effects). Data from Pinchuk, A.O. Size-dependent hamaker constant for silver
nanoparticles. J. Phys. Chem. C 2012, 116 (37), 20099e20120. Copyright 2012 American Chemical
Society
(A)
4.0
Hamaker Constant
3.5
(× 10-19 J)
3.0
2.5
2.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Radius (nm)
(B) Separation distance (nm)

0 1 2 3 4
0
–5
UvdW (/kBT)
–10
–15
–20
Figure 1.3
(A) Variation of the Hamaker constant as a function of the nanoparticle radius. Each data point
represents a calculated Hamaker constant, and the line is meant to guide the eye. The dashed red
(gray in print versions) line represents the size-independent Hamaker constant. (B) Variations in the
van der Waals interaction potential as a function of separation distance for gold nanoparticles
with radii of 2.5 nm (blue (dark gray in print versions) dotted line; A ¼ 4.0 1019 J), 6.5 nm
(red (gray in print versions) dashed line; A ¼ 3.7 1019 J), and 50 nm (solid black line;
A ¼ 2.8 1019 J). Adapted with permission from Wijenayaka, L.A.; Ivanov, M.R.; Cheatum, C.M.;
Haes, A.J. Improved parametrization for extended Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek predictions of
functionalized gold nanosphere stability. J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119, 10064e10075. Copyright 2015
American Chemical Society.
1.3.2 Electrostatic Interaction
Particles in water or any liquid with a high dielectric constant are usually charged,
producing long-range repulsive forces. Charging of a surface in a liquid can be induced in
a variety of ways: by the ionization or dissociation of groups, such as carboxylic acid or
8 Chapter 1
Table 1.2: Van der Waals interaction energies for various particle shapes and configurations
derived from Hamaker summations between two particles.a
Geometry Potential UVdW Range
A
Plate/plate (semi-infinite) 2
Area
12ph
A 1 2 1
Plate/plate (finite thickness, d) þ Area
12ph2 d 2 ðd þ hÞ2 ðd þ 2hÞ2
A a1 a2
Cylinder/cylinder (side-to-side) pffiffiffi Length a1, a2 [ h
12 2h 3=2 a 1 þ a2
1
Cylinder/cylinder (side-to-side) f Length a1, a2 h
h5
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A a1 a2
Cylinder/cylinder (crossed) a1, a2 [ h
6h !
Aa h h h
Plate/sphere 1þ þ ln a[h
6h 2a þ h a 2a þ h
1
Plate/sphere f 3 ah
h
a
In these equations, A is the Hamaker constant, h is the separation distance between the particle surfaces, and a is the
characteristic radius specific to the problem.
Adapted with permission from Walker, D.A.; Kowalczyk, B.; de la Cruz, M.O.; Grzybowski, B.A. Electrostatics at the nanoscale.
Nanoscale 2011, 3 (4), 1316. Copyright 2011 Royal Society of Chemistry.
sulfate half-ester groups; by the adsorption or binding of ions from the solution onto the
surface (this includes the adsorption of anionic or cationic surfactants); and by the
presence of lattice defects in the disperse phase, such as in clays.
According to the Gouy-Stern-Chapman picture23e25 (Fig. 1.4), particles immersed in a
liquid are surrounded by an electric double layer (EDL). One section of this double layer
is formed by charges on the surface of the particles. The other section is constituted by the
excess of oppositely charged ions in the solution. As seen in Fig. 1.4, the surface potential
attracts counterions toward the surface, which is opposed by thermal agitation.26 The
electric charge carried by the adsorbed layer decreases gradually (together with the
associated potential) when moving from the particle’s surface into the bulk medium.
When two like-charged particles approach each other, their electrical double layers start to
overlap, resulting in a repulsive force that opposes further approach. The repulsive
potential energy can be considered to arise from the work that must be done to remove the
counterions from between the particles so that the particles can approach one another.
The electrostatic force between similarly charged particles (in liquids, usually water) is
repulsive. However, externally applied electric fields can give rise to dipole-orienting
ψo
- stagnant water
-
-+
-+
mobile water
solid
- + - +
- +
-
- + +
+ - +
ζ ≈ ψd
- + + + +
- -
Diffuse part of x
σo σi double layer
σek ≈ σd
Figure 1.4
Gouy-Stern-Chapman picture of the electrical double layer (DL). s and j denote the surface
charge potential and the surface electrostatic potential, respectively, whereas z is the zeta
potential. Adapted from Lyklema, J. Joint development of insight into colloid stability and surface conduction.
Colloid Surf. A 2014, 440, 161e169, with permission from Elsevier.
effects similar to those from magnetic fields, with the added feature that some
nanoparticles can become mobile as they also are forced to carry charges with them; that
is, a current now passes through the nanoparticle suspension.9
The electrostatic potential can be precisely calculated by integrating the
Poisson-Boltzmann (PB) equation (mean field formalism) using appropriate boundary
conditions:
V2 j ¼ k2 sinhðjÞ [1.12]
where k is the Debye-Hückel parameter (inverse of the Debye length), which can be
estimated as
P !1
n i ðzi eÞ2
2
k¼ [1.13]
εkB T
where ε is the absolute dielectric constant of the suspending medium, zi is the valency
of ions, e is the charge of an electron, and n is the number density of ion species
(ie, electrolyte) in the bulk. At 25 C in an aqueous medium and for a 1:1 electrolyte,
10 Chapter 1
(A) (C) (E) (G)
(B) (D) (F) (H)
Figure 1.5
Types of boundary conditions applied to the Poisson-Boltzmann equation for spherical
nanoparticles. There is a constant charge at low (A) and (B) high ion concentrations around the
nanoparticles. (C, D) The constant potential is valid only for “bare” nanoparticles. (E, F) Both
potential and charge are functions of ion concentration surrounding the particle. The graphs
show potential profiles using different boundary conditions at low (G) and high ion
concentrations (H) for a nanoparticle with a radius of 5 nm. r is the distance from the center of
the particle. Reproduced with permission from Walker, D.A.; Kowalczyk, B.; de la Cruz, M.O.; Grzybowski,
B.A. Electrostatics at the nanoscale. Nanoscale 2011, 3 (4), 1316. Copyright 2011 Royal Society
of Chemistry.
1
k z 3.3 C ½
0 (C0 in moles per liter, k in nm ), j is the dimensionless potential,
j ¼ ze4=kT, with 4 being the electrostatic potential. To solve Eq. [1.12], boundary
conditions need to be set; they are illustrated in Fig. 1.5.
Because of the nonlinearity introduced by the sinh term in Eq. [1.12], it is difficult to
integrate the PB equation analytically, and therefore numerical solutions (eg, by finite
element analysis) are needed. The potentials from multiple charged nanoparticles cannot
be superimposed, which means that the PB equation must be solved for every change of
systemic variables. These difficulties, however, can be circumvented by using a linearized
form:
V2 j ¼ k2 j [1.14]
This expansion is valid for j < 1, or 4 25 mV at room temperature. The major benefits
of this linearization are that the equation can be integrated analytically and that solutions
can be superimposed, allowing interaction potentials to be derived for many combinations
of differently shaped nano-objects. On the other hand, it should be emphasized that the
linearized PB equation cannot be used to model strongly charged systems, mainly because
in such cases the ions around the nanoparticles cannot be treated as noninteracting, and
their correlations should be taken into account.
When the volume fraction f of colloidal particles is not negligible, the equation for k is
corrected as
3s f
e2 z2 2no þ eRs
k¼ [1.15]
εkB T 1 f
where ss is the colloidal particle surface charge density and no is the concentration of
counterions in solution (added electrolyte).
To actually calculate the electrostatic interaction potential, appropriate approximations
are needed. The so-called Derjaguin approximation (DA) and linear-superposition
approximation (LSA) are the most useful and popular. In the DA, the interacting curved
particles are approximated as sets of infinitesimal parallel plates separated by a certain
distance, as expressed by
Z Z N
UðXÞ ¼ EðhÞdA z f ð½R1 ; ½R2 Þ EðhÞdh [1.16]
A D
where X is the distance of closest approach between the two curved surfaces, E(h) is the
interaction energy per unit area between two infinite flat plates separated by a distance h,
and dA is the differential area of the surfaces facing each other. R1 and R2 represent the sets
of the two principal radii of curvature of surfaces 1 and 2, respectively, at a distance X.
Accordingly, the electrostatic interaction potential (UE) between two particles, as depicted
in Fig. 1.1, can be expressed as
128pR1 R2 nkB T
UE ¼ g g expðkhÞ [1.17]
ðR1 þ R2 Þk2 1 2
This equation strictly holds for k R < 5. g is the reduced surface potential, defined as
ze4o
g ¼ tanh [1.18]
4kB T
where 4o is the surface potential.
For R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R,
64pRnkB T 2
UE ¼ g expðkhÞ [1.19]
k2
12 Chapter 1
which for small 4o (<25 mV) can be written as

