Roman Culture

In general, the Romans borrowed heavily and willingly from the Greek heritage in philosophy, the
sciences, and the arts, but that does not mean that they developed no native culture. Their own
genius and inclinations lay more in the fields of law and administration than in the realm of
imagination or the fine arts. In the practical aspects of public life—such as engineering, sanitation,
finance, and a system of justice—the Romans had few equals. They were always willing to
experiment until they found a winning combination, or at least one that was acceptable to the
majority of citizens.
Law
An indisputably great Roman achievement was the development of a system of law with the
flexibility to meet the needs of diverse subject peoples. This law system and a government that
combined effective central controls with wide local autonomy are perhaps the most valued Roman
gifts to later civilized society.
The Romans had various codes of law. One originally applied only to citizens, and another applied
only to aliens and travellers on Roman territory. During the early empire, the law code that
governed relations between citizens and non-Romans, known as the ius gentium (“law of
peoples”), gradually came to be accepted as basic. The rights of citizens and noncitizens, of natives
and aliens, came to be seen as worthy of protection by the Roman authorities. These rights were
not equal, but they were recognized as existing. This concept paved the way for what we call
“international law,” and it gradually took Roman justice far beyond the usual concepts of “us
against you” that other ancient peoples normally employed with foreigners.
Later, in the third and fourth centuries, the Romans evolved natural law, the idea that all humans—
by virtue of their humanity—possess certain rights and duties that all courts must recognize. As the
Romans adopted Christianity, this natural law came to be viewed as the product of a God-ordained
order that had been put into the world with the creation of Adam.
Literature:

Roman literature, written in the Latin language, remains an enduring legacy of the culture of
ancient Rome. Some of the earliest extant works are historical epics telling of the early military
history of Rome, followed (as the Republic expanded) by poetry, comedies, histories and tragedies.
Latin literature drew heavily on the traditions of other cultures, particularly the more matured
literary tradition of Greece, and the strong influence of earlier Greek authors is readily apparent.

 Virgil:

Vergil (or Virgil) was one of ancient Rome's greatest poets. His influence on the world's literature
has been immeasurable, and his works (along with those of Seneca, Cicero, Ovid, Aristotle and
Plato) have been continuously read throughout the Middle Age and up to the present day. His
epic “The Aeneid” is considered his magnum opus, as well as Rome's national epic, and has served
as a model of literature ever since.

Vergil was commissioned by the Emperor Augustus to write an epic poem glorifying Rome and
the Roman people. He saw the opportunity to fulfill his lifelong ambition to write a Roman epic to
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challenge Homer, and also to develop a Caesarist mythology, tracing the Julian line back to the
Trojan hero Aeneas. He worked on the twelve books of “The Aeneid” during the last ten years of
his life, modelling it on Homer's “Odyssey” and “Iliad”. Legend has it that Vergil wrote only three
lines of the poem each day, so that to reach perfection. Vergil fashioned the disconnected tales of
Aeneas' wanderings into a compelling founding myth or nationalist epic, which at once tied
Rome to the legends and heroes of Troy, glorified traditional Roman virtues and legitimized the
Julio-Claudian dynasty.

 Horace

Horace was, along with Vergil, the leading Roman poet in the time of Emperor Augustus. He is
considered by classicists to be one of the greatest and most original of Latin lyric poets,
appreciated for his technical mastery, his control and polish, and his mellow, civilized tone. As
well as his lyric or love poetry, he wrote many biting satires and hymns.
The surviving works of Horace include two books of satires, a book of epodes, four books of odes,
three books of letters or epistles, and a hymn. Like most Latin poets, his works make use of Greek
metres, especially the hexameter and alcaic and sapphic stanzas.

The “sermones” or satires are his most personal works, and perhaps the most accessible to
contemporary readers. They were Horace's first published works and they established him as one
of the great poetic talents of the Augustan age. The satires praise the Epicurean ideals of inner self-
sufficiency and moderation and the search for a happy and contented life.