4pεR2 42o
UE ¼ expðkhÞ [1.20]
2R þ h
Or, for R » h,
UE ¼ 2pεR42o expð khÞ [1.21]

For interaction between spherical particles of the same size at a constant charge, the
electrostatic interaction using the DA gives
UE ¼ 2pεR42o lnð1 expðkhÞÞ for kR » 1 [1.22]

and for constant potential,
UE ¼ 2pεR42o lnð1 þ expðkhÞÞ for kR » 1 [1.23]

The electrostatic interaction is easily tuned by changing the pH, ionic strength, or type of
electrolyte.
DA and LSA have been compared to exact integrations for both the linearized and
nonlinear PB equations for interacting spheres in terms of kR and kh. The DA for the
force between two spheres is generally within 10% of the exact nonlinear PB solution for
small separations and kR > 2, whereas it produces more than 10% error when used for
smaller kR values. To understand these comparisons in terms of actual physical
dimensions and concentrations, note that if two 5-nm-diameter spheres are interacting, the
DA would be valid if the concentration of a symmetric monovalent electrolyte surrounding
them were w60 mM or higher.22 Actually, direct measurements by scanning force
microscopy (SFM) probe showed that the DA failed to model forces at a lower ionic
concentrations (1 mM), where the Debye length was 9.6 nm. This value suggested that
failure of the theory was the result of an invalidation of the DA at long Debye lengths,
where the characteristic length scale for the interaction was larger than the size of the
SFM probe.28 One way to circumvent overpredictions of the DA for small particles and
low electrolyte concentrations is to use the surface element integration (SEI) technique.29
Here, the interaction potential is expressed as
Z Z
n$k
UðXÞ ¼ n$kEðhÞdS ¼ EðhÞ dA [1.24]
S A jn$kj
where n is the outward-unit normal vector on the surface element dS, and k is a unit
vector normal to the flat plate (directed along the positive z-axis). A is a projection of the
actual curved surface of the particle on a plane facing the infinite flat plate. In SEI the
interaction force per unit area acts normal to the particle surface. This is an underlying
assumption in the DA as well.
The SEI predicts forces smaller than the DA for small particles, particularly at low ionic
strengths. Large differences between SEI and DA are attributed to surface curvature
effects.
Although the DA and LSA are good for many types of interparticle interactions, they
become less accurate at small kR and kh, where the EDL thickness, particle size, and
particle separation are all of similar magnitude, which is especially relevant to charged
nanoparticles.
Also, as two particles approach one another, the EDLs around them merge, causing the
ions within the layers to redistribute around the entire particle, as opposed to the local
redistribution that occurs at large kR. When a third particle is introduced into the system,
its interaction causes further adjustment of the EDL not only because of the distances
between the individual particles (pairwise interactions) but also because of contributions
by all three EDLs interacting (three-body interactions). In systems of like-charged
particles, pairwise interactions (ie, particles 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 1 and 3) are all
repulsive; however, recent experimental and theoretical work has shown that three-body
interactions between like-charged particles can be attractive in systems where kR z 1.
The multiparticle nature of such interactions can be taken into account by using a cell
model.30
It should be also indicated that the PB formalism can be applied only when the charges
are separated by distances much greater than the Bjerrum length, which describes the
separation at which the energy of electrostatic interactions between ions is equal to the
thermal energy in the media, kBT. This concept does not hold for the majority of
interacting nanoparticles.31
Table 1.3 contains the expressions to estimate UE for particle shapes different from
spheres derived by applying the DA.
1.3.3 Elastic-Steric Interaction
One common way to stabilize colloidal dispersions against flocculation (driven by strong
attractive van der Waals forces) is by adsorbing or grafting polymer chains onto the
surface of colloidal particles. Under good solvent conditions, the chains extend into the
solution, creating steric repulsion. Provided that the repulsive barrier is located outside
the deep van der Waals attractive minimum and its height exceeds typical thermal energy,
the colloidal particles will not aggregate.32 Clearly, the interaction between polymer chains
can be switched from repulsive to attractive by changing the solvent quality from good to
poor. When two surfaces covered by polymer- or ligand-covered molecules (Fig. 1.6)
approach, the molecules become confined, producing a decrease in entropy that results in a
repulsive entropic force known as steric, or overlap repulsion.13
14 Chapter 1
Table 1.3: Electrostatic interaction energies for various particle shapes and configurations
derived by applying the Derjaguin approximation.a
Boundary
Geometry Potential UE Condition Range

so 1 þ expðkhÞ
2
Plate/plate Constant charge 4o 25 mV
εk sinðkhÞ

Plate/plate εk42o 1 tan h kh2 Constant potential 4o 25 mV

ε 2
40;1 þ 420;2 ð1 cot hðkhÞÞ
2
Plate/plate Constant potential 4o 25 mV
þ 240;1 40;2 cosechðkhÞ
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Z N
2a1 a2 UE; plates
Cylinder/cylinder pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi dx Length Given by UE, plates Any from UE, plates
a1 þ a2 ðx hÞ
(side-to-side) h ka [ 1
a>h
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi R N
Cylinder/cylinder 2p a1 a2 h UE; plates dx Given by UE, plates Any from UE, plates
(crossed) ka [ 1
a>h
pffiffiffiffiffi Z
2paS aC N
Cylinder/sphere pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi UE; plates dx Given by UE, plates Any from UE, plates
aS þ aC h
ka [ 1
a>h
RN
Plate/sphere 2pa h UE; plates dx Given by UE, plates Any from UE, plates
ka [ 1
a>h
a
In these equations, h is the minimum separation distance between the particles’ surfaces, and a is the characteristic radius
specific to the problem (ie, for the sphere/sphere interaction, a1 and a2 correspond to the radius of particle 1 and that of
particle 2, respectively; for the cylinder/sphere interaction, ac and as correspond to the characteristic radius of the cylinder
and of the sphere, respectively).
Adapted with permission from Walker, D.A.; Kowalczyk, B.; de la Cruz, M.O.; Grzybowski, B.A. Electrostatics at the nanoscale.
Nanoscale 2011, 3 (4), 1316. Copyright 2011 Royal Society of Chemistry.
The extent of surface coverage by the polymer or ligand and the quality of the solvent
determine the magnitude of the steric repulsion force between particles. This interaction
also depends on whether the polymer is just physically adsorbed (ie, adsorption is a
reversible process) or is covalently grafted onto the surface.13
The steric repulsion potential (US) can be estimated according to33:
US ¼ 0 for L h [1.25]
L
R
Figure 1.6
Scheme of two interacting spherical particles with polymer molecules attached to the surface.
and
2 0 !2 1 ! 3
2pRNA 2 h h 3 Lh A 6ln 3 L þ 3 1 h 5
h
US ¼ kB T L fp r 4 ln@
Mw L L 2 2 L
for h < L
[1.26]
where Mw and r are the molecular weight and density of the ligand, respectively, L is the
thickness of a monolayer of the ligand and NA is the Avogadro number.
1.3.4 Hydrophobic Interaction (Lewis Acid-Base)
Alteration of the structure of water around interfaces and solutes gives rise to
intermolecular interactions, commonly known as hydrophobic interactions. For small
solutes, hydrophobic interaction has been attributed to the reduction in entropy of liquid
water upon solubilization of nonpolar molecules caused by the formation of a rigid ice-like
cage by the water molecules around the solutes, although this is still a matter of debate.
The orientation of water molecules in contact with a hydrophobic molecule is entropically
unfavorable; therefore two such molecules tend to come together simply by attracting each
other. As a result, the entropically unfavored water molecules are expelled into the bulk,
and the total free energy of the system is reduced accordingly. Similar effects occur
between two hydrophobic surfaces in water. Water molecules confined in a gap between
two such surfaces thus would be unable to form clusters larger than a certain size. For an
16 Chapter 1
extremely narrow gap, this could be a serious limitation and result in an increased free
energy of the water in comparison with that in bulk. In other words, this would create an
attractive force between hydrophobic surfaces as a consequence of water molecules
migrating from the gap to the bulk water, where there are unrestricted hydrogen-bonding
opportunities and a lower free energy.
A transition from a structured hydration shell to a “dry” disordered shell with less water
density takes place when the solute reaches a size of w1 nm.34 The interface of this dry
disordered shell is formed by water molecules having “dangling” eOH groups with
broken hydrogen bonds,35 and enthalpy, rather than entropy, dominates the free energy of
solvation.
The expression for the hydrophobic interaction potential using the DA is36
ho h
UH; DA ¼ pRlDGAB
o exp [1.27]
l
where l is the decay length for acidebase interactions, ho is the minimum equilibrium
separation distance, and DGABo is the free energy of the acidebase interaction between
particles separated by a distance ho. In the case of hydration, l depends on the solvent as
well as the surface charge/ion concentration of the media. For water it is often taken as
1 nm, although larger values have been reported.37e40
An expression for the hydrophobic potential using SEI was recently derived41:

l l2 4R 2R l l2
UH; SEI ¼ 1 þ 2 exp 1 þ þ 2 expð4R=lÞ UH; DA [1.28]
R 2R 3l l R 2R