Many Latin phrases coined in his poems remain in use today, such as “carpe diem” (“seize the
day”), “dulce et decorum est pro patria mori” (“it is sweet and fitting to die for one's country”),
“sapere aude” (“dare to be wise”).

 Ovid

Ovid was a prolific Roman poet, straddling the Golden and Silver Ages of Latin literature, who
wrote about love, seduction and mythological transformation. He is considered a master of the
elegiac couplet, and is traditionally ranked alongside Vergil and Horace as one of the three canonic
poets of Latin literature. His poetry, especially the epic poem “Metamorphoses”, was much
imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and is considered to have decisively
influenced European art and literature, including Chaucer, Dante, Shakespeare and Milton.
By 8 CE, he had completed his masterpiece, “Metamorphoses”, an epic poem in fifteen books
derived from Greek mythology about mythical figures who have undergone transformations (from
the emergence of the cosmos from formless mass to the organized, material world, to famous
myths such as Apollo and Daphne, Daedalus and Icarus, Orpheus and Eurydice, and Pygmalion, to
the deification of Julius Caesar). It is written in dactylic hexameter, the epic metre
of Homer’s “Odyssey”and “Iliad” and Virgil’s “Aeneid”. It remains an invaluable source on
Roman religion, and explains many myths alluded to in other works.

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Architecture:
The architectural style favoured in the republic was strongly reminiscent of the Greek temple, but
it also incorporated arches and circles—as in the frequent cupola roofs and semicircular altars—to
a much greater degree. Roman skill in masonry work and affinity for the grand style combined to
give magnificent expression to public works and buildings throughout the empire. The Forum and
the Coliseum still stand in modern Rome, witnesses to the exceptional quality of Roman
stonework.
Patterns of Belief:
The Roman character, insofar as one can sum up a heterogeneous people’s character, leaned
toward the pragmatic and the here and now. Romans admired the doer more than the thinker, the
soldier more than the philosopher, and the artisan more than the artist. The educated class could
and did appreciate “the finer things.” They admired and cultivated art in many media and many
forms and spent lavishly to obtain it for their own prestige and pleasure. But they did not, generally
speaking, provide that sort of intense, sustained interest that led to superior aesthetic standards and
to the inspiration of superior and original works of art such as the Greeks possessed in abundance.
The religious convictions of the Romans centered on duty to the state and the family hearth.
Toward the state, the Roman patricians felt a personalized attachment, a sense of duty, and a proud
obedience to tradition handed down from generation to generation. Toward the patriarchal family
and its symbol, the hearth, the Romans felt the same attachment as most ancient peoples, with the
honor of lineage being of usual great importance to them.
Chief among the many Roman gods was Jupiter, a father figure modeled on the Greek Zeus. Also
important were Apollo, Neptune (Poseidon), Venus, Minerva (Athena), and Mars (Ares). Like the
rituals of the Greeks, the worship given to these deities was more like a present-day patriotic
ceremony than a modern church service.
Christianity:
Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus, who lived in Palestine during the reign
of Augustus. After Jesus died, his teachings were spread by his followers. Christianity survived
the fall of Rome and grew to be one of the major influences on western civilization.
 Christianity and Rome:
The Roman Empire helped Christianity spread. The Pax Romana allowed missionaries to
move across Roman lands in safety. The Roman system of roads helped them go from one
place to another quickly. Since most people spoke either Latin or Greek, the missionaries could
talk with them directly.
 The Spread of Christianity:
Even with all of the hardships, Christianity spread. It was of more interest to the poor workers
and enslaved people in the cities. They led very hard lives. They liked a religion that promised
a happier life after death. Over time, however, it began to draw people from all classes. After
250 A.D., many Romans grew tired of war and feared the end of the empire. They began to
admire the certainty and courage of the Christian missionaries. They wanted the love,
kindness, and feeling of safety that Christianity offered. At the same time, many Christians
started to accept the empire.
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