The hydrophobic interaction forceeversusedistance profiles calculated by DA and SEI are
shown in Fig. 1.7. The deviation between DA and SEI calculations is larger for smaller
particles and large l values.
Because electrostatic interactions can alter the organization of water at the interfaces,
hydrophobic interactions become intrinsically dependent on the charge state of the
interface and on the presence of ions in its vicinity. These interactions are therefore
intertwined with electrostatic forces, and the hydrophobic interaction potential is
nonadditive with the electrostatic and van der Waals potentials.
1.3.5 Solvation or Hydration Interaction
Solvation, structural, or (in water) hydration forces arise between two particles or surfaces
if the solvent or water molecules become ordered by the effect of the surfaces. When such
ordering occurs, continuum theories of van der Waals and EDL forces break down, and the
monotonic forces they predict are replaced or accompanied by an exponentially decaying
(A) (B)
h/R h/R
(C) (D)
h/R h/R
Figure 1.7
Normalized force-versus-distance profiles for sphereesphere acidebase interactions calculated by
DA (circles) and SEI equations (dashed lines). Adapted with permission from Wood, A.; Rehmann, L.
Geometric effects on non-DLVO forces: relevance for nanosystems. Langmuir, 2014, 30, 4623e4632.
Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.
oscillatory force as a function of distance, with a periodicity equal to the size of the
confined liquid molecules, molecular aggregates (micelles), or nanoparticles. The final,
deep energy minimum at contact is often referred to as the “depletion force” because at
this point all the intervening molecules or micelles have been depleted from between the
two surfaces.9
For many liquids the density profile normal to a solid surface oscillates around the bulk
density with a periodicity of molecular diameter in a narrow region near the interface.
This region typically extends over several molecular diameters. Within this range, the
molecules are supposed to be ordered in layers.
18 Chapter 1
0.3
R = 5 nm
0.2
0.1
Nomalized Force
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
l /R l/R
Figure 1.8
Normalized force versus distance calculated using DA (left) and deviation of SEI from DA (right)
for sphereesphere solvation force. Adapted with permission from Wood, A.; Rehmann, L. Geometric
effects on non-DLVO forces: Relevance for Nanosystems. Langmuir, 2014, 30, 4623e4632. Copyright
2014 American Chemical Society.
Solvation forces depend both on the chemical and physical properties of the surfaces being
considered, such as the wettability, crystal structure, surface morphology, and rigidity, and
on the properties of the intervening medium.
The DA expressions for the solvation potential between two spheres is41
pd2 R 2pl
Usolvation ¼ cos þ 2 tan1 2p e1=d [1.29]
1 þ 4p2 d
with the corresponding force being
pdR 2pl
Fsolvation ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos þ tan1 2p e1=d [1.30]
1 þ 4p 2 d
where d is the characteristic molecular diameter of the characteristic scale of interaction
and l is the distance. The expression derived using SEI is more complex and can be found
in Ref. 41.
Fig. 1.8 shows the solvation force profiles calculated using DA and SEI. As can be
observed, DA and SEI calculations give very similar results.
1.3.6 Osmotic Repulsion
An overlap of the polymer brushes (ligands) of two approaching colloids results in a local
increase in the osmotic pressure and is due to the increase in the polymer concentration in
the overlap region and hence a repulsion between the particles (see Fig. 1.9).
Solvent
UOS
Figure 1.9
Scheme of two interacting spherical particles with polymer molecules attached to the surface.
The expressions for interaction potential resulting from osmotic repulsion are33,42
UOS ¼ 0 for 2L h [1.31]
2
4pRNA 2 1 h
UOS ¼ kB T fp c L for L h 2L [1.32]
V 2 2
and
4pRNA 2 1 h 1 h
UOS ¼ kB T fp c L2 ln for h < L [1.33]
V 2 2L 4 L
where V is the molar volume, fp is the volume fraction of the ligand, c is the
Flory-Huggins parameter of the ligand, and L is the thickness of a monolayer of the
ligand.
1.3.7 Depletion Interaction
Solvated colloids experience effective mutual attraction when the solution contains solutes
(eg, nonadsorbing polymers) that are depleted from the interface. The depletion potential
can be expressed as43,44
2
h 2LD h
UD ¼ 2pRP LD 1þ þ [1.34]
2 3R 6R
where P is the osmotic pressure and LD is the depletion layer thickness (roughly twice the
radius of gyration).
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Title: La faune des plateaux
Author: Tristan Bernard
Release date: November 22, 2023 [eBook #72205]
Language: French
Original publication: Paris: Flammarion, 1923
Credits: Laurent Vogel (This file was produced from images

generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale de
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LA FAUNE

DES PLATEAUX ***
TRISTAN BERNARD
La faune des plateaux
PARIS
ERNEST FLAMMARION, EDITEUR
20, RUE RACINE, 20
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pays.
Il a été tiré de cet ouvrage :
quinze exemplaires sur papier de Hollande
numérotés de 1 à 15
et vingt exemplaires sur papier vergé pur fil Lafuma

numérotés de 16 à 35
DU MÊME AUTEUR
Chez le même éditeur :
CORINNE ET CORENTIN, roman.

LE JEU DE MASSACRE.
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Chez d’autres éditeurs :
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Essais et nouvelles :
AMANTS ET VOLEURS.
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SUR LES GRANDS CHEMINS.
SOUVENIRS ÉPARS D’UN ANCIEN CAVALIER.
THÉATRE COMPLET (t. I, II et III parus).
Pièces éditées séparément :
LE FARDEAU DE LA LIBERTÉ.
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ALLEZ, MESSIEURS.
L’ANGLAIS TEL QU’ON LE PARLE.
LE NÉGOCIANT DE BESANÇON.
JE VAIS M’EN ALLER.
LES COTEAUX DU MÉDOC.
LE VRAI COURAGE.
LE CAMBRIOLEUR.
UNE AIMABLE LINGÈRE.
LE CAPTIF.
SILVÉRIE OU LES FONDS HOLLANDAIS (avec Alphonse Allais).
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Copyright 1923, by Ernest Flammarion.
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La générale n’aura lieu que le mois prochain, et ce n’est pas

encore le moment du coup de feu. Il n’y a donc personne sur le
plateau à une heure vingt, bien que la répétition soit à une heure
pour le quart…
Si, tout de même, il y a quelqu’un, qui est là depuis dix minutes.
C’est l’auteur, qui s’abrite dans l’ombre. Il ne veut pas avoir l’air
d’être arrivé trop tôt. Il n’ose pas s’emporter contre les retardataires.
Il masque son énervement sous une politesse douloureuse.
Enfin, voici un accessoiriste. L’auteur a quelque chose à lui dire.
Il a des observations prêtes pour tout le monde…
— Vous êtes-vous procuré le calepin pour le deux ?… Il faut que
Saint-Gaston joue avec dès maintenant, afin de l’avoir bien dans la
main…
Mais déjà il s’est précipité vers une vieille personne qui semble
aveugle et qui tâtonne pour trouver sa chaise. C’est la souffleuse,
une femme distinguée, dont on aimerait avoir l’avis sur les pièces
qu’elle souffle. Or, elle n’en parle jamais… (Peut-être les chefs-
d’œuvre perdent-ils leur saveur à être ainsi émiettés mot par mot ?)
— Madame, lui dit l’auteur, pensez bien à envoyer à Jenny le
« Bien joué, Alfred ! » du premier acte. Hier, elle l’a attendu. Et ça
loupe le mouvement…
… Ah ! le chef machiniste !
… Dites donc, Grosguillaume, le décor du deux que vous nous
avez présenté hier, est-ce qu’il n’est pas un peu dur à équiper ?
Vous savez qu’il me faut des entr’actes de dix minutes, pas plus.
Autrement tout fiche le camp !
Mais voici qu’Il apparaît sur le plateau, Lui, le Directeur, le
Patron, le Capitaine, le Maître avant Dieu…
L’auteur lui parle de la date. Si le directeur est pressé et veut
passer le plus tôt possible, l’auteur dit en gémissant que la pièce est
difficile et qu’il faut avoir le texte bien dans la bouche une bonne
semaine avant la première… Si le directeur a le temps d’attendre et
déclare qu’il ne passera pas avant trois semaines, c’est à l’auteur
d’être impatient, pour mille raisons : il faudrait passer pour le Salon
de l’Aéro… la pièce ne doit pas être répétée trop longtemps, afin que
les interprètes ne s’en fatiguent pas et gardent leur fraîcheur
d’impression…
Ce n’est pas que l’auteur ait l’esprit de contradiction… Mais il est
inquiet… Il suffit qu’on l’engage dans un parti très net pour qu’il en
craigne les conséquences. Alors il fait contrepoids de toutes ses
forces en faveur du parti contraire, jusqu’au moment où l’on se range
à son avis : il n’en faut pas plus pour le faire passer dans l’autre
camp.
Après avoir conseillé au jeune premier, à la répétition de la veille,
d’insister sur un sourire ironique, il se dit tout à coup que cette
indication peut être dangereuse et il essaie maintenant de ramener
son interprète à plus de naïveté… Hier, il a dit à l’ingénue qu’elle
pleurait trop. Maintenant, il craint qu’elle ne soit un peu sèche.
Le secrétaire du théâtre traverse le fond de la scène. Ce n’est
pas encore le moment de faire le service de générale. Mais l’auteur
lui rappelle pour la septième fois qu’il lui faudra deux avant-scènes…
Et puis cette recommandation qu’il oubliait pour les notes de
publicité…
Tout ce qu’il fait là, ce n’est pas pour embêter le monde. Mais il a
beaucoup de soucis et veut les faire partager à son prochain. Et
puis, vraiment, on est à la veille d’un grand événement qui doit
révolutionner le globe, la première de son œuvre ! Il ne peut
supporter que l’on soit calme… Car s’il est doux de ne pas s’en faire
quand tout s’agite autour de vous, il est révoltant de voir des gens
qui ne s’en font pas, autour de votre âme agitée…
Le Maître
C’est un auteur célèbre.

On l’appelle maître et il mérite magnifiquement ce titre, car il est
désormais incapable de s’instruire.
Depuis trente ans, ses qualités sont toujours les mêmes et de
plus en plus perfectionnées et pures… mais il n’a plus de défauts…
Il ne commet, hélas ! plus d’erreurs.
Quand il commence une pièce, il sait où il va. Presque tous les
spectateurs le savent aussi.
Le vieux Louis XIV disait : « On n’est plus heureux à notre âge. »
Le secours de la vénérable expérience a remplacé la collaboration
du jeune Hasard. Jadis, un poète eût comparé notre dramaturge à
une auto vagabonde, trop rapide, d’allure trop saccadée, aux freins
insuffisants et qui capotait parfois dans les fossés.
Maintenant le même poète le regarderait comme un tramway
somptueux qui accomplit implacablement son itinéraire sur des rails
solides.
Le maître n’écrirait plus un ouvrage dont il ne serait pas
entièrement satisfait. Il est sûr de ce qu’il écrit. L’équilibre de son
œuvre lui donne une satisfaction intérieure qui peut-être n’est pas
fatalement partagée par les personnes du dehors.
Sur le plateau, il est entouré d’une admiration universelle, un peu
goguenarde chez le petit personnel qui le regarde comme un
personnage surnaturel, mais légèrement infirme et gâteux.
Les jeunes femmes du théâtre le considèrent avec respect. Il lui
est difficile de frayer avec elles comme il en a sans doute le secret
désir… Comment descendrait-il de son pavois ?
Il n’a pas, comme jadis Jupiter, la ressource de l’incognito et ne
peut adopter, pour rassurer ses partenaires, le dandysme onduleux
du cygne ou la franche simplicité du taureau campagnard.
Quand il a lu sa pièce aux artistes, ils l’ont écoutée en silence et
des applaudissements résolus ont salué la fin de chaque acte ; c’est
qu’on est tranquille et que le jugement de chacun est à l’abri ; on est
certain que la pièce est belle, étant signée de lui.
Puis, les répétitions se prolongent. A force de vivre avec le chef-
d’œuvre monstrueux, on s’est familiarisé et la terreur admirative
décroît à vue d’œil.
Le jour de la générale, il peut arriver que le public médusé
acclame la pièce du bon maître. Alors tout le personnel du théâtre
retrouvera son admiration. Ou bien la salle sera consternée. Alors on
décidera que le maître est en déclin.
Dans ce cas, il aura toujours la ressource de se dire que la
générale rend des jugements de première instance et que l’appel
n’interviendra que des années après.
Il pourrait se dire cela aussi, et peut-être plus justement, s’il
obtient un triomphe, car l’acclamation, en présence d’une œuvre
nouvelle, est encore plus sujette à caution que le dénigrement. Mais,
dans ce cas, comment ne pas encaisser le jugement et ne pas
l’estimer définitif ?
Le Criminel
— Vous comprenez, monsieur l’inspecteur, si je vous ai demandé

au commissariat, c’est que je ne veux pas être exposée à des
ennuis. Il y a deux ans, l’on m’a fait des reproches qui m’ont joliment
tourmentée, la fois que je n’ai pas averti pour l’assassin de la rue
Pigalle, qui était venu ici dans la maison, comme on l’a su après par
l’enquête. Il avait des manières qui pouvaient donner la suspicion, je
le veux bien, mais de là à se figurer ce qu’il était !… Celui
d’aujourd’hui est assurément bien plus bizarre… J’ai lu encore ce
matin, sur le journal, un forfait de vol dans une bijouterie… Ça m’a
saisie, quand la personne qu’est avec lui est sortie un instant de la
chambre pour me raconter ce qu’elle avait été à même de
remarquer…
— C’est après déjeuner qu’il est venu ?
— Un peu avant trois heures. Il y a une heure de cela… Il a
demandé une de ces dames sans trop choisir, et commandé du
champagne… Il paraît qu’il ne tient pas en place dans la chambre,
parlant, parlant, sans finir ses phrases, posant des questions et
n’écoutant pas les réponses. « Y a-t-il longtemps que t’es ici ? » ou
bien : « Raconte-moi comment t’as commencé ? » Tout ça pour
causer, comme pour s’étourdir… Mais on voit bien que ça ne lui
change pas les idées…
L’inspecteur dit qu’il n’y avait pas de présomptions suffisantes
pour arrêter un homme, mais qu’on pouvait toujours le prendre en
filature. Il avait d’ailleurs amené un camarade, qui l’attendait en bas.
Lui-même descendit aussi, et alla flâner sur le trottoir. On convint
d’un signal de rideau à une fenêtre, quand le type descendrait à son
tour.
Vers cinq heures moins le quart, le type sortit. C’était un homme
assez élégant, entre deux âges, ni grand ni petit. Il ne donnait pas
de signes d’agitation. Mais les hommes de police ne s’y trompèrent
pas : son allure était saccadée, et il serrait les dents. Il marcha
pendant dix minutes, assez vite, puis, arrivé à un coin de rue, il
s’arrêta, parut hésiter, s’engagea dans une petite ruelle, bordée de
vieilles et sordides maisons. Les inspecteurs ne le suivirent pas tout
de suite, pour ne pas se faire repérer… Mais, à trois maisons de là,
l’individu entra dans une allée.
Au-dessus de la porte, un écriteau : Entrée des artistes. Les
inspecteurs montèrent carrément l’escalier. Le palier était envahi par
des gens. Le type était au milieu de cette foule. On l’entourait, on lui
pressait les mains, on l’embrassait…
— Mon vieux, tu n’as jamais rien fait d’aussi beau. — Quelle
conception et quelle exécution ! — C’est la plus belle générale
depuis la guerre ! Ça se jouera deux ans ! — Mais qu’est-ce que tu
fichais pendant les entr’actes ? On t’a cherché partout…
Le Secrétaire Général
Le secrétaire général apparaît sur le plateau pendant la

répétition, pour dire un mot au directeur. Si celui-ci est occupé à
régler une scène, il attend que le patron ait fini et semble suivre
pendant quelques instants le travail… C’est encore un sujet de
déception pour l’auteur, car il est rare que cet auditeur lui dise :
« Ah ! que c’est beau ! » Évidemment aussi, il est difficile d’apprécier
une pièce sur quelques répliques… Mais l’auteur comprend mal
qu’on puisse approcher de son chef-d’œuvre sans en être ébloui. Sa
pièce est une pièce de drap d’or, dont chaque échantillon doit
susciter une admiration impossible à taire.
Au fond, bien que le secrétaire général soit un homme de lettres,
les pièces jouées sur ce théâtre ne l’intéressent pas. Il dit bien à
l’auteur : « Je n’ai pu assister à la lecture, mais je vous applaudirai à
la générale. » Ce n’est pas vrai. Il sera encore au contrôle une demi-
heure après le lever du rideau, d’abord parce que c’est dans ses
attributions et ensuite parce qu’il aime mieux ça.
Quelques jours avant le grand jour, il a déclaré qu’il était accablé
de demandes de places et que le théâtre était trop petit de moitié.
« Ah ! vous pouvez dire que votre pièce est attendue ! », telle est la
phrase qu’il sert invariablement à tous les auteurs, cependant que
ceux-ci se lamentent parce que les annonces ont été mal faites et
que le grand événement leur semble rester inaperçu… Tout à l’heure
encore, en venant à pied au théâtre, l’auteur a croisé des passants
uniquement occupés de leurs affaires, et des boutiquiers qui
causaient sur le pas de leur porte de toute autre chose que du fait
historique en préparation.
Le secrétaire a remis à l’auteur un paquet considérable pour son
service de première et de générale… L’auteur dit à peine merci, car
il sait ce que contient cet énorme pli : quelques rares fauteuils
d’orchestre, des balcons de troisième rang de côté, pour des
personnes presbytes qui n’ont pas peur du torticolis, et des places
de foyer et de troisième galerie pour ceux des amis d’enfance,
fournisseurs et petits créanciers qui ne sont pas sujets au vertige.
L’auteur aborde le secrétaire dans son bureau et, selon son
tempérament, hurle ou gémit… Le secrétaire, pour toute réponse, lui
montre la feuille de générale toute noircie de noms. Il énumère les
servitudes du théâtre, les bailleurs de fonds, la vieille propriétaire de
quatre-vingt-onze ans, la longue (et lourde) chaîne des sous-
locataires, les avocats, avoués, marchands d’autos de la maison…
Le secrétaire répète une fois de plus que son métier est infernal…
Pourquoi n’en change-t-il pas ? L’attrait du pouvoir compenserait-il
ce dur martyre ?
L’auteur reverra le secrétaire général quelques semaines plus
tard, le jour où, les recettes flanchant, on a mis une autre pièce en
lecture. L’auteur voudrait que personne ne se doutât de ce
cataclysme qui le déshonore… Mais, fatalement, dans la semaine,
les journaux insèrent une petite note, louant la prévoyance de ce
directeur, qui, malgré les formidables recettes de la pièce en cours,
pense à monter un autre ouvrage… pour un avenir très éloigné…
L’auteur est arrivé au théâtre, écumant ou lamentable, toujours selon
son tempérament… Mais personne ne sait qui a fait passer cette
note. Tous ceux que le malheureux interroge répondent avec de
délicieux visages de fillettes innocentes.
Si l’auteur est navré et humilié, c’est à cause de ses amis qui
croyaient, s’imagine-t-il, que son œuvre était partie pour une longue
carrière. Il a tort de s’en faire sur ce point. Depuis la générale, les
amis ont une idée bien arrêtée, et leur seule surprise est que la
pièce ait pu aller jusque-là.
Édouard Audoir, rédacteur à
l’“Espoir”
C’est la veille de la générale, on répète le deux dans le décor du

un. Omer, le grand premier rôle, est agité. Sur une observation de
l’auteur, il s’asseoit et boude.
Le Directeur. — Omer, allons ! pas de nervosité…

Omer. — On s’énerverait à moins. Voilà trois semaines que nous
répétons la scène dans un sentiment qu’on n’a pas changé. La veille
de la répétition, il faut tout chambarder.
L’Auteur. — Il ne s’agit pas de tout chambarder ; c’est une
nuance que j’indique. C’est trois fois rien…
Le Directeur. — Alors si ce n’est rien, laissez-le tranquille.
L’Auteur, se montant. — J’ai le droit de parler ici autant et plus
que n’importe qui.
Le Directeur. — Eh bien ! parlez, mon vieux, parlez tant qu’il
vous plaira ! Il quitte le devant de la scène et va s’entretenir avec
l’administrateur qui est au fond du plateau. Il affecte une grande
indifférence. L’auteur s’en va d’un autre côté. Il voit tout à coup
devant lui un gros petit jeune homme blond.
Édouard Audoir. — Maître, je suis M. Édouard Audoir,
rédacteur à l’Espoir. M. Carbignac, notre directeur, tient

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Nanocolloids : a meeting point for

scientists and technologists 1st Edition

Foundations of Radio for Scientists and Technologists

Applied Chemistry A Textbook for Engineers and

Applied Chemistry A Textbook for Engineers and

Discrete Cosine Transform, Second Edition Humberto

Innovations in Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Data Analysis Techniques for Physical Scientists 1st

Radiologic Science for Technologists Physics Biology

Successful Academic Writing A Complete Guide for Social

Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: John Fedor

E.S. Leite Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Chemical Engineering, Recife,

M. Rabelero-Velasco Universidad de Guadalajara, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e

Nanocolloids: Some Basic Concepts and

1.1 What Is a Nanocolloid?

1.2 Nanocolloids As Dynamic Systems

Diffusion can be translational or rotational. For translational diffusion of a sphere with

1.3 There Are Different Kinds of Interactions in Nanocolloids

1.3.1 Van der Waals Interactions

Table 1.1: Hamaker constants of representative materials

(B) Separation distance (nm)

1.3.2 Electrostatic Interaction

Geometry Potential UVdW Range

(A) (C) (E) (G)

(B) (D) (F) (H)

which for small 4o (<25 mV) can be written as

UE ¼ 2pεR42o expð khÞ [1.21]

UE ¼ 2pεR42o lnð1 expðkhÞÞ for kR » 1 [1.22]

UE ¼ 2pεR42o lnð1 þ expðkhÞÞ for kR » 1 [1.23]

1.3.3 Elastic-Steric Interaction

1.3.4 Hydrophobic Interaction (Lewis Acid-Base)

1.3.5 Solvation or Hydration Interaction

1.3.6 Osmotic Repulsion

1.3.7 Depletion Interaction

Title: La faune des plateaux

Author: Tristan Bernard

Release date: November 22, 2023 [eBook #72205]

Original publication: Paris: Flammarion, 1923

Credits: Laurent Vogel (This file was produced from images

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LA FAUNE

La faune des plateaux

Tous droits de traduction, d’adaptation et de reproduction réservés pour tous les

et vingt exemplaires sur papier vergé pur fil Lafuma

Chez le même éditeur :

CORINNE ET CORENTIN, roman.

Chez d’autres éditeurs :

VOUS M’EN DIREZ TANT ! nouvelles (avec Pierre Veber).

THÉATRE COMPLET (t. I, II et III parus).

Pièces éditées séparément :

Le directeur est à l’avant-scène. Il a posé une chaise contre la

La générale n’aura lieu que le mois prochain, et ce n’est pas

C’est un auteur célèbre.

— Vous comprenez, monsieur l’inspecteur, si je vous ai demandé

Le secrétaire général apparaît sur le plateau pendant la

C’est la veille de la générale, on répète le deux dans le décor du

Le Directeur. — Omer, allons ! pas de nervosité…

